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JOSEPH  MCDONOUGH^ 
RARE  BOOKS 

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AN 


ILLUSTRATED  DESCRIPTION 


OF    THE 


RUSSIAN  EMPIRE; 


EMBRACING 

ITS   GEOGRAPHICAL   FEATURES,   POLITICAL   DIVISIONS,   PRINCIPAL   CITIES   ANO 

TOWNS,    POPULATION,    CLASSES,    GOVERNMENT,    RESOURCES,    COMMERCE, 

ANTIQUITIES,  RELIGION,  PROGRESS  IN  EDUCATION,  LITERATURE,  ART, 

AND  SCIENCE,  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  HISTORIC  SUMMARY,  ETC., 

FROM  THE  LATEST   AND  THE   MOST   AUTHENTIC   SOURCES. 


By    ROBERT   SEARS. 


EMBELLISHED    WITH     NUMEROUS    ENGRAVINGS. 

AND 


NEW   EDITION,   REVISED    AND    ENLARGED. 


NEW    YORK: 
PUBLISHED    BY    ROBEET    SEARS, 

181  WILLIAM  STREET. 
1855. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,   in  the  year   ISS-l, 
Br  ROBERT  SEARS, 

ill  the  Clerk's  Oftice  of  the   District  Court  of  the   United   States,  for  iLe  District  of  New  .Ier<!ey  ■ 
and  re-entered  in  1855,  by  R.  StAiis,  in  the  Clerk's  Office  for  the  Southern  District  of  N.  Y. 


C 


/C/ 


STKREOTYPED    BY    C.    C.    SAVAGE, 
13  Chambers  Street,  N.  Y. 


C.    A.    ALVORD,    PRl.NTER, 
29  Gold  Street,  N.  Y. 


-rt 


PREFACE. 


I  HE  volume  herewith  presented  to  the 
public  was  in  course  of  preparation 
(to  the  extent,  at  least,  of  collectini^ 
material  out  of  which  to  digest  the 
subject-matter  of  its  pages),  for  a 
considerable  period  anterior  to  the 
commencement  of  hostilities  between 
the  two  governments  occupying  the 
position  of  principals  in  the  present 
European  war.  That  event,  how- 
ever, with  the  solicitude  it  has  very 
generally  and  very  naturally  created 
for  reliable  information,  as  to  the  character,  history,  and 
resources,  of  the  Muscovite  empire,  whose  position  seems 
generally  though  perhaps  erroneously  to  be  regarded 
as  so  formidable  and  threatening  toward  other  nations, 
has  led  to  its  publication  at  a  somewhat  earlier  day  than 
might  otherwise  have  been  determined  on. 
But  comparatively  few  of  the  descriptive  works  on  Russia  heretofore 
published,  accessible  to  readers  in  the  English  language — those  of  recent 
as  well  as  those  of  earlier  date — have  extended  their  range  beyond  St. 
Petersburg  and  Moscow,  with  perhaps  tlie  provinces  immediately  surround- 
ing them.  This  is  to  be  accounted  for  probably  in  the  fact  that  (with  few 
exceptions)  they  have  emanated  from  tourists  visiting  that  country  for 
health  or  pleasure  ;  and  the  restrictions  with  which  the  government  every- 
where trammels  locomotion  on  Russian  territory,  with  the  miserable  travel- 
ling facilities,  and  worse  roadside  accommodations,  have  generally  been 
sufficient  to  deter  them  from  penetrating  or  exploring  to  any  considerable 
extent,  the  vast  regions  lying  beyond  the  Muscovite  capitals.  And  thoso 
works  not  comprised  in  this  class,  and  which  form  the  exceptions  referred 
to  above,  do  not  cover,  any  one  of  them,  but  a  fraction  of  this  colossal 
empire.  Thus  Finland,  the  German  colonies,  Poland,  Southern  Russia, 
the  Crimea,  Kazan,  the  Caucasian  and  Trans-Caucasian  provinces,  Siberia, 


MJe659IJ6 


4  PREFACE. 

and  other  divisions  of  the  imperial  domain,  have  each  had  its  histori- 
ographer, but  each  has  generally  formed  the  subject  of  a  separate  work. 
While  still  other  writers  have  limited  the  scope  of  their  pens  entirely  to 
sketches  of  the  people,  the  government,  and  institutions  of  the  country. 
To  obtain  a  knowledge,  therefore,  of  the  whole  empire,  called  for  the  pe- 
rusal of  so  many  volumes,  and  some  of  them  not  attainable  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic,  that  Russia  has  necessarily  been  a  terra  incognita  to  a  large 
proportion  of  American  readers. 

This  deficiency  in  the  means  of  accessible  information,  on  most  subjects 
so  abundant  in  this  country,  suggested  to  the  Editor  the  plan  of  this  vol- 
ume. He  felt  assured  that  if  he  could  furnish  an  illustrated  description  of 
every  portion  of  the  empire — of  its  institutions  and  people,  its  history,  and 
in  brief,  everything  requisite  to  a  complete  knowledge  of  "  Russia  and  the 
Russians,"  full  in  details,  yet  carefully  condensed,  so  as  to  bring  the  whole 
within  the  covers  of  a  single  volume,  and  thus  within  the  means  of  every 
class  of  readers — he  would  essentially  subserve  the  cause  of  popular  infor- 
mation. He  undertook  the  task,  and  the  more  completely  to  carry  out  his 
design,  he  has  spared  no  pains  in  the  endeavor  to  obtain,  both  in  this  coun- 
try and  in  Europe,  every  work  that  promised  any  additional  or  more  recent 
information,  or  which  might  serve  to  verify  that  already  in  hand.  The 
result  of  his  labors  is  embodied  in  the  following  pages.  Of  the  success 
which  has  attended  them,  he  will  leave  to  his  readers  to  judge  from  perusal. 

The  engravings  (many  of  which  are  from  drawings  made  expressly  for 
this  volume)  have  been  selected  with  regard  rather  to  the  more  practical 
purpose  of  illustrating  the  letter-press  than  the  minor  one  of  mere  pictorial 
embellishment.  A  glance  at  them,  however,  will  show  that  the  latter  con- 
sideration has  not  been  lost  sight  of.  They  are  all  from  the  burin  of  Wil- 
liam Roberts,  whose  eminent  reputation  is  an  ample  guaranty  that  they 
have  been  executed  in  the  highest  and  most  elaborate  style  of  the  art.  Of 
the  maps,  it  will  be  a  sufficient  assurance  of  their  accuracy,  to  mention  that 
they  are  from  Morse's  geographical  establishment,  and  are  specimens  of 
his  beautiful  art  of  cereographic  engraving. 

The  preparation  of  this  volume  has  been  a  work  of  no  inconsiderable 

toil,  involving,  as  it  did,  reference  to  such  varied  and  frequently  conflicting 

authorities ;  and  its  mechanical  execution  has  been  attended  with  a  far 

greater  outlay  than  any  of  the  Editor's  previous  works.     But  should  it 

meet  with  but  a  moiety  of  the  favor  so  kindly  and  generously  accorded  to 

his  former  publications,  he  will  feel  himself  amply  recompensed  for  his 

labors. 

R.  S. 

Jlne,  1855. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Boundaries  —  Latitude  and  Longitude  —  Superficial  Area — Comparative  Dimensions — Russian 
Ameri';a  —  Ural  Mountains — Caucasian  Range  —  Asiatic  Russia — Altai  Range  —  Forests  — 
White  Sea—  Baltic  Sea  —  Its  Extent  —  Gulf  of  Bothnia  —  Gulf  of  Finland  —  Euxine  or  Black 
Sea  —  Sea  of  Azov  —  Putrid  Sea  —  Straitof  Enikaleh  —  Caspian  Sea  —  Its  Position,  Fornn,  and 
Extent  —  Its  Islands  —  Its  Fisheries  —  Its  Harbors  —  Its  History  —  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  —  Riv- 
ers—  the  Dwina  —  the  Obi  —  the  Yenisei  —  the  Duna  —  the  Niemen  —  the  Dniester  —  the 
Dnieper  —  the  Boug  —  the  Don — Attempts  to  unite  the  Don  and  the  Volga  —  the  Kouban 

—  the  Danube  —  Its  Mouths — the  Volga  —  Its  Source  and  Course  —  Its  Mouths  —  Ita  Tribu- 
taries—  Its  Inundations  —  Its  Commercial  Importance  —  Lakes — Lake  or  Sea  of  Baikal  — 

—  Lake  Ladoga  —  Lake  Onega  —  Lake  Peipus  —  Lake  Ilmen  —  Bielo-Ozero  —  Climate  — 
Storms  —  the  Miatjel  —  the  Samjots  —  the  Vinga  —  Its  Terrible  Devastations pagb  18 

CHAPTER    II. 

POLITICAL    DIVISIONS  —  THE    BALTIC    PROVINCES. 

Division-Line  of  European  and  Asiatic  Russia  —  General  Divisions  —  Table  of  Areas  and  Pop- 
ulations—  Finland:  Physical  Aspect — Climate  —  Soil  —  Productions  —  Animals  —  Manufac- 
tures—  Government — People — the  Aland  Archipelago  —  Chief  Towns  —  Abo  —  Helsingfors 
Sweaborg  —  Tornea — Government  of  St.  Petersburg:  Physical  Aspect  —  Climate  —  Pro- 
ductive Resources  —  Commerce  —  Kronstadt  —  Its  Harbor  and  Fortifications — Esthonia  :  Soil 

—  Animals — Thrilling  Incident  —  Revel  —  Its  Harbor  —  Historical  Incident  —  Catherinthal, 
built  by  Peter  the  Great  —  Livonia  :  Soil  and  Productions — Forests  —  Wild  Animals  —  Hunt- 
ing Scenes —  Rural  Industry  —  Russian  Coins  —  Livonia:  Population — Government  —  Riga 

—  Dorpat  —  Historic  Incident  of  Schloss-Ringen  —  Courland  :  Physical  Aspect — Soil  and 
Productions — Animals  —  Elk-Hunting  —  Mittau  —  Libau  —  Windau  —  History  of  the  Baltic 
Provinces  —  People  —  the  Lettes  and  Esthonians — the  Jews  —  tlie  Germans page  41 

CHAPTER    III. 

GREAT    RUSSIA. 
Archangel:  Its  Extent  —  Physical  Aspect  —  Climate — Resources  —  People  —  Russian  Lapland 

—  the  Laplanders  —  Nova  Zembla  —  City  of  Archangel  —  History  —  Vologda:  Soil,  Climate, 
and  Productions  —  City  of  Vologda  —  Olonetz:  Soil  —  Resources  —  Petrozavodsk  —  Kargo- 
pole  —  Novgorod:  Physical  Aspect  —  Soil  and  Productions  —  City  of  Novgorod  —  Its  History 

—  Pskov:  Soil  and  Productions  —  Pskov  the  Capital — Torepetz  —  Velikie-Louki  —  Tver: 
Productions  —  Manufactures  —  Commerce — Tver,  its  Capital  —  Smolensik  :  Soil  and  Produc- 
tions—  Forests  —  City  of  Smolensk  —  Moscow:  Its  Extent — Physical  Aspect — Climat'*  — 
Natural  Products  and  Manufactures  —  Yaroslav  :  Rivers  and  Lakes — Climate  —  Resources 

—  City  of  Yaroslav — Its  History — Kostroma:  Soil  and  Climate  —  Products — City  of  Kob- 


G  CONTENTS. 

troina  —  Nijnei-Novgorod  —  Soil  and  Productions  —  Manufactures  —  City  of  ^'  ijiiei-Novgoroil 

—  Fairs  —  Vladimir:    Surface  —  Soil   and   Products  —  City   of  Vladimir  —  Riazan  :  Climate 

—  Forests  —  Products  and  Manufactures  —  City  of  Riazan  —  Tambov  :  Resources  —  Forests  — 
Manufactures  —  City  of  Tambov  —  Toula  :  Resources  —  City  of  Toula  —  Market  —  Manufac- 
tvires  —  History  —  Kalouga  :  Climate  and  Productions  —  Manufactures  —  Exports  —  City  of 
Kalou^a  —  Orel:  Its  Rivers — Soil  and  Productions —  Commerce  —  Town  of  Orel  —  Koursk: 
Products  —  Exports  —  City  of  Koursk  —  Fairs  —  Voronej  :  Resources  —  Population  —  City  of 
Voronej page  81 

CHAPTER    IV. 

LITTLE    AND    WESTERN    RUSSIA. 

Lithuania — Its  History  and  People  —  Tchernigov:  Its  Soil  —  Lakes  and  Rivers  —  Productions 

—  Its  Capital,  Tchernigov  —  Kharkov:  Soil  and  Productions  —  City  of  Kharkov  —  Poltava  : 
Its  Surface,  Soil,  and  Resources  —  Town  of  Poltava  —  Kiev:  Piiysieal  Aspect  —  Climate  — 
Crops  —  City  of  Kiev  —  Antiquities  —  History  of  Kiev  —  Podolia  :  Physical  Aspect  —  Pro- 
ductions—  Kaminietz  —  Balta  —  Volhynia  :  Physical  Aspect — Manufactures  and  Exports  — 
People — Jitomir  —  Berditschev  —  Minsk:  Productive  Resources  —  People  —  Its  Capital  — 
MoGHiLEV :.  Rivers  and  Lakes  —  Productions  —  Town  of  Mogliilev  —  VriEPSK:  Soil  and  Pro- 
ductions—  Its  Capital — Wilna:  Rivers  and  Lakes  —  Agricultural  Resources — Animals  — 
Its  Capital  —  Educational  Institutions  —  Grodno:  Soil  and  Productions  —  People  —  Town  of 
Grodno  —  Bialystok  :  Its  Resources  —  Bialystok,  its  Capital   page  119 

CHAPTER    V. 

RUSSIAN   POLAND. 

Former  Extent  of  Poland  —  Present  Limits  of  Russian  Poland  —  Population  —  Physical  Aspect 

—  Climate  and  Soil  —  Productive  Resources  —  Estates  of  the  Nobility — the  Peasantry  — 
Position  of  the  Peasantry — Villages  —  Domestic  and  Wild  Animals  —  Forests  —  Minerals  — 
Manufactures  —  Commerce  —  Government  —  Religion  —  Education  —  People  —  History  — 
Krakow,  the  Ancient  Capital  of  Poland  —  "Warsaw:  Public  Buildings  —  Suburbs  —  Educa- 
tional Institutions  — Manufactures  and  Trade  —  History —  Other  Towns page  137 


CHAPTER    VI. 


SOUTHERN    RUSSIA. 


Bksarabia:  Its  Position  and  Physical  Aspect — Climate  and  Productions  —  People  —  Historv 

—  Kichinev — Ismail  —  Its  Capture  by  Suwarrow  —  Kherson:  Soil  and  Climate  —  Industrial 
Arts  —  Kherson,  its  Capital  —  Historical  Incident:   "The  Road  to  Constantinople" — Odessa 

—  Its  Trade  —  Its  Granaries  —  Bazars  —  Vineyards  —  The  Boulevard  —  Memorials  of  How- 
ard—  Nikolai[ev  —  Taurida:  Position  and  Area  —  Its  People  —  Ekatherinoslav  :  Soil  and 
Minerals  —  Climate  and  Products  —  Game  —  Manufactures  —  Don  Cossacks  (Government) : 
Physical  Aspect  —  Climate  —  Productive  Resources  — The  Don  Cossacks  —  Tlieir  History  — 
Kreposts —  Nova  Teherkask  — Teherkask  —  Taganrog  —  Azov face  161 

CHAPTER    VII. 

THE    CRIMEA. 

Physical  Aspect  —  The  Baidar  Valley  —  Productive  Resources  —  Salt  Works  —  Chief  Towns  — 
Population  —  Crim  Tartars  —  History  —  Sevastapol  —  Its  Harbor  and  Fortifications  —  Ink 
erman,  the  "Town  of  Caverns" —  Ruins  —  Simferopol  —  Camel-Carts  —  Fair  —  Races  —  the 
Tchatir  Dagh  —  Cave  of  Foul  Kouba  —  Kisil  Konba  —  Pallas'  Residence  —  Kertseh  —  Panti- 
capaeum.  Residence  and  Reputed  Burial-Place  of  Mithridates  —  Caffa  —  Hiiktehiserai  (tht^ 
"Seraglio  of  Gardens") — Tartar  Houses  —  Palace  of  the  Khans  —  Mausoleum  of  the  Klians, 
"Valley  of  Jehoshaphat" — Tchoufut  Kale  —  the  Karaite  Jews  —  Mangoup  Kale  —  Novel 
Method  of  Shoeing  a  Bullock  —  Decay  of  the  Tartar  Race page  181 


CONTENTS.  •« 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

THE    STEPPES    OP   SOUTHERN    RUSSIA. 

Area  and  Pliysical  Aspect  —  Rivers  —  Ravines  —  Limans  —  Stavoks  —  Climate  —  Seasons  — 
Excessive  Drought  —  Vegetation  —  Burian  —  Steppe-Fires  —  Earth-Hares  —  Mice  —  Wolves 

—  Dogs  —  Bustard-Hunting  —  Birds  of  Prey  —  Reptiles  —  Tiie  Toad-Shower  —  Lizards  — 
Snakes  —  Locusts  —  Their  Devastations  —  Herds  of  Horses  —  The  Tabuntshik  —  The  Horse- 
stealer—  Battles  of  the  Horses  —  Attacks  of  Wolves  —  Thrashing  of  Grain  by  Horses  — 
Mazeppa  —  Sheep  —  The  Tshabawn  —  Milking  Sheep  —  Herds  of  Cattle  —  Tiie  Tsherednik 

—  Tallow-Houses  —  Wholesale  Slaughter  —  Tallow-Market page  208 

CHAPTER    IX. 

EASTERN    RUSSIA. 

Grovernmenta  of  Eastern  Russia  —  Astrakhan  :  Phjsical  Aspect — Soil  —  Productive  Resources  — 
Salt-Lakes  —  Rivers  —  Climate  —  Animals  —  Fisheries  —  People  —  The  Calmucks  —  Their  Ex- 
traordinary Emigration  in  1770-71 — City  of  Astrakhan  —  Its  Trade  and  Population — Sa- 
ratov :  Productions  —  Sheep  —  Population  —  Commerce  —  City  of  Saratov  —  Other  Towns  — 
Orenburg:  Physical  Aspect  —  Soil  —  Minerals  —  Town  of  Orenburg  —  Its  Manufactures  and 
Trade — Perm:  Physical  Aspect — Climate  —  Gold,  Iron,  and  Salt-Mines  —  Trade  —  Inhab- 
itants—  City  of  Perm  —  Ekaterinburg  —  Trade  in  Precious  Stones  —  Viatka:  Physical  Aspect 
Productive  Resources  —  Commerce  —  Population  —  Viatka  the  Capital  —  Simbirsk:  Climate 
and  Productions  —  Its  Capital  —  Samara:  Area  and  Population  —  City  of  Samara  —  Its  An- 
nual Fair  —  Penza:  Soil  and  Productions  —  Manufactures  and  Exports  —  City  of  Penza  — 
Kazan:  Physical  Aspect — Agriculture  —  Gardens  —  Population  —  Cheremisses  and  Cliuvasses 

—  The  city  of  Kazan  —  The  Tartars  —  Their  Costume — Tartar  Women  —  Kremlin  of  Kazan 

—  University — Manufactures  and  Trade  —  Inundation  of  the  Volga  —  Foundation  of  Kazan 

—  Its  History  —  Its  Conflagrations  —  Oliphant's  Sketch  of  Kazan  in  1863 page  244 

CHAPTER    X. 

THE    CAUCASIAN    PROVINCES. 

Caucasian  Tribes  —  Georgia:  Its  Position  and  Aspect  —  Rivers — Climate  and  Soil — Fruit  — 
its  Vineyards  —  Wines — Domestic  Animals  —  Roads  —  Manufactures  —  Female  Georgians  — 
Classes  —  History — Teflis  —  Its  History  —  Other  Towns — Shirvan  :  Baku — Abcheran  — 
Naphtha  Springs — "Field  of  Fire" — Ghebers  —  Russian  Armenia:  Physical  Aspect  —  Guk- 
rha,  or  Blue  Lake  —  Mount  Ararat  —  Volcanic  Eruption  of  1840  —  Nakhichevan  —  Climate 
aiid  Soil  of  Armenia  —  Inhabitants  —  Echmiadzin  —  Armenian  Language  and  Literature  — 
Erivan  —  Akhalzik  —  Imeritia:  Physical  Aspect  —  Natural  Productions — Bees  and  Silk- 
worms—  Commerce  —  Mingrelia:  Physi(«al  Aspect  —  Productions  —  Guria  :  People — Kou- 
tais — Abassia:  Its  Position — Industry — History  —  Anapar  —  Circassia:  Extentand  Physical 
Features  —  Its  Hydrography  —  Climate  —  Soil  and  Natural  Productions  —  Animals,  Wild  and 
Domestic  —  Minerals  — People  —  Villages  —  the  Chase  and  War — Circassian  Women  — 
Domestic  Habits  —  Physical  Beauty  —  Education  —  Religion  —  Manufactures  and  Commerce 

—  History  —  Caucasus:  Physical  Features  and  Climate — Stavropol  —  Other  Towns  —  Dao- 
nasTAN :  Physical  Aspect —  Bituminous  Springs —  Climate  —  Population  — Derbent  —  Kouba 

—  Tschetschenzes  and  Lesghians  —  The  Caucasian  War  —  Its  History  —  Shamyl.  .  .  .page  280 

CHAPTER    XI. 

SIBERIA,    OR   ASIATIC    RUSSIA. 

Its  Immense  Extent  —  Physical  Aspect  —  the  Steppe  —  Forests  —  Moorland,  or  Tundra  —  Stan- 
ovoy  Mountains  —  Dry  Lakes  —  Samoides  —  Ostiaks  —  Calmucks  —  Turkish  Tribes  —  Buriats 

—  Tungusi  —  Yakutes  —  Tchouktchis — History  of  Siberia  —  Tobolsk:  Soil  and  Productions 

—  Tartar  Villages — City  of  Tobolsk  —  Climate  —  Tomsk:  Soil  and  Productions  —  Tomsk,  its 
Capital  —  Yeniseisk  :  Variety  of  Soil,  Climate,  and  Productions —  Inhabitants  —  Krasnoiarsk 
Other  Towns -r- Irkoutsk  :  Physical  Features  —  Climate  —  Forests  —  Wild  Animals — A 
BearSlory  —  Domestic  Animals  —  Crops — Minerals  —  Manufactures  —  Irkoutsk,  tlxe  Capital 


'S  CONTENTS. 

—  Its  Police  —  the  "Double  Town" — Yakoutsk:  Its  Rivers  —  Productive  Resources  — 
Yakoutsk,  the  Capital  —  Its  Trade  —  Inhabitants — Climate  —  Okhotsk:   Physical  Features 

—  Products  —  Town  of  Okhotsk  —  Kamtschatka  :  Its  Form  and  Physical  Aspect — Mountains 

—  Climate  —  Forests  —  Agriculture  —  Wild  Animals  —  Inhabitants  — Amusements  —  Houses 

—  Dogs  —  Koriaks  —  Trade  —  History  —  Government  —  Aleutian  Islands  :  Discovery  — 
Volcanic  Formation  —  Earthquakes  —  Soil  —  Game  —  Fish  —  Inhabitants  —  Manners  and 
Customs  —  Religion  —  Government page  3'2ii 

CHAPTER    XII. 

MOSCOW. 
!f8  Streets  —  Its  Extent  —  The  Kremlin  —  Bird's-Eye  View  —  Spass  Vorota,  or  "Gate  of  the 
Redeemer" — the  Nicholas  Gate  —  Ancient  Palace  of  the  Czars  —  Terema  —  Grauovitaya 
Palata  —  Coronation-Hall  —  the  Throne  —  the  Bolshoi  Dvoretz  —  the  Maloi  Dvoretz  —  Cathe- 
dral of  the  Assumption  —  Cathedral  of  the  Archangel  Michael  —  the  False  Dmitri  —  Church 
of  the  Annunciation  —  the  Senate,  Treasury,  and  Arsenal  —  Memorials  of  the  Early  Czars  — 
Palace  of  Arms  —  " Monarch  Bell " —  Ivan  Veliki  —  Its  Bells  —  Cathedral  of  St.  Basil  —  Chape) 
of  the  "Iberian  Mother  of  God" — Convents  and  Monasteries  —  Maidens' Field — Hospitals  — 
Theatres  —  Gostinoi  Dvor  —  Manufactures  and  Commerce  —  History page  351 

CHAPTER    XIII. 

ST.    PETERSBURG. 

Site  of  St  Petersburg  —  Its  Divisions  —  Iron  Bridge  across  the  Neva  —  Bird's-Eye  View  —  Foun- 
dation of  the  City  —  Its  Perils — Inundation  of  1824  —  Climate  —  St.  Petersburg  in  Winter  — 
the  Russian  Stove  —  Double  Windows — the  Neva  in  Winter  —  Breaking  up  of  the  Ice  —  Its 
Celebration  —  Street  Population  —  Nevskoi  Prospect  —  the  English  Quay  —  the  Mujik  — 
Sweeping  the  Streetfi,  a  Punishment  for  Drunkenness page  375 

CHAPTER    XIV. 

ST.    PETERSBURG  —  IMPERIAL    PALACES    AND    PUBLIC    BUILDINGS. 

The  Winter-Palace  —  Its  Conflagration  in  1837 — Its  Re-Erection  —  Its  Interior — the  Hermit- 
age—  Its  Treasures  —  the  Marble  Palace  —  the  Taurida  Palace  —  Its  Orangery  —  Its  Occu- 
pants—  Hotel  de  I'Etat  Major  —  the  Alexandrian  Column  —  the  Old  Michailoff  Palace — the 
Anitshkof  Palace  —  the  New  Michailoff  Palace  —  Little  Summer  Garden — the  Red  Palac*^ 
—  the  Imperial  Library  —  Museums  —  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  —  Educational  Institxitions  — 
Government  Buildings  —  the  Exchange  —  tlie  Customhouse  —  the  Fortress,  Arsenals,  and  Bar- 
racks—  Historical  Souvenirs — Equestrian  Statue  of  Peter  the  Great  —  Monument  to  Suwaj- 
row  —  Monument  to  Field-Marshal  Romanoff page  399 

CHAPTER    XV. 

ST.   PETERSBURG  —  CHURCHES    AND    CHIVRITABLE    INSTITUTIONS. 

Modern  Church  Architecture  —  Kazan  Cathedral  —  Isaac  Church  —  Church  of  St.  Peter  and 
St,  Paul  —  Its  Spire — Thrilling  Incident  — Its  Vaults  —  Tombs  of  the  Russian  Emperors  — 
Smolnoi  and  Nevskoi  Convents  —  Monastery  of  St  Sergius  —  Preobrasliensky  Church  —  Trin- 
ity Church —  Nicolai  Church  —  Roman  Catholic  Church  —  Hospitals  —  the  Foundling  Hos^- 
pital 43 1 

CHAPTER    XVI. 

MARKETS    AND    MANUFACTORIES    OF    ST.    PETERSBURG. 

rhe  Gostinoi  Dvor  —  the  Gostonoi  Merchants  —  the  Somovar  —  the  Apraxin  Rinob — Imag*'- 
Sellers  —  Fruit-Stalls  —  Pastry-Stands  —  Tshukin  Dvor  — iBird-Market  — Hay-Market— For- 
zen  Meat-Market  —  Sennaia  Ploschad  —  Industrial  Establishments:  Tapestry,  Porcelain, 
Card,  Cotton,  and  Paper  Manufactories  — Ship-Building page  452 


COXTENTS.  9 

CHAPTER    XVII. 

THE    GARDENS    AND    VILLAS   OF   ST.    PETERSBURG. 

Catherinenlioff —  the  Summer  Garden  —  Peter's  WooiJcn  Palace  —  the  Wife-Market  —  Islands  of 
the  Neva  —  Kammenoi,  or  Stone  Island  —  Yelagin,  Cross,  and  Apothecaries'  Islands  —  Count 
Strogonoffs  Gardens — CzarskoSelo:  the  Palace  —  the  Arsenal  —  the  Grounds  —  Paulofsky 
and  Gatchina — Strelna  —  PeterhoflF — the  Empress'  Annual  Fetes  at  PeterhofF — Old  Castle 
of  Peter  the  Great  —  Marly  and  Monplaisir  —  the  Hermitage  —  Cottage  of  Catherine  II.— 
Ropscha  —  Oranienbaum page  466 

CHAPTER    XVIII. 

THE  IMPERIAL  GOVERNMENT. 
Absolute  Power  of  the  Sovereign  — Organization  of  the  Government  by  Peter  the  Great  —  the 
Imperial  Council  —  the  Senate  —  the  Holy  Synod  —  Committee  of  Ministers  —  Local  Admin- 
istration of  the  Governments  and  Provinces  —  the  Judicial  System  —  the  Police  System  —  Its 
Corruption — Thieves  and  Pickpockets  —  Punishments  —  the  Rod  —  the  Knout  —  Exile  to 
Siberia  —  Departure  of  Exiles  —  the  Journey  —  their  Number  and  Condition  in  Siberia  —  the 
Army  —  Its  Organization — the  Imperial  Guard  —  Guard  of  the  Interior — the  Gendarmes  — 
the  Cossacks  —  Conscription  — Pay  —  Military  Colonies  —  Insurrection  of  1831  —  the  Nnvy 

—  Its  Extent  —  Its  Efficiency  —  Its  History  —  Public  Revenue  —  Its  Sources  —  Expenditures 

—  Public  Debt 487 

CHAPTER    XIX. 

THE    PEOPLE. 

The  Nobility  —  Its  Division  by  Peter  into  Fourteen  Classes — Titles  —  Powers  of  the  Nobility  — 
their  Education  and  Habits  —  their  Vassals  —  Attention  to  Manufactures  —  the  Clergy,  Mer- 
chants, and  Burghers  —  their  Classification  —  the  Three  Guilds  —  Citizen-Burghers  —  Re- 
spectable Citizens  —  Suburban  Inhabitants  —  the  Free  Peasantry  —  the  Serfs  —  Serf  Laws  — 
Marriages  among  Serfs  and  Free  Peasants  —  Habits  of  the  Russian  Peasantry  —  their  Villages, 
Costume,  Food,  (fee.  —  Superstitions  and  Vices  —  the  Vapor-Bath  — Public  Baths. . .  .page  511 

CHAPTER    XX. 

RELIGION  —  THE  GREEK  CHURCH. 

The  Various  Religions  in  Russia — History  of  the  Greek  Church  —  Reforms  of  Peter  the  Great 

—  Points  of  Difference  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  Church  —  the  Clergy —  the  "White  and 
Black  Clergy  —  Monks  —  the  Clergy  of  Other  Churches  —  Incomes  of  the  Russian  Clergy  — 
Nuns  —  Titles  —  Habits  of  the  Priests  —  Devotion  of  the  People  to  Pictures  of  their  Saints  — 
Tolerant  Spirit  of  the  Russian  Clergy page  533 

CHAPTER    XXI. 

FESTIVALS    AND    FASTS. 

Tlie  Easter  Festival — Butter-Week  —  the  Katsheli  — Ice-Mountains  —  Admiraltv  Square  during 
Easter  —  Equipages  of  the  Grandees  —  the  Wooden  Theatres — the  Burning  Theatre  —  Its 
Victims  —  F^tes  —  the  Great  Fast  —  Its  Monotony  —  Palm  Sunday  —  Easter-Eggs  —  Holy 
Thursday  —  Good  Friday  —  Easter  Eve  —  Easter  Kisses  —  Recollection  Monday,  a  Festival- 
Day  in  the  Cemeteries pack  447 

CHAPTER    XXII. 

LITERATURE    AND    EDUCATION. 

Early  History  of  Literature  —  First  Grammar  of  the  Language  —  Micha'-l  Lomonosoff — Litera- 
ture during  the  Reign  of  Catherine  II.  —  Cheraskoflf,  "the  Russian  Homer" — Other  Poets  — 
Progress  of  Russian  Letters  during  the  Present  Century —  Nicholas  Karamzin  —  Poets  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century  —  Voyages    and   Travels  —  Alexander    Pushkin — Nicholas   Gogol  — 


10  CONTENTS. 

Alexiinder  Bestusliev  —  Historical  Romances  —  Count  Solohoupe  —  Female  Writers  —  His- 
torical Science  —  Statistics  —  the  Drama  —  Theatrical  Amusements  —  Theatres  in  St.  Peters- 
burg—  tlie  Russian  Alphabet  —  the  Slavonic  Dialects  —  Popular  Instruction  —  Educational 
Statistics page  5&1 

CHAPTER    XXIII. 

MEANS    OF    TRAVEL. 

First  Railway  in  Russia  —  Railroad  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Moscow  —  Oliphant's  Description  of 

.a  Passage  over   this  Road  —  Other  Railways  Projected — Roads  and  Roadside   Accommo- 

•  <iation  —  Sledge-Travelling  —  Posthouses  —  Posting  —  Cabinet-Couriers  —  Diligences  —  tlie 

Malle-Poste  —  Post  Telega  —  Drosky  —  Ivoshtshiks  —  Pedestrian  Privileges page  584 

CHAPTER    XXIV. 

HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  EARLY    ANNALS. 

Sarinatians  and  Scythians  —  Slavonians— -Varagians — Rurik  —  Igor  and  Olcg — the  Pet- 
ehenegans  —  the  Drevlians  —  Olga  and  Sviatoslaff — Yaropolk  —  Vladimir  —  Yaroslav  — 
Monomachus — Conflagration  of  Kiev  —  Famine  at  Novgorod  —  Tartar  Invasion  —  Yury 
1.  —  Batou  Khan — Yury  II.  —  Yaroslav  II.  —  Alexander  Nevski  —  Wars  with  the  Tartars 

—  Ivan  I.  and  II.  — Dmitri  III.  and  IV.— "Battle  of  the  Giants"— Vassili  II.— Ivan  III. 

—  Destruction  of  the  Golden  Horde  —  Vassili  IV.  —  Ivan  IV.  the  Terrible — Origin  of  the 
Title  "Czar" — Formation  of  the  Strelitzes  —  Fedor  I.  —  Boris  Godunoff — Famine  in  Mos- 
cow—  the  False  Dmitris  —  Vladislaus  —  Michael  Romanoff — Wars  with  the  Swedes  and 
Poles  —  Alexis  —  Fedor  III.  —  Accession  of  Peter  the  Great page  597 

CHAPTER    XXV. 

HISTORIC   SUMMARY — PETER   THE    GREAT   TO    NICHOLAS. 

Intrigues  of  Sophia,  Half-Sister  to  Peter,  to  obtain  the  Crown  —  Joint  Reign  of  Peter  and  Ivan  V., 
with  Sophia  —  Insurrection  of  the  Strelitzes  —  Deposition  of  Sophia  —  Death  of  Ivan  —  War 
with  Turkey  —  War  with  Sweden  —  Peace  of  Nystadt  —  War  with  Persia  —  Death  of  Peter 

—  His  Character  —  His  Manual  Dexterity  and  Mechanical  Knowledge  —  His  Travels — Cathe- 
rine I.  —  Her  Previous  History  —  Her  Measures  —  Her  Death  —  Peter  II.  —  Mencliikoff  — 
Anne  —  War  with  Turkey — Ivan  VI. — Elizabeth  Petrowna  —  War  with  Sweden  —  War 
with  Prussia  —  Peter  III.  —  His  Assassination  —  Catherine  II.  —  War  with  Turkey  —  Po- 
temkin — Suwarrow  —  Partition  of  Poland  —  Catherine's  Death — Her  Character  —  Paul  1. 

—  Events  of  his  Reign  —  His  Eccentricities  —  His  Assassination  — Accession  of  Alexander  I. 

—  Treaty  of  Amiens  —  War  with  France  —  Battles  of  Austerlitz  and  Eylau  —  Treaty  of  Til- 
sit—  War  with  Sweden — Capture  of  Finland  —  Allied  War  against  France  —  Napoleon's 
Invasion  of  Russia  —  Battle  of  Borodino  —  Capture  and  Conflagration  of  Moscow  —  Blowing 
up  of  the  Kremlin  —  Retreat  of  the  French  — The  European  Powers  allied  against  Napoleon 

—  His  Overthrow  —  Death  of  Alexander  —  His  Character page  614 

CHAPTER    XXVI. 

HISTORIC  SUMMARY  —  REIGN  OF  NICHOLAS  I. 
Early  Life  of  Nicholas  —  His  Marriage  and  Family  —  Death  of  his  Daughter  the  Grand-Duchess 
Alexandra  —  Her  Cenotaph  at  Czarsko  Selo  —  Renunciation  of  the  Throne  by  Constaiitine  — 
Attempted  Revolution  —  Its  Suppression — War  with  Persia  —  War  with  Turkey  —  Cam- 
paigns of  18-i8-'29  —  Polish  Revolution  of  1831  —  Its  Suppression  —  Asiatic  Cholera  —  Pro- 
tection to  Turkey  in  the  War  with  Mehemet  Ali  —  Russian  Agency  in  Crushing  the  Hungarian 
Revolution  in  1848  —  War  with  Turkey  in  1853-4  —  Invasion  of  the  Danubian  Principal- 
ities by  Russia  —  Destruction  of  the  Turkish  Fleet  at  Sinope  —  Interference  of  France  and 
England  —  Declarations  of  War  —  Russian  Occupation  of  the  Dobrudschka — The  Caucasian 
War  —  Austria  and  Prussia  —  Greek  Insurrection  —  Movements  of  the  Black  Sea  Fleet  —  Siege 
of  Silistria  —  Russian  Evacuation  of  the  Principalities — Attack  upon  Petropaulofski  (Kamt- 
tichatkii)  —  Expedition  to  the  Crimea  —  Battle  of  the  Alma  —  Siege  of  ii^evastapol — Battles  of 
Balaclava  and  Ink'^irmnn — Death  of  Nicholas  —  Accession  of  Alexander  II page  647 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Ice-Mountains   at  St.  Peteri^burg  during  Easter 

(See  Description  on  pase  549) fkontispiece 

Ornamental  Title  with  lilustrntive  Vignettes  — 
1.  Peter  the  Great  working  in  a  Shipyard  in  Hol- 
land ;  2.  The  Building  of  St.  Petersburg;  3.  Cor- 
onation of  Catherine  II. ;  4.  Assassination  of  the 
Enaperor  Paul;  5.  Napoleon  in  Russia;  6.  The 
Burning  of  Moscow ;  7.  The  Battle  of  Navariiio. 
Hunting-Scene  in  Russia  (Initial  Letter).. .  fagk  :? 

Map  of  European  Russia  (opposite) 13 

Winter  Scene  in  Russia  (Vignette) 13 

Altai  Mountains  —  Peaks  of  CheiimK-Ouzoiine, 

Katunya,  and  Arrhite 20 

Mouths  of  the  Dwina 27 

Months  of  the  Danube 30 

Mouths  of  the  Volga 34 

Horse-Boat,  with  Barges,  on  the  Volga 3fi 

Russian  Pilots 37 

Russian  Elk  and  Bears 45 

Peasants  of  Finland 47 

River  and  Town  of  Tornea,  in  Finland .tI 

Kronstadt,  the  Port  of  St.  Petersburg 55 

Woman  of  Esthonia  abandoning  her  Children  to 

the  Wolves 61 

Preparing  for  the  Chase 66 

IClk-Hunting  in  Courland  —  "In  at  tlie  Death '■.71 

Gipsy  Woman  and  Child 76 

Coniland  Jew  with  Dulcimer 78 

Frozen  Lake  and  Mountain  Sct-i.ery  in  LMplnt)d.83 

Shore  Laplander 85 

Mountain  Laplanders 85 

The  Chase  —  a  Winter  Scene 88 

Monastery  of  the  Annunciation  at  Novgorod 9ii 

Posthouse  on  the  Route  from  Kostroma  to  Yaro- 

slav 100 

Church  of  the  Holy  Women  at  Nijnei-Novgorod.  102 
Chinese  duartcr  of  the  Great  Fair  at  Nijnei- 
Novgorod  1 0.1 

Summary  Punishment  of  a  Mujik  by  a  Cossack 

at  Nijnei-Novgorod 106 

A  Tartar  Wagon 118 

Obelisk  at  Poltava  in  Commemoration  of  the  De- 
feat of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  by  Peter  the 

Great 122 

Volhyniau  Peasant-Girl  engaged  in  Spinning. .129 

Russian  Village  —  Party  of  Hunters 134 

Polish  Bison  (Urus),  or  Lithuanian  Wild-Bull..  I  44 

Polish  Jew  at  his  Dovotions 149 

Polish  Exiles  on  their  Way  to  Biberiii 155 

The  Krakow  Cathedral 160 

Map  of  Odessa 165 

City  and  Harbor  of  Odo.ssa 167 

The  Boulevard  at  Odessa 169 

Cossackfl  of  the  Don 176 


Krepost,   or  Cossack   Post,   on   the    Circassian 

Frontier p\gk  177 

Cossack  Girl  of  Tcherkask 180 

Grim  Tartars iga 

Map  of  Sevastapol i  gg 

City  and  Harbor  of  Sevastapol 187 

Inkerman,  the  "  Town  of  Caverns" 189 

Camel  Cart 191 

Cave  of  Foul  Knuba 194 

Tartar  Whip ' ' 197 

Palace  of  the  Khans 198 

Tartar  Village 199 

Tartar  Guide 2OO 

Mausoleum  of  the  Khans 2OI 

Jewish  Fortress  of  Tchoufut  Kal^ 203 

Mangoup  Kale 205 

Novel  Method  of  Shoeing  a  Bullock 207 

Winter-Travelling  on  the  Steppes  — Sledges. .212 
Summer-Travelling  on  the  Steppes  —  A  Tai-an- 

tisse 215 

Bird-Hunting  on  the  Steppes 220 

Invasion  of  the  Steppes  of  Southern  Russia  by 

Lorusts 225 

Egyptian  Locust '.'27 

Itinerant  Horse-Dealer 233 

Hunters  Encamped  on  the  Steppe 241 

City  of  Astrakhan 245 

Calmucks 247 

Astrakhan  from  the  Sea 250 

Sheep  from  the  Steppes  of  the  Caspian 251 

View  on  the  Volga  at  Simbirsk  —  The  Jigoulee.  259 

Chuvasses  of  Kazan 262 

Leather  Gloves  and  Wooden  Spoon  of  Kazan 

Manufacture 263 

Interior  of  a  Tartar  House 264 

City  of  Knzan  before  the  Conflagration  of  1842.265 

The  Kremlin  of  Kazan 269 

Cathedral  of  Nikolskoi,  at  KnzHO 271 

Tartar  Mosque  near  Kazan 279 

Types  of  Caucasian  Races 280 

Georgians  of  the  Heights  of  Tcflis 286 

Teflis,  the  Capital  of  Gcort;ia 287 

Ararat,  from  the  Plain  of  Erivan 291 

Patriarchal  Church  and  Monastery  of  Echmiad- 
zin   295 

An  Imeritian  Prince,  in  War  Costume 299 

A  Mingrelian  Prince,  in  War  Costume 299 

Circassians 306 

Circassian  Females 307 

Interior  of  a  Circa.ssian  Armor  Manufactory 311 

Party  of  Caucasinn  Wairiors  descending  the 

Mountains  on  a  Predatory  Excursion 317 

Map  of  Siberia,  or  Asiatic  Russia 321 

Kirghiz  Merchant  in  his  Teni 389 


12 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Tobolsk,  the  Capital  of  Western  Siberin  .  .p\ge  331 

Peasant  Attacked  by  a  Bear 336 

Yakoutsk 339 

Kamtschatdales 343 

Summer-House  in  Kamlschatka 344 

Map  of  Moscow 35i 

General  View  of  the  Kremlin,  Moscow 355 

Cathedral  of  the  Aseumption,  Moscow 360 

Tlie  "Monarch  Bell"  of  Moscow 366 

Cathedral  of  St.  Basil,  Moscow 369 

Views  in  St.  Petersburg:  — 

Inundation  of  St.  Petersburg  in  18-24 375 

Cast  Iron  Bridge  across  the  Neva 3/7 

Map  of  St.  Petersburg 379 

Nevskoi  Prospekt 380 

The  Neva  in  Winter 388 

Sweeping    the    Streets,   a    Punishment   for 

Drunkenness 396 

Nevskoi  Prospekt  (Second  View) 398 

The  Winter  Palace  —  Residence  of  the  Im- 
perial Family 401 

Hotel  de  I'Etat  Major,  with  the  Alexandrian 

Column 411 

Old  MichailofFPalace,  now  the  Schocil  of  Kn- 

gineers - 415 

St.  Isaac   Square 4~"2 

The  Bourse 4Q3 

Equestrian  Statue  of  Peter  the  Great,  Admi- 

ralry  Square 427 

Office,  Hotel  des  MallePosies 430 

The    Kazan    Cathedral  —  the    Metropolitan 

Church  of  St.  Petersburg 433 

Church  of  St.  Isaac 439 

Spire  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul 4  42 

Monastery  of  St.  Sergius,  Environs  of  St.  Pe- 
tersburg  447 

Saloon,  Hotel  des  MallePostes 451 

The  Gostinoi  Dvor,  during  Easter 453 

A  Somovar,  or  Russian  Tea-Urn 455 

Cake  and  Tea  Stall 457 

Frozen  Provision  Market 4fil 

Palace  of  Catherinenhoff. 467 

Nurse,  with  Children,  in  the  Summer  Garden.  469 

Noble's  Villa  on  the  Island  of  Kammenni 471 

Imperial  Palace  of  Czar.sko  Selo 475 

FSte  of  the  Empre.<!8  at  PeterlioflF—  Tiie  Po- 
lonaise   481 

Monplaisir,  Favorite  Residence  of  Peter  the 

Great,  at  Peterhoff 486 

Battle-Scene  (Initial  Letter) 487 

Punishment  of  the  Knout i95 


Exiles  on  their  Way  to  Siberia page  497 

Regular  Troops  of  Russia 502 

Irregular  Troops  of  Russia 502 

Russian  Silver- Rouble 510 

Summer  Villa  of  a  Russian  Noble  —  Hesidence 

of  the  Kara Family  at  Tambov 513 

A  Russian  Merchant 517 

The  Bourgeoisie  —  A  Russian  Picnic 519 

Russian  Peasant  and  his  Family 523 

Russian  Peasants  Building  a  Cottage 529 

Monk  of  the  Greek  Church 533 

Philarete,  Metropolitan  of  St.  Petersburg 535 

Bishop  of  the  Greek  Church 538 

Priest  or  Pope  of  the  Greek  Church 538 

Deacon  of  the  Greek  Church 539 

Sub-Deacon  of  the  Greek  Church 539 

Nun  of  the  Greek  Church 543 

Russians  at  Prayer 546 

A  Russian  Carousal  during  Easter 654 

Interior  of  a  Russian  Church  —  The  Assump- 
tion at  Moscow 559 

Easter-Kisses 561 

The  Emperor  giving  the  Cadets  the  Easter- 
Kiss  563 

Hyacinth  Bitchourin,  Oriental  Linguist 567 

The  Bolshoi,  or  Great  Theatre  of  St.  Peters- 
burg   579 

W inter  Travelling  —  Sledges 585 

Departure  of  the  Malle-Poste  (Mail  Diligence) 

from  St.  Petersburg 592 

The  Post-Telega 593 

The  Drosky 594 

I  voshtshiks 596 

Varagians  —  Costumes  of  the  Time  of  Rurik.  ..599 

Ivan  IV.  the  Terrible 609 

Michael  Roman  oil' 612 

Cottage  where  Peter  the  Great  lived  while  in 

Holland 613 

Peter  the  Great 615 

The  Empress  Catherine  1 619 

The  Empress  Elizabeth,  Daughter  of  Peter  the 

Great 622 

The  Empress  Catherine  U 625 

Field-Miirshal  Suwarrow 027 

Paul  1 629 

Alexander  1 633 

Napoleon  witnessing  ihe  Burning  of  Moscow 

from  the  Kremlin 642 

Nicholas  1 648 

Cenotaph  at  Czarsku-Selo 649 

Alexander  II.  ■ 685 


12 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Tobolsk,  the  Capital  of  Western  Siberia  ..r\GE  ^31 

Peasant  Attacked  by  a  Bear 3-16 

Yakoutsk 339 

Kamtschatdales 343 

Summer-Houee  in  Kamlschatka 344 

Map  of  Moscow 352 

General  View  of  the  Kremlin,  Moscow 355 

Cathedral  of  the  Aesumplion,  Moscow 360 

Tlie  "Monarch  Bell"  of  Moscow 3fi6 

Cathedral  of  St.  Basil,  Moscow 369 

Views  in  St.  Peteusburg:  — 

Inundation  of  St.  Petersburg  in  lti24 375 

Cast  Iron  Bridge  across  the  Neva 3/7 

Map  of  St.  Petersburg 379 

Nevskoi  Prospekt 380 

The  Neva  in  Winter 388 

Sweeping    the    Streets,   a    Punishment   for 

Drunkenness 396 

Nevskoi  Prospekt  (Second  View) 398 

The  Winter  Palace  —  Residence  of  the  Im- 
perial Family 401 

Hotel  de  TEtafe  Major,  with  the  Aiexandrinn 

Column 411 

Old  Michailoff  Palace,  now  the  School  of  En- 
gineers  415 

St.  Isaac   Square 4'~2 

The  Bourse 4Q3 

Equestrian  Statue  of  Peter  the  Great,  Admi- 

ralry  Square 427 

Office,  Hotel  des  Malle-Postes 430 

The    Kazan    Cathedral  —  the    Metropolitan 

Church  of  St.  Petersburg 433 

Church  of  St.  Isaac J39 

Spire  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul 442 

Monastery  of  St.  Sergius,  Environs  of  St.  Pe- 
tersburg  4  17 

Saloon,  Hotel  des  Malle-Postes 451 

The  Gostinoi  Dvor,  during  Easter 453 

A  Soraovar,  or  Russian  Tea-Urn 455 

Cake  and  Tea  Stall 457 

Frozen  Provision  Market 461 

Palace  of  Catherinenhoff. 467 

Nurse,  with  Children,  in  the  Summer  Garden.  469 

Noble's  Villa  on  the  Island  of  Kammenni 471 

Imperial  Palace  of  Czarsko  Selo 475 

FSte  of  the  Empress  at  Peteilioff —  Tlie  Po- 

lonai.se 481 

Monplaisir,  Favorite  Residence  of  Peter  the 

Great,  at  Peterhoff 486 

Battle-Scene  (Initial  Letter) 487 

Punishment  of  the  Knout 495 


Exiles  on  their  Way  to  Siberia page  497 

Regular  Troops  of  Russia 502 

Irregular  Troops  of  Russia 503 

Russian  Silver-Rouble 510 

Summer  Villa  of  a  Russian  Noble  —  Residence 

of  the  Kara  ....  Family  at  Tambov 513 

A  Russian  Merchant 517 

The  Bourgeoisie  —  A  Russian  Picnic 519 

Rusuian  Peasant  and  his  Family 523 

Russian  Peasants  Building  a  Cottage 529 

Monk  of  the  Greek  Church 533 

Philarete,  Metropolitan  of  St.  Petersburg 535 

Bishop  of  the  Greek  Church 538 

Priest  or  Pope  of  the  Greek  Church 538 

Deacon  of  the  Greek  Church 539 

Sub-Deacon  of  the  Greek  Church 539 

Nun  of  the  Greek  Church 543 

Russians  at  Prayer 546 

A  Russian  Carousal  during  Easter 654 

Interior  of  a  Russian  Church  —  The  Assump- 
tion at  Moscow 559 

Easter-Kisses 561 

The  Emperor  giving  the  Cadets  the  Easter- 
Kiss  563 

Hyacinth  Bitchourin,  Oriental  Linguist 567 

The  Bolshoi,  or  Great  Theatre  of  St.  Peters- 
burg   579 

Winter  Travelling-— Sledges 585 

Departure  of  the  Malle-Poste  (Mail  Diligence) 

from  St.  Petersburg 592 

The  Post-Telega - 593 

The  Drosky 594 

I  voshtshiks 596 

Varagians  —  Costumes  of  the  Timeof  Rurik.  ..599 

Ivan  IV.  the  Terrible 609 

Michael  Romanoff' 612 

Cottage  where  Peter  the  Great  lived  while  in 

Holland 613 

Peter  the  Great 615 

The  Empress  Catherine  1 619 

The  Empress  Elizabeth,  Danghter  of  Peter  the 

Great 622 

The  Empress  Catherine  II 625 

Field-Miushal  Suwarrow 627 

Paul  1 629 

Alexander   1 633 

Napoleon  witnessing  the  Burning  of  Moscow 

from  the  Kremlin 642 

Nicholas  I. - 648 

Cenotaph  at  Czarsko-.Selo 649 

Alexander  II 685 


CHAPTER   I. 

PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY, 


i-USSIA,  the  most  extensive  and  one  of  the 
most  powerful  empires  of  either  ancient  or 
modern  times,  occupies  almost  the  entire  nor- 
thern portion  of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  em- 
bracing, in  its  immense  area,  more  than  half 
of  Europe,  and  one  third  of  Asia.  It  is  bound- 
ed on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  or  Frozen  ocean  ; 
on  the  west  by  Sweden,  the  Baltic,  Prussia, 
and  the  Austrian  dominions  ;  on  the  south  by 
Turkey,  the  Black  sea,  Persia,  Tartary,  and 
the  extensive  Chinese  territories  ;  and  on  the 
east  by  the  North  Pacific  ocean.  In  its  largest 
extent,  the  Russian  empire  stretches  from  the 
western  limit  of  Russian  Poland,  at  the  eigh- 
teenth degree  of  east  longitude  from  Green- 
wich, to  the  eastern  promontory  of  the  Tchuk- 
tchi  territory,  at  the  one  hundred  and  nine- 
tieth degree  east  from  the  same  meridian,  thus 
including  one  hundred  and  seventy-two  degrees  of  longitude ;  while  from 
its  most  northern  promontory,  at  the  seventy-eighth  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude, to  the  most  southern   point,  at  the  thirty-ninth  degree  north,  it 


14  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

coinpreliends  thirty-nine  degrees  of  latitude.  Tooke,  in  his  history  of 
Russia,  computes  its  extent  to  be  nine  thousand  two  hundred  miles  in 
length,  and  two  thousand  four  hundred  in  breadth ;  while  its  superficial 
area  included  within  the  above  boundaries  has  been  variously  estimated 
from  six  to  eight  millions  of  square  miles.  This  (and  it  includes  only  the 
contiguous  dominions  of  Russia)  is  three  or  four  times  the  extent  of  the 
Roman  empire  in  the  height  of  its  grandeur,  and  in  the  period  of  its  greatest 
territorial  amplitude.  Exclusive  of  the  above  domain,  Russia  is  mistress 
of  Nova  Zembla  and  most  of  the  other  islands  in  the  Arctic  ocean,  of  the 
Aleutian  archipelago,  off  Kamtschatka,  of  Aland  and  other  islands  in  the 
Baltic,  and  also  of  a  very  large  tract  in  the  northwest  part  of  the  continent 
of  North  America,*  to  the  latter  of  which  her  claim  is  founded  on  the 
right  of  discovery  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

A  better  idea  may  perhaps  be  formed  of  the  vast  dimensions  of  the  Rus- 
sian empire,  by  taking  into  view  the  fact  that  it  is  equal  to  two  Europes, 
or  the  whole  of  North  America ;  that  it  includes  within  its  boundaries 
about  one  seventh  of  the  terrestrial  part  of  the  globe,  and  about  one  twenty- 
seventh  part  of  its  entire  surface.  But  by  far  the  greatest  proportion  of 
this  prodigious  superficies  is  almost  uninhabited,  and  seems  to  be  destined 
to  perpetual  sterility ;  a  consequence  partly  of  the  extreme  rigor  of  the 
climate  in  the  provinces  contiguous  to  the  Arctic  ocean,  and  partly  of 
almost  all  the  great  rivers  by  which  they  are  traversed  having  their  em- 
bouchure in  that  ocean,  and  being,  therefore,  inaccessible  for  either  the 
whole  or  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 

Russia  is,  in  general,  level,  and  comprises  some  of  the  most  extensive 
plains  in  the  world.  The  empire,  however,  is  naturally  parcelled  into  the 
two  great  divisions  of  European  and  Asiatic  Russia,  by  the  Ural  mount- 
ains, which  stretch  in  a  north-northeast  direction  from  the  Caspian  sea  to 
the  Arctic  ocean ;  forming,  through  the  greater  part  of  their  course,  the 
boundary  b.etween  Europe  and  Asia.  Compared  with  the  Himalaya  chains, 
the  Urals  are  very  low  in  their  general  elevation,  though  some  of  them 

*  The  Russiati  possessions  in  North  America  consist  of  an  extensive  region  in  the  northwest  part 
of  the  continent,  of  which  very  little  is  known,  except  along  the  western  coast.  It  extends  from 
Behring's  straits  eastward  to  the  meridian  of  Mount  St.  Elias,  along  both  "the  Arctic  and  Pacific 
oceans;  and  from  that  mountain  southward,  along  the  coast  chain  f)f  hills,  till  it  touches  the  coast 
ahout  the  fifty-fifth  degree  of  north  latitude,  comprising  an  area  of  about  four  hundred  thousand 
square  miles.  The  country  is  chiefly  mountainous:  Mount  St.  Elias  is  the  most  lofty  peak,  being 
nearly  eighteen  thousand  feet  in  height.  The  coast  line  is  in-egular,  being  indented  by  large  bays, 
formed  by  bold  promontories  and  peninsulas.  The  climate  is  very  severe,  though  not  so  extreme 
as  is  felt  in  similar  latitudes  on  the  eastern  coasts.  The  countrj'  is  subject  to  sudden  changes,  and 
frequent  falls  of  rain  in  summer,  and  of  snow  in  winter. 

The  Russia  Fur  Company  have  a  few  factories  on  the  coast  and  islands,  hut  almost  the  whole 
country  is  occupied  by  various  native  tnbes,  chiefly  Esquimaux.  The  commerce  is  mainly  limited 
to  the  exportation  of  furs  to  Canton,  and  the  import  of  provisions  and  ngncultural  supplies  from  the 
British  possessions.  It  is  of  little  value,  and  is  constantly  declining,  as  the  sea-otter  and  seal  are 
becoming  compai-atively  scarce.  The  total  population  is  estimated  at  about  seventy  thousand,  inclu- 
ding the  aborigines.  New  Archangel  (or  Baranoft"),  a  place  of  about  one  thousand  inhabitants,  is 
the  risidence  of  the  governor. 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  15 

reach  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow,  a  circumstance  which  is  not  remarkable 
in  their  high  latitude.  Where  the  road  from  Moscow  to  Siberia  crosses 
these  mountains,  the  chain  is  about  forty  miles  broad,  but  the  ascent  and 
descent  of  the  road  are  so  nearly  imperceptible,  that  were  it  not  for  the 
precipitous  banks  everywhere  to  be  seen,  the  traveller  would  hardly  sup- 
pose he  was  crossing  a  range  of  hills.  The  average  elevation  of  this  part 
of  the  range  seems  not  to  exceed  thirteen  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  though 
some  rocky  masses  rise  perhaps  a  thousand  feet  higher ;  and  the  base  upon 
which  the  chain  rests  is  itself  nine  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Beyond  fifty-eight  degrees,  the  chain  presents  several  summits  which  attain 
between  two  and  three  thousand  feet ;  but  the  highest  part  of  the  range  is 
situated  to  the  north  of  fifty-nine  degrees,  and  the  highest  of  all,  the  Dan- 
eshken-kamen,  lies  to  the  north  of  sixty  degrees.  The  summits  of  this 
northern  part  of  the  range  have  been  ascertained  to  rise  to  between  eight 
and  nine  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  ;  but  the  principal  sum- 
mits are  detached  mountains,  to  the  eastward  of  the  main  range.  Lateral 
branches  also  extend  eastward  to  a  considerable  distance  into  the  plain. 
The  principal  chain  bears  successively  from  north  to  south  the  names  of 
Poyas,  the  Verkhuturian  Urals,  the  Urals  of  Ekaterinburg,  and  the  Bash- 
kirian  Urals.  Several  low  branches  diverge  into  the  governments  of  Arch- 
angel and  Vologda ;  but  the  principal  subordinate  or  diverging  chains  are 
connected  with  the  Bashkirian  Urals.  The  mountains  of  Obtsheisyrt,  which 
diverge  from  the  western  slope  of  the  principal  chain,  are  really  nothing 
more  than  a  long  table-land  of  undulating  hillocks,  extending  into  the  gov- 
ernment of  Orenburg ;  forming,  however,  the  northern  limit  of  the  depres- 
sion which  surrounds  and  contains  the  Caspian  sea.  The  chain  of  Mou- 
ghojar  extends  into  the  country  of  the  Kirghiz,  and  seems  to  be  connected 
with  the  plateau  called  the  Ust-Urt,  between  the  Caspian  sea  and  Lake 
Aral.  Subordinate  to  this  lastruamed  chain,  or  part  of  the  same  group, 
are  the  Great  Burzouk,  a  chain  of  low  hills,  which  extends  in  a  series  of 
rocky  cliffs  along  the  northern  shore  of  the  Aral,  spreading  out  toward  the 
west,  and  turning  into  the  isthmus ;  and  the  Little  Burzouk,  which  are  sit- 
uated a  little  farther  to  the  southeast,  and  terminate  with  a  promontory  at 
the  northeastern  corner  of  the  Aral.  The  mountains  of  Nova  Zembla  may 
also  be  considered  as  an  orographic  connection  or  prolongation  of  the 
Urals.  The  principal  summit  is  Glassowsky,  about  twenty-five  hundred 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  This  range  is  very  productive,  both  of  the 
useful  and  precious  metals,  and  precious  stones. 

In  all  the  vast  country,  extending  on  the  west  side  of  this  central  chain 
to  the  confines  of  Poland  and  Moldavia,  there  is  hardly  a  single  hill.  The 
Valdai  hills,  or  elevated  grounds,  between  Novgorod  and  Tver,  where  the 
Volga,  the  Don,  and  tlie  Dnieper,  have  their  sources,  are  nowhere  more 
than  about  twelve  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  country  ex- 
hibiting a  waving  surface,  and  without  any  considerable  elevations.  Tliere 
is  nothing,  in  fact,  save  the  forests,  to  break  or  interrupt  the  course  of  the 


to  ILLUSTRATED  DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

wind,  in  all  the  iiuiuense  space  intei'posed  between  the  Ural  and  the  Car- 
pathian mountains. 

Another  great  mountain-range  in  "Western  Russia,  is  that  of  the  Cau- 
casus, between  the  Euxine  or  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  almost  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  empire.  The  western  part  of  the  main  cen- 
tral ridge  slopes  toward  the  Euxine  ;  the  eastern  sinks  into  the  Caspian  in 
its  southeastern  peninsula.  From  this  central  chain  numerous  branches 
are  thrown  off.  One  of  them,  to  the  north,  proceeds  through  the  govern- 
ment of  Caucasus  into  Astrakhan,  and  onward  to  the  banks  of  the  Volga, 
while  the  branches  to  the  south  traverse  the  greater  part  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  Georgia,  and  in  the  south  of  that  government  link  on  with 
the  mountains  of  Ararat.  The  highest  point  in  the  range  is  Mount 
Elbourz,  which  stands  near  the  middle  of  the  central  chain,  and  has  an 
altitude  of  about  eighteen  thousand  feet.  The  next  highest  is  Mount 
Kasbek,  which  is  nearly  sixteen  thousand  feet  high,  across  which  is  the 
famed  Dariel  pass,  which  gives  Russia  her  only  carriage  communication 
with  her  Trans-Caucasian  domains.  The  north  side  of  the  range  is  mucli 
more  abrupt  than  the  south.  Great  part  of  the  mountains  still  remains 
to  be  geologically  examined,  but  an  admirable  section  is  furnished  by 
the  Dariel  pass,  and  has  been  fully  described,  particularly  by  Wagner, 
who  not  only  travelled  over  it,  but  resided  several  months  among  the 
mountains  of  Kasbek,  and  ascended  them  to  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow, 
According  to  him,  stratified  rocks  appear  at  the  bottom  of  the  mountains, 
and  rise  to  a  considerable  height  on  their  sides.  These  rocks  consist 
chiefly  of  thick  beds  of  limestone,  conglomerate,  and  clay  slate.  Higher 
up  are  seen  immense  crystalline  masses  composed  of  granite,  sienite,  ser- 
pentine, and  gabronite.  These  masses,  though  higher  in  position,  are  evi- 
dently lower  in  the  geological  series  than  the  stratified  rocks,  which  in 
many  places  have  been  upheaved  by  them,  and  in  consequence  have  a 
considerable  dip.  Highest  of  all  is  trachytic  porphyry,  which  forms  the 
great  body  of  all  the  principal  summits  of  the  central  range.  That  this 
trachyte  is.  the  most  recent  of  all  the  rocks  is  proved  by  the  fact,  that  in 
many  places  it  is  seen  piercing  them,  and  throwing  them  into  the  wildest 
confusion. 

Judging  from  the  composition  and  general  appearance  of  these  great 
trachytic  masses.  Baron  Humboldt  and  other  celebrated  geologists  are  of 
opinion  that  the  Caucasus,  and  all  the  loftiest  summits  of  the  great  moun- 
tain-ranges of  both  hemispheres,  were  upheaved  contemporaneously,  and 
within  a  comparatively  recent  period.  The  limit  of  perpetual  snow  in  the 
Caucasus  is  eleven  thousand  feet,  and  hence,  as  some  of  the  mountains  rise 
from  five  thousand  to  nearly  seven  thousand  feet  above  this,  there  is  an  ex- 
tensive range  for  glaciers.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  the  supply  of 
moisture  which  the  atmosphere  aifords,  is  far  less  than  might  have  been 
anticipated.  Scarcely  a  single  lake  of  any  extent  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Caucasus,  and  the  scenery  thus  remains  destitute  of  that  which  constitutes 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  17 

one  of  the  most  magnificent  features  in  the  Alps  of  Switzerland.  Numerous 
cascades  tumble  down  from  the  northern  steeps  of  the  Caucasus,  but  none 
of  them  are  remarkable  for  either  volume  or  height,  and  the  only  rivers  of 
any  consequence  which  are  fed  by  them  are  the  Terek,  Kouban,  and  Kour. 

The  minerals  of  the  Caucasus,  so  far  as  may  be  judged  from  the  very  im- 
perfect examination  of  them  which  has  been  made,  are  not  of  great  value. 
The  only  mineral  which  has  yet  been  ascertained  to  exist  in  such  quantities 
as  to  make  it  capable  of  being  worked  to  profit  is  lead.  Vegetation  is 
very  vigorous.  Magnificent  forest-trees  clothe  the  higher  mountain-slopes 
almost  to  an  incredible  height ;  lower  down,  all  the  finer  fruit-trees  of  the 
climate  are  found  growing  in  wild  luxuriance ;  while  lower  still,  where 
human  labor  can  be  made  available,  almost  any  degree  of  culture,  however 
imperfect,  is  rewarded  with  an  abundant  crop.  The  ordinary  cereals 
grow  seven  thousand  feet  above  the  sea  level,  while  valuable  shrubs,  plants, 
and  flowers,  in  almost  endless  variety,  deck  the  valleys  and  lower  plains. 
Animal  is  no  less  vigorous  than  vegetable  life,  and  the  forests  abound  with 
almost  every  species  of  game — among  quadrupeds,  w^olves,  boars,  jackals, 
deer,  goats,  and  hares — among  birds,  pheasants  and  partridges.  A  large 
species  of  wild  cattle,  called  aurochs,  roam  at  large,  and  the  hares  of  the 
Caucasus  have  been  famed  from  the  remotest  antiquity. 

Siberia,  or  Asiatic  Russia,  consists  principally  of  a  vast  plain,  slightly 
inclining  to  the  north.  This  plain  seems  to  be  almost  entirely  steppes  and 
marshes,  intersected  by  large,  sluggish  rivers,  which  roll  down  an  immense 
mass  of  water  to  the  Arctic  ocean.  The  steppes  differ  somewhat  from 
each  other  in  nature  and  aspect.  In  some  places  they  are  like  the  Ameri- 
can prairies,  covered  with  abundance  of  tall,  coarse  grass ;  in  others  the 
soil  is  saline,  the  salt  appearing  in  the  form  of  an  efflorescence  mixed  with 
the  earth,  or  in  ponds  and  lakes  of  salt  water,  but  in  general  they  consist 
of  very  loose  soil,  and  contain  many  lakes,  because  the  waters,  finding  no 
declivity,  remain  stagnant.  In  some  places,  particularly  in  the  north  and 
east,  the  plain  is  a  bog,  as  level  as  the  sea,  covered  with  moss,  which  would 
be  totally  impassable,  were  it  not  that  the  ice,  which  never  thaws  deeper 
than  a  few  inches,  gives  a  firm  underfooting.  There  are,  however,  in  the 
south  and  west,  many  pasture  and  arable  districts,  where  considerable 
quantities  of  oats,  barley,  and  buckwheat,  are  raised,  and  also  large  forests. 

Toward  the  south  and  east,  Siberia  is  in  parts  mountainous,  being  sepa- 
rated from  the  Chinese  empire  by  the  Altai  range,  extending  from  the 
eastern  banks  of  the  Irtish,  a  tributary  of  the  Obi,  eighty  degrees  east  Ion 
gitude,  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  sea 
of  Okhotsk,  opposite  the  island  of  Tarakai,  one  hundred  and  forty-two 
degrees  east  longitude.  Its  length,  therefore,  is  little  short  of  twenty-five 
hundred  miles.  The  several  chains  which  compose  this  mountain-system 
are  chiefly  found  between  forty-eight  and  fifty-two  degrees  north  latitude, 
but  some  detached  ridges  advance  to  forty-five  and  fifty-seven  degrees 
north.     The  breadth  of  the  whole  system  is  probably  nowhere  less  than 

2 


18  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

three  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  and  at  some  places  it  widens  to  seven  hun- 
lired  miles  and  upward.  It  is,  however,  not  possible  to  determine  it  with 
any  degree  of  exactness,  since  only  the  northern  declivities  of  the  range 
have  been  visited  by  travellers,  the  southern  declivities  lying  within  the 
territories  of  the  Chinese  empire  being  inaccessible  to  Europeans. 

The  most  westerly  portion  of  the  system,  between  the  river  Irtish  and 
the  river  Tshulyshman,  the  upper  branch  of  the  Obi,  is  properly  called  the 
Altai  mountains,  which  name  has  been  afterward  used  to  indicate  the  whole 
system.  This  portion  also  bears  the  name  of  the  Ore  Altai,  because  it 
contains  numerous  veins  of  the  precious  metals.  It  consists  of  several 
ridges,  which  mostly  run  west-northwest  and  east-southeast.  These  ridges 
advance  their  western  extremities  close  to  the  banks  of  the  Irtish,  where 
they  are  five  or  six  hundred  feet  high  ;  but  at  a  distance  of  about  fifteen 
miles  from  the  river,  they  attain  from  three  to  five  thousand  feet,  which 
elevation  may  be  considered  as  the  mean  height  of  the  greatest  part  of  the 
ranges  :  only  where  they  approach  the  lake  Teletzkoi  and  the  river  Tshu- 
lyshman, they  rise  still  higher,  and  this  part  of  the  range  is  always  covered 
with  snow. 

Between  the  Tshulyshman  and  the  great  lake  of  Baikal,  the  mountains 
appear  to  form  two  great  chains,  running  east  and  west.  Both  chains- 
unite  at  about  one  hundred  degrees  east  longitude,  a  considerable  distance 
west  of  the  lake  Baikal,  at  the  sources  of  the  Selenga,  the  most  considera- 
ble river  which  empties  itself  into  the  lake.  The  united  chain  is  here 
called  Goorbi  Uhden  Dzong,  which  name  it  preserves  to  one  hundred  and 
eight  degrees  east  longitude,  running  in  general  east.  On  the  east  side  of 
the  meridian  of  one  hundred  and  eight  degrees  east  longitude,  and  the  river 
Selenga,  the  direction  of  the  mountain-chains  composing  the  xiltai  system 
is  changed  ;  they  run  northeast,  and  form  a  very  extensive  mountain  region 
east  of  the  lake  Baikal.  This  region  is  called  the  Baikalian  or  Daurian 
mountains  ;  but  the  highest  chain  belonging  to  it,  and  lying  within  the  Chi- 
nese empire,  bears  the  name  of  tlie  Great  Khing-Khan.  The  most  easterly 
portion  of  the  Altai  mountains,  between  one  hundred  and  twenty-two  and 
one  hundred  and  forty-two  degrees  east  longitude,  lies  again  nearly  due 
west  and  east ;  but  here  it  advances  to  fifty-six  degrees  north  latitude,  and 
is  called  by  the  Russians  Yablonni  Khrcbet,  and  by  the  Chinese  Khing- 
Khan  Tugurik. 

The  Aldan  mountains  may  be  considered  as  a  continuation  of  this  latter 
chain.  They  separate  from  it  at  the  sources  of  the  river  Aldan,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Lena,  enclose  the  valley  in  which  it  runs  on  either  side,  and 
(Continue  on  the  east  side  along  the  shores  of  the  sea  of  Okhotsk  up  to  the 
bay  of  Pershina,  the  most  northerly  corner  of  that  sea.  From  this  bay  one 
branch  runs  northeast,  and  terminates  at  Behring's  strait,  with  the  East 
cape  and  the  cape  of  Tchukotshoi-Noss.  Another  branch  turns  abruptly 
south,  and  traverses  the  peninsula  of  Kamtschatka,  terminating  at  Cape 
Lopatka.     The  highest  summit  of  the  Aldan  mountains,  adjacent  to  the 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  19 

road  connecting  Yakutsk  with  Okhotsk,  was  found  by  Erman  to  be  a  little 
more  than  four  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  But  the  chain 
traversing  the  peninsula  of  Kamtschatka  contains  several  volcanoes,  some 
of  which  rise  to  a  great  elevation,  Erman  measured  three  of  them.  The 
higliest  peak  of  the  volcano  of  Shivelutsk  (fifty-six  degrees  forty  minutes 
north  latitude)  rises  to  nearly  ten  thousand  six  hundred  feet ;  the  volcano 
of  Kliutshuvsk  (fifty-six  degrees  four  minutes  north  latitude),  about  fifteen 
thousand  eight  hundred  feet ;  and  that  of  Tolbatshinsk,  a  little  upward  of 
eight  thousand  three  hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  If  the  Aldan  mountains 
and  the  range  traversing  Kamtschatka  be  considered  as  a  continuation 
of  the  Altai  chain,  more  than  fifteen  hundred  miles  must  be  added  to  its 
length. 

The  physiognomy  of  the  Altai  mountains  in  their  western  and  southern 
divisions  is  generally  grand  and  interesting.  The  rivers,  which  are  very 
numerous,  flow  rapidly  witli  full  streams ;  and  the  various  forms  of  the 
stratified  and  metamorphosed  rocks  of  the  limestones,  porphyry,  and  gran- 
ite, with  the  Bielki  (white  or  snowy  mountains)  in  the  distance,  lend  to 
the  scene  the  charm  of  perpetual  novelty.  The  banks  of  the  Katunya,  in 
the  heart  of  the  mountains,  present  a  laridscape  of  the  most  impressive 
character ;  an  immense  wall  of  rock,  extending  from  west  to  east,  supports 
fields  of  perpetual  snow  and  glaciers,  from  the  midst  of  which  rise  nu- 
merous rocky  points,  pyramids,  and  truncated  cones  ;  while  in  the  distance 
are  seen  the  two  towering  peaks  named  the  Pillars  of  the  Katunya.  These 
peaks,  which  are  supposed  to  be  the  highest  summits  of  the  Altai  mount- 
ains, stand  on  a  wide  and  elevated  table-land,  lying  between  the  sources 
of  the  Katunya,  the  Bielaya  (falling  into  the  Chuya),  and  the  Berell,  which 
joins  the  Bukhtarma.  Glaciers,  spreading  from  the  bases  of  the  Bielukha, 
or  snowy  cones,  supply  the  fountains  of  these  three  rivers.  The  absolute 
height  of  the  Pillars  has  been  estimated,  by  Dr.  Gebler,  at  eleven  thousand, 
seven  hundred  and  twenty-three  feet,  or,  by  Tchihatcheff,  at  twelve  thou- 
sand, seven  hundred  and  ninety  feet.  To  the  east  of  these  pillars,  the 
peaks  of  Chenune-ouzoune  and  Arhliite  increase  in  number,  and  present 
forms  still  more  deeply  serrated.  "  In  the  course  of  all  my  long  wander- 
ings," observes  Tchihatchefl",  "  I  do  not  remember  ever  to  have  admired  a 
scene  more  grand  or  more  magnificent."  The  accompanying  view  of  these 
mountains  (presented  on  the  following  page)  is  taken  from  the  northern 
summit  of  the  plateau  of  Saljar,  a  branch  of  the  chain  of  the  same  name. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  Altai,  where  the  clay  slate  predominates,  the 
aspect  of  the  country  is  more  monotonous  ;  the  mountains  lose  all  variety 
of  form,  and  assume  the  cliaracter  of  long  ridges.  It  is  on  these  mount- 
ains of  slaty  structure  that  the  most  disagreeable  characteristic  of  the  Altai 
is  chiefly  developed,  namely,  the  great  extent  of  deep  bog  and  morass, 
through  which  a  horse  crossing  the  hills  must  wade  belly-deep  even  in  the 
middle  of  summer,  and  not  without  the  danger  of  breaking  his  legs,  if  he 
gets  entangled  in  the  boughs  of  the  trees  which  lie  buried  beneath. 


20 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 


Altai  Range — Peaks  op  Chknune-Ouzoune,  Katunta.  and  Abbhite. 


The  vegetation  of  the  Altai  is  varied  and  abundant,  and  often  vigorous. 
The  local  flora,  to  which  ample  justice  has  been  done  by  the  labors  of  Drs. 
Ledebour  and  Bunge,  assumes  the  Asiatic  character ;  the  European  type 
prevailing  from  the  Ural  mountains  to  the  banks  of  the  Irtish.  The 
mountain-forests  are  composed  of  birch,  alder,  aspen,  acacia,  willow,  larch, 
fir,  and  the  Siberian  stone-pine  (^Pinus  cemhra).  This  last  tree  flourishes 
at  an  absolute  height  of  nearly  seven  thousand  feet ;  and  at  an  elevation 
of  six  thousand  feet,  where  the  snow  rarely  disappears  before  the  end  of 
May,  it  attains  a  great  size,  often  measuring  fourteen  feet  in  circumference. 
The  highest  limit  of  the  birch  is  about  four  thousand  eight  hundred  feet ; 
the  dwarf-willows,  and  other  underwood,  cease  totally  about  one  thousand 
feet  higher. 

The  Altai  mountains,  and  the  adjoining  ranges  to  the  eastward,  are  the 
native  home  of  the  wild  sheep  (^Ovis  arg-aW),  which  occupies  the  crags 
and  most  inaccessible  rocky  heights,  leaving  the  hillsides  and  elevated 
valleys  to  several  kinds  of  deer  (  Cervus  elaphus,  C.  alces,  C.  pygargus, 
&c.).  A  marmot,  peculiar  to  these  regions,  abounds  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
snow.  These  animals  are  preyed  on  by  the  glutton  and  the  bear.  The 
royal  tiger  prowls  through  the  steppes  on  the  south,  and  haunts  particu- 
larly the  reedy  shores  of  Lake  Balkhash  ;  it  is  not  unlikely,  therefore,  that 
his  predatory  incursions  sometimes  extend  into  the  Altai. 

Tlie  most  distinguishing  feature  in  the  appearance  of  Russia  is  her  vast 
forests.  Schnitzler,  who  estimates  the  surface  of  European  Russia  at  about 
four  hundred  millions  of  deciatines,*  supposes  that  one  hundred  and  fifty- 

*  A  deciatine  is  equivalent  to  about  two  and  seven  tenths  acres. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  21 

srx  millions  are  occupied  by  forests.  They  are  so  very  prevalent  in  the 
governments  of  Novgorod  and  Tver,  between  Petersburg  and  Moscow,  tliat 
it  has  been  said  a  squirrel  might  travel  from  the  one  city  to  the  other  with- 
out ever  touching  the  ground.  The  forest  of  Volkonski,  at  the  source  of 
the  Volga,  is  the  most  extensive  of  any  in  Europe.  In  the  government  of 
Perm,  on  both  sides  of  the  Ural  mountains,  containing  eighteen  millions 
of  deciatines,  no  fewer  than  seventeen  millions  are  covered  by  forests ! 
The  forests  of  Asiatic  Russia  are  also  of  vast  size.  In  extensive  districts, 
however,  the  surface  is  quite  free  from  wood.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  in  the  vast  steppes  or  plains  in  the  governments  of  Astrakhan  and 
Tobolsk,  which  in  many  parts,  indeed,  are  a  mere  sandy  desert. 

The  northern  coast  of  Russia  is  indented  with  immense  gulfs  and  bays ; 
and  its  vast  inland  seas  and  lakes  penetrate  the  land,  forming  many  re- 
markable localities  ;  and  the  straits  connecting  them  with  each  other,  and 
with  the  ocean,  form  so  many  grand  military  defences  against  the  approach 
of  an  enemy,  and  also  limitations  to  external  commerce.  The  White  sea 
is  a  large  gulf  in  the  Arctic  ocean,  about  two  hundred  miles  in  length,  but 
varying  in  breadth,  the  narrowest  part  being  only  forty-five  miles  across. 
It  is  mostly  covered  with  ice  during  four  or  five  months  of  the  year.  In 
its  northwestern  portion  it  is  named  the  gulf  of  Kandalask ;  and  on  its 
southwestern  side  are  the  bays  of  Onega  and  Archangel.  The  Tcheskaia 
gulf  is  another  inlet  in  the  Arctic  ocean,  separated  from  the  White  sea  bj 
the  Shemo-Rhonskian  peninsula.  The  strait  of  Waigatz,  still  farther  east, 
is  formed  by  the  mainland  and  the  island  of  Waigatz.  The  gulfs  of  Fin- 
land, Bothnia,  and  Riga,  are  large  inlets  of  the  Baltic  sea,  and  form  to- 
gether nearly  the  whole  western  maritime  border  of  Russia. 

The  Baltic  is  enclosed  by  the  shores  of  Russia,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Prus- 
sia, and  Mecklenberg,  and  communicates  with  the  Kattegat  by  three  pas- 
sages—  the  Sound,  the  Great  Belt,  and  the  Little  Belt.  Its  greatest  length 
from  north-northeast  to  south-southwest  is  nearly  nine  hundred  miles.  Its 
breadth  is  very  irregular,  and  varies  from  forty  to  two  hundred  miles.  Its 
area,  including  the  three  gulfs  of  Bothnia,  Finland,  and  Riga,  has  been 
estimated  at  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  square  miles  ;  and  its  basin, 
which  receives  the  drainage  of  more  than  a  fifth  of  the  surface  of  Europe, 
is  at  least  nine  hundred  thousand  square  miles.  The  shores  of  the  Baltic, 
proceeding  from  the  Little  Belt  in  the  west,  and  along  the  south  and  east 
as  far  as  Dome's  point,  at  the  entrance  to  the  gulf  of  Riga,  are  flat  and 
sandy ;  and  even  toward  the  north,  where  the  coast  assumes  a  rocky  char- 
acter, the  beach  seldom  attains  a  height  of  fifty  feet.  The  sea  itself  seems 
to  partake  of  the  character  of  its  shore.  It  shelves  very  gradually,  pre- 
senting scarcely  any  harbors  which  vessels  of  above  three  hundred  tons 
can  enter.  Its  depth  nowhere  exceeds  one  hundred  and  sixty-seven  fath- 
oms ;  and,  in  general,  is  not  more  than  forty  or  fifty.  Owing  to  the  gen- 
eral flatness  of  the  coast,  the  Baltic  is  much  more  exposed  than  inland 
seas  usually  are  to  distant  influences.     The  warm  moisture  accumulated 


22  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIT'TION    OF   RUSSIA. 

aver  the  Atlantic,  and  wafted  along  by  the  prevailing  west  wind,  meets 
with  no  interruption  till  it  arrives  at  the  Baltic,  when  it  encounters  the  keen 
blasts  of  the  Ural  mountains,  and  of  the  steppes  extending  to  the  north  of 
the  Caspian  sea,  and  is  precipitated  in  heavy  falls  of  rain  or  snow,  which 
materially  affect  the  composition  of  tlie  water  of  the  Baltic,  and  reduce  the 
quantity  of  salt  contained  in  it  to  little  more  than  a  half  of  that  contained 
in  the  water  of  the  North  sea. 

This  comparative  freshness  of  the  water  of  the  Baltic,  and  shallowness 
of  its  bed,  disposes  it  to  freeze  easily  ;  and  hence,  though  it  rarely  happens 
that  extensive  portions  of  it  are  entirely  frozen  over,  its  shores  usually 
begin  to  be  covered  with  ice  before  the  end  of  December,  and  the  naviga- 
tion of  its  harbors  thereafter  continues  interrupted  till  the  beginning  of 
April.  The  shallowness  of  the  water  along  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  is 
obvious,  owing  in  a  great  degree  to  the  immense  quantities  of  mud  and 
sand  deposited  by  rivers  and  torrents,  the  number  of  which  has  been  esti- 
mated at  two  hundred  and  fifty ;  but  it  was  early  suspected  that  other 
causes  were  in  operation,  and  the  Swedish  naturalist  Celsius,  followed  by 
the  more  celebrated  Linnaeus,  maintained  that  the  water  in  the  Baltic  was 
gradually  subsiding,  at  the  rate  of  about  three  feet  in  a  century.  A  more 
philosophical  opinion,  now  more  generally  adopted,  is,  that  the  bed  and 
the  surrounding  shores  are  gradually  rising.  Scientific  measures  have 
been  adopted,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  point ;  but,  until  the 
result  is  known,  it  is  still  a  question  whether  the  amount  of  alluvial  depos- 
ite  is  not  of  itself  sufficient  to  account  for  the  phenomenon. 

The  Baltic  has  no  proper  tides.  Its  surface  is  of  too  limited  extent  to 
feel  the  solar  and  lunar  influences  directly  ;  and  the  passages  which  con- 
nect it  with  the  ocean  are  too  narrow  to  communicate  the  changes  of  level 
which  the  tides  produce  on  the  ocean  surface.  There  is,  however,  a  slight 
irregular  change  of  level  in  the  Baltic,  of  which  no  very  satisfactory 
account  has  yet  been  given. 

The  gulf  of  Bothnia  forms  the  northern  portion  of  the  Baltic,  between 
Sweden  and  Finland.  It,  has  fewer  shoals  than  any  other  portion  of  the 
Baltic,  and  its  harbors  are  better.  The  gulf  of  Finland  forms  the  eastern 
arm  of  the  Baltic,  having  Finland  on  the  north,  and  the  governments  of 
Esthonia,  or  Bevel,  and  St.  Petersburg,  on  the  south.  The  length  of  the 
gulf,  from  east  to  west,  is  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles ;  breadth  at 
the  entrance,  or  narrowest  part,  forty  miles  ;  toward  the  head,  where  it  is 
widest,  about  eighty  miles.  It  receives  but  few  rivers,  and  none  of  them, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Neva,  of  any  great  size.  The  latter  enters  the 
head  of  the  gulf,  communicating  with  Lake  Ladoga.  The  other  rivers  that 
may  be  mentioned  are  the  Luga  and  Narva,  which  disembogue  within  a 
short  distance  of  each  other,  near  tlie  head  of  the  gulf,  on  the  south  side. 
It  contains  numerous  islands,  of  which  Kronstadt  is  the  largest.  There 
are  various  towns  of  considerable  importance  along  its  shores,  St.  Peters- 
burg occupying  its  eastern  extremity. 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  23 

The  Euxine  or  Black  sea  lies  on  the  southern  border  of  Russia,  enclosed 
by  the  shores  of  Russia  and  Turkey.  Its  greatest  length,  from  east  to 
west,  is  about  seven  hundred  miles  ;  breadth,  about  three  hundred  miles  ; 
extent  of  coast,  upward  of  two  thousand  miles :  its  area  is  A^ariously  esti- 
mated at  one  hmidred  and  sixty  and  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand 
square  miles.  It  receives  some  of  the  largest  rivers  in  Europe,  and  drains 
a  surface  of  nine  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  square  miles ;  its  waters  are, 
in  consequence,  only  brackish.  Its  depth  in  general  is  great,  no  bottom 
liaving  been  found  in  some  parts  with  a  line  of  one  hundred  and  forty  fath- 
oms, although,  in  a  few  places,  as  the  strait  of  Enikaleh,  it  does  not  exceed 
ten,  twenty,  or  thirty  feet ;  while  off  the  mouth  of  the  Danube  the  water 
deepens  so  gradually  from  the  shore,  that  the  distance  from  the  latter  may 
be  ascertained  within  half  a  mile  by  soundings  alone. 

Throughout  the  whole  of  the  Black  sea  there  are  scarcely  any  rocks, 
and  almost  everywhere  are  excellent  anchoring-placcs.  Storms  are  rare, 
and,  when  they  do  occur,  are  of  short  duration,  seldom  lasting  more  than 
twelve  hours  without  considerable  abatement.  During  the  summer,  north 
winds  prevail,  and  south  in  the  beginning  of  autumn  and  spring.  The  for- 
mer frequently  detain  vessels  from  the  Mediterranean  in  the  Dardanelles 
and  Bosphorus  for  weeks  together.  The  currents  of  the  Black  sea  gener- 
ally have  a  tendency  toward  the  Bosphorus  or  channel  of  Constantinople. 
There  is  no  flow  of  tide  in  this  sea,  the  slight  difference  of  elevation  that 
occasionally  occurs  arising  solely  from  the  winds  and  currents.  The  south- 
ern coast  of  the  Crimea,  and  the  coast  of  Anatolia  or  Asia  Minor,  and  Cau- 
casia, abound  in  lofty  mountains,  wliich  rise  up  immediately  from  the  mar- 
gin of  the  sea,  and  afford  excellent  landmarks.  On  the  northwest  and 
north,  the  coast  is  generally  low,  and  on  this  account  dangerous,  as  it  can 
be  seen  only  from  a  very  short  distance.  Harbors  and  bays  are  numerous, 
and  many  of  them  good  ;  but  there  are  none  of  any  great  extent.  Those 
that  penetrate  deepest  into  the  land  are  the  gulf  of  Kcrkinet  on  the  north, 
between  the  Crimea  and  the  mainland ;  the  gulfs  of  Rassein  and  Burgas 
on  the  west,  and  those  of  Sinope  and  Samsoon  on  the  south.  There  are 
no  remarkable  projections  or  headlands,  excepting  those  formed  by  the 
western  and  southern  extremities  of  the  Crimea,  and  Capes  Indjeh  and 
Bozdepeh  in  Anatolia.  The  Black  sea  communicates  with  the  Mediterra- 
nean by  the  Bosphorus  (or  channel  or  strait  of  Constantinople),  the  sea  of 
Marmora,  and  the  Dardanelles. 

There  are  few  fisheries  of  any  importance  carried  on  in  the  Black  sea, 
althougli  it  abounds  with  various  kinds  of  fish,  including  porpoises,  stur- 
geons, dolphins,  mackerel,  mullet,  bream,  &c.  Seals,  also,  are  numerous. 
One  of  the  most  extensive  fisheries  is  at  the  entrance  of  the  strait  of  Eni- 
kaleh, where  considerable  quantities  of  sturgeon  are  taken.  The  northern 
ports  are  frequently  shut  up  by  ice  for  three  or  four  months  in  the  year,  or 
from  about  December  to  March. 

The  Black  sea  extended,  at  a  remote  period,  much  farther  east  and  north 


24  ILLUSTRATED   DESCEIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

than  it  now  does,  occupying  the  whole  of  the  vast  plains  and  steppes  that 
surround  the  Caspian  and  the  sea  of  Aral,  in  Tartary,  neither  of  which  had 
then  a  separate  existence,  being  included  in  this  great  inland  sea.  The 
relative  level  of  the  Black  sea,  with  the  Caspian  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
ocean  on  the  other,  were  long  undetermined  points,  but  seem  now  to  be 
pretty  well  ascertained.  It  has  been  found  that  the  Caspian  is  one  hun- 
dred and  one  feet  lower  than  the  Black  sea,  and  that  the  latter  is  precisely 
of  the  same  level  as  the  ocean. 

The  Black  sea  was  explored  at  an  early  period  by  the  Greeks,  who,  from 
their  ignorance  of  the  arts  of  navigation  and  shipbuilding,  represented  it 
as  beset  with  dangers  of  the  most  formidable  kind ;  and  who,  it  has  been 
said,  gave  it  the  name  of  "  Black"  sea  (^Pontus  Euxinus),  as  expressive  of 
the  dread  and  terror  in  which  they  held  it — a  feeling  further  manifested 
by  their  placing  the  Cimmerian  land  of  everlasting  darkness  on  its  northern 
shore.  Having  gathered  courage  from  experience,  the  Greeks,  at  a  later 
period,  formed  numerous  establishments  along  its  shores,  from  which  they 
carried  on  an  extensive  trade  in  slaves,  cattle,  and  grain ;  and  to  this  day 
their  vessels  are  the  most  numerous  in  the  Black  sea,  the  greater  part  being 
employed  in  exporting  the  grain,  hides,  timber,  iron,  and  furs,  of  Russia, 
and  in  importing  wine  and  fruits,  and  the  manufactures  of  England  and 
France. 

The  sea  of  Azov  (called  by  the  Russians  More  Asowskoe,  and  by  the 
Latins  Pains  Masotis')  forms  the  northern  subdivision  of  the  Black  sea, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  the  strait  of  Kertsch  or  Enikaleh  (anciently 
the  Cimmerian  Bosphorus).  Its  length,  from  southwest  to  northeast  (from 
the  strait  of  Kertsch  to  the  mouth  of  the  Don),  is  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
eight  miles  ;  its  average  breadth,  about  eighty  miles  ;  and  its  area,  about 
fourteen  thousand  square  miles.  The  northern  coast  is,  for  the  most  part, 
bold  and  craggy,  rising  about  one  hundred  feet  above  the  water ;  the  east- 
ern coast,  inhabited  by  Cossacks,  is  very  low,  chiefly  sandy,  and  intersected 
with  lakes  and  morasses ;  the  western  coast  is  formed  by  the  tongue  of 
sand,  called  the  Tongue  of  Arabat,  which  divides  it  from  the  Sibachc  More, 
or  Putrid  sea ;  while  the  Crimea,  and  the  territory  of  the  Cossacks  of  the 
Black  sea,  form  the  southern  shore,  on  which,  here  and  there,  are  some 
hills,  visible  a  considerable  distance.  Its  greatest  depth,  between  Enika- 
leh and  Bielosaria,  on  the  northern  shore,  is  about  eight  fathoms  ;  and  it 
diminishes  considerably  toward  the  gulf  of  Don,  several  banks  extending  a 
great  distance  from  the  shore.  The  water  is  muddy,  and,  from  the  numer- 
ous rivers  running  into  it,  almost  fresh. 

The  sea  of  Azov  has  no  remarkable  current,  the  strongest  never  running 
more  than  one  mile  an  hour ;  the  navigation  is  generally  stopped  from  No- 
vember to  March  by  ice.  Perhaps  no  body  of  water  of  equal  extent  so 
abounds  with  fish ;  the  principal  fisheries  are  along  the  southern  coast,  be- 
tween Cape  Dolgava  and  the  strait  of  Enikaleh,  the  sturgeon,  sterlet,  and 
other  fish,  from  which  are  prepared,  in  large  quantities,  both  caviare  and 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  25 

isinglass.  The  extreme  western  part  of  the  sea  of  Azov,  called  the  Putrid 
sea,  is,  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  little  better  than  a  noxious 
quagmire,  and,  at  all  times,  wholly  useless  for  navigation.  The  strait  of 
Enikaleh  is  about  eleven  miles  long,  and  four  broad,  though  the  navigable 
channel  never  exceeds  one  mile  in  breadth.  A  new  island  was  raised  in 
the  sea  of  Azov,  in  1814,  by  volcanic  eruptions.  The  chief  towns  on  its 
banks  are  Taganrog  and  Marioupol,  on  the  northern  shore,  and  Kertsch, 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  strait  of  the  same  name.  The  commerce  of 
the  sea  of  Azov  has  been  much  hindered,  not  only  by  the  impossibility  of 
navigating  it  during  four  months  of  the  year,  but  also  by  the  extensive 
activity  of  Odessa,  which  has  deprived  it  of  much  of  its  trade. 

The  Caspian  sea  (called  by  the  ancients  Mare  Caspium,  or  Hyrcanium) 
lies  between  the  thirty-sixth  and  forty-eighth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and 
the  forty-sixtli  and  fifty-fifth  degrees  of  east  longitude.  Its  greatest  length, 
from  north  to  south,  is  seven  hundred  and  thirty  miles  ;  its  greatest  breadth, 
at  its  southern  part,  about  latitude  forty-five  degrees  north,  is  two  hundred 
and  seventy  miles  ;  its  narrowest  part  is  between  Cape  Apsheron  in  Europe, 
and  Cape  Tarta  in  Asia,  being  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north,  and  west  by  Russia  and  Persia,  east  by  the  Kirghiz  steppe 
and  Khiva,  and  south  by  Persia.  Its  area  is  about  one  hundred  and  forty 
thousand  square  miles,  draining,  in  Europe  alone,  an  extent  of  eight  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  square  miles.  Although,  at  some  points,  the  Cas- 
pian attains  a  considerable  depth,  Hanway  having  in  one  place  found  no 
bottom  at  four  hundred  and  eighty  fathoms,  it  is  remarkable  for  its  shal- 
lowness generally,  especially  along  its  shores,  where  it  seldom  exceeds 
three  feet  for  a  distance  of  one  hundred  yards  from  the  land.  Its  eastern 
and  western  coasts,  particularly  the  former,  are  deeply  indented  with  bays 
and  gulfs,  while  the  southern  shores  are  almost  unbroken. 

The  Caspian  contains  numerous  islands,  but  not  many  of  any  great  ex- 
tent. The  largest  are  on  the  Asiatic  side,  the  greatest  number  on  the 
European,  particularly  about  the  mouths  of  the  Volga,  and  along  the  coasts 
to  the  northeast  and  southwest  of  them,  where  they  lie  closely  crowded 
together  in  countless  numbers,  most  of  them,  however,  being  mere  islets. 

The  waters  of  the  Caspian  are  salt,  but  not  nearly  so  much  so  as  those 
of  the  ocean.  It  has  no  tides,  and  no  outlets,  its  superfluous  waters  being 
carried  ofi"  solely  by  evaporation.  Sturgeons  and  sterlets  are  caught  in 
great  quantities  ;  and  there  are  also  salmon-trout,  perch,  two  kinds  of  carp, 
and  porpoises.  Seals  abound  in  the  upper  coasts,  and  tortoises  between 
the  mouths  of  the  Volga  and  the  Ural.  Many  thousand  persons  are  em- 
ployed in  the  Russian  upper  Caspian  fisheries,  near  Astrakhan,  who  take 
annually  upward  of  seven  hundred  thousand  sturgeons  and  about  one  hun- 
dred thousand  seals. 

The  only  ports  at  all  worthy  of  the  name,  on  or  near  the  Caspian,  are 
Astrakhan,  Bakou,  Salian,  and  Astrabad.  The  navigation  is  at  all  times 
difficult,  and  often  perilous.     Steam-packets  on  it  have  recently  been  estab- 


26  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

lished  by  tlio  Russians.  Persia  is  bound,  by  treaty  stipulations  with  Rus- 
sia, not  to  equip  or  maintain  any  naval  force  on  this  sea. 

The  notices  of  early  commerce  upon  or  by  way  of  the  Caspian  are  few 
and  imcertain.  Even  for  several  centuries  after  the  Christian  era,  its  au- 
thentic trading  records  are  nearly  a  blank.  The  chief  portion  of  the  com- 
merce between  western  Europe  and  India  was  carried  on  partly  by  its 
waters,  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century — Astrakha,n,  on  the 
upper  Caspian,  and  Soldaia,  nearly  in  tlie  same  latitude,  on  the  Black  sea, 
forming  the  chief  entrepots  till  1280,  when  the  latter  was  superseded, 
through  the  exertions  of  the  Genoese,  for  their  own  establishment  at  Kaffa  ; 
which  then  became  the  transit  station  for  the  Asiatic-European  trade,  and 
so  continued  till  1453,  when  the  Turks,  having  seized  Constantinople,  and 
barred  the  Bosphorus,  the  accustomed  trade  was  forced  into  other  channels, 
and  the  Caspian  deserted,  except  by  the  few  vessels  which  carried  on  a 
small  local  trade  between  Muscovy,  Persia,  and  central  Asia. 

About  1560,  an  English  trading-company  endeavored  to  open  up  connec- 
tions, by  way  of  the  Caspian,  with  Persia  and  Turcomania,  but  with  no 
good  results.  From  that  time  till  late  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
annals  of  navigation  give  fcAV  notices  of  this  sea.  At  the  latter  period, 
Peter  the  Great,  partly  in  the  hope  of  diverting  the  Indian  trade  into  the 
direction  of  his  southern  dominions,  caused  the  coasts  of  the  Caspian  to  be 
explored  by  Dutch  navigators  in  his  pay.  His'intention  was,  as  one  means 
to  his  end,  to  found  trading-stations  on  ground  ceded  by  treaty,  or  taken 
by  force,  on  the  Persian  seaboard.  But  this  he  delayed  to  do  ;  and  when 
he  died,  his  project  lay  dormant,  and  the  Russians  made  no  encroachment 
Ijeyond  what  Peter  had  already  effected,  till  the  reign  of  Catherine  11., 
whose  conquests  in  its  southern  region  were  not  secured  till  the  present 
century,  under  the  emperors  Alexander  and  Nicholas. 

The  sea  of  Okhotsk,  in  the  east  of  Asiatic  Russia,  forms  a  branch  of  the 
North  Pacific  ocean,  and  extends  from  the  Kurile  islands  northAvest  to  the 
coast  of  Siberia,  about  one  thousand  miles,  with  a  breadth,  between  the 
northeast  coast  of  China  and  the  peninsula  of  Kamtschatka,  of  about  five 
hundred  and  fifty  miles.  It  contains  several  islands,  the  largest  of  which, 
Sagalin,  is  situated  near  its  southwestern  shore  ;  forms  a  number  of  large 
gulfs,  chiefly  on  the  north,  among  others  those  of  Tanish,  Gijiginsk,  and 
Penjinsk ;  and  receives  numerous  rivers,  of  which,  however,  only  one,  the 
Amoor  or  Sagalin,  is  of  great  magnitude.  The  shores  are  covered  with 
ice  from  November  to  April,  but  the  main  expanse  continues  open  through- 
out tlie  year,  and  being  generally  deep,  without  shoal  or  sandbank,  affords 
a  safe  navigation,  notwithstanding  the  fogs  and  storms  with  which  it  is 
often  visited. 

The  rivers  of  Russia  arc  usually  divided  into  five  groups,  or  systems, 
corresponding  to  the  seas  into  which  they  empty,  namely,  the  Arctic  ocean, 
the  Baltic,  the  Black,  and  Caspian  seas,  and  the  Pacific  ocean.  The  first 
dlA-ision  is  by  far  the  largest.     It  comprises  in  Europe  the  Dwina,  the  Mc- 


THYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


27 


zcnCj^ind  Pctcliora;  wliile  in  Asia  it  includes,  among  a  host  of  others,  tlie 
Obi,  the  Yenisei,  and  Lena,  three  of  the  largest  rivers  of  that  continent. 
All  these  rivers  flow  from  south 


ITiicflijh  jiuirs 


The  MdUTHs  or  the  Dvvina. 


to  north,  and  the  last  three  have 
a  course  of  from  two  thousand 
to  twenty-five  hundred  miles. 

The  Dwina  is  formed  in  the 
government  of  Vologda,  by  the 
union  of  the  Soukhona  and  the 
Vychegda,  and,  after  an  indirect 
course  of  four  hundred  miles, 
falls  into  the  White  sea,  about 
thii'ty  miles  below  the  port  of 
Archangel,  forming  a  number  of 
islands,  and  branching  off  into 
several  mouths.  Its  princijxai 
affluents  are  the  Pingisha,  the 
Keltma,  and  the  Pinega,  on  the 
right,  and  the  Vau'e  and  Emtza 

on  the  left.  The  Petchora  is  a  large  river  which  has  its  source  in  the  Ural 
mountains,  and,  after  a  course  of  about  nine  hundred  miles,  falls  into  a  bay 
of  the  Arctic  oeean  by  a  great  number  of  mouths. 

The  Obi  may  be  traced  from  the  lake  of  Altyn,  latitude  fifty-one  degrees 
north,  if  its  source  l)e  not  even  followed  along  tlie  Shabekan  river  to  lati- 
tude forty-seven.  The  Upper  Irtisli  flows  into  the  lake  of  Saisan,  whence 
it  issues  under  the  name  of  Lower  Irtish,  and,  after  a  circuit  of  great  ex- 
tent, joins  the  Obi,  below  Samarov :  it  rises  about  the  forty-fifth  degree, 
and  ought  perhaps  to  be  regarded  as  the  principal  stream.  However  this 
be,  the  Obi,  piercing  the  Altaian  chain,  and  having  received  many  small 
streams,  passes  Kolyvan,  and  at  some  distance  to  the  north  receives  the 
Tomm  and  other  large  rivers  from  the  east.  Below  Samarov,  as  already 
mentioned,  it  receives  the  great  river  Irtisli,  and  runs  into  the  sea  of  Obi, 
a  gulf  of  the  Arctic  ocean.  The  Obi  is  navigable  almost  to  its  source,  that 
is,  to  the  lake  of  Altyn,  and  abounds  with  fish,  but  the  sturgeon  of  the 
Irtisli  are  the  most  esteemed.  After  it  has  been  frozen  for  some  time,  the 
water  becomes  foul  and  fetid,  owing  to  the  slowness  of  the  current,  and  to 
the  vast  morasses  through  which  it  flows  ;  but  the  river  is  purified  in  the 
spring  by  the  melting  of  the  snow.  The  shores  and  channel  are  generally 
rocky,  till  it  receives  the  Ket,  after  which  the  course  is  through  clay,  marl, 
sand,  and  morasses. 

The  Yenisei  flows  through  the  central  part  of  Siberia,  its  basin  lying 
between  those  of  the  Obi  on  the  west  and  the  Lena  on  the  east,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  comprise  an  area  of  nearly  one  million  of  square  miles.  This 
river  rises  in  the  Chinese  territories,  not  far  from  latitude  fifty-one  degrees 
north,  longitude  ninety-eight  degrees  east,  and  proceeds  at  first  westerly 


28  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OP  RUSSIA. 

for  about  five  degrees  of  longitude,  to  near  the  point  where  it  leaves  the 
Chinese  frontier.  It  then  turns  northward,  and  pursues  generally  a  nor- 
therly course  to  the  Arctic  ocean,  which  it  enters  by  a  wide  estuary  called 
the  bay  of  the  seventy-two  islands,  the  mouth  of  which  is  in  about  latitude 
seventy-two  and  a  half  degrees  north,  longitude  eighty-five  degrees  east, 
about  two  hundred  miles  east  of  the  gulf  of  Obi. 

The  entire  course  of  the  Yenisei  has  been  estimated  at  twenty-six  hun- 
dred miles.  Its  chief  affluents  join  it  from  the  east,  its  tributaries  from 
the  west  being  of  much  less  importance.  Various  towns  in  the  upper,  with 
Krasnojarsk,  Yeniseisk,  &c.,  in  the  middle  and  lower  part  of  its  course, 
are  on  its  banks ;  and  Irkoutsk  is  on  its  great  tributary  the  Angara, 
which  flows  out  of  Lake  Baikal.  As  far  as  Krasnojarsk  it  runs  through  a 
mountainous  country,  and  thenceforward  to  Yeniseisk  (where  its  widtli, 
when  highest,  is  about  one  mile)  its  banks  are  elevated  and  precipitous. 

The  last  of  these  large  rivers  in  Asiatic  Russia  is  the  Lena,  which  rises 
northwest  of  the  sea  or  lake  of  Baikal,  and  pursues  a  northerly  course 
till  it  is  turned  by  a  chain  of  hills,  and  thence  till  near  Yakoutsk  pursues 
a  tortuous  course  to  the  northeast,  a  direction  of  considerable  utility,  and 
affording  navigation  to  the  remote  regions.  From  Yakoutsk,  the  course 
is  nearly  due  north,  the  channel  being  of  great  breadth,  and  full  of  islands. 
The  basin  of  the  Lena  covers  an  area  of  about  eight  hundred  thousand 
square  miles. 

The  rivers  which  fall  into  the  Baltic,  and  its  several  arms,  though  of  far 
greater  importance,  in  an  economical  point  of  view,  are  of  very  inferior 
magnitude.  The  principal  are  the  Neva  (on  which  is  built  St.  Petersburg, 
ten  miles  from  its  mouth),  the  Duna,*  the  Niemen,  and  the  Vistula.  The 
Duna  rises  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the  Volga,  and  flows  into  the  gulf 
of  Biga  below  the  city  of  Riga.  It  is  navigable  up  to  Velige,  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  government  of  Vitepsk.  The  Niemen  rises  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Minsk,  and  flows  into  the  Curische-haf  below  Memel ;  and  the 
Vistula  flows  through  Russian  Poland,  receiving  in  its  course  several  con- 
siderable tributaries. 

The  rivers  which  fall  into  the  Black  sea  and  its  adjuncts  equal  those 
emptying  into  the  Baltic  in  commercial  importance,  and  far  exceed  them 
in  length  of  course  and  volume  of  water.  Among  others  are  the  Dniester, 
Dnieper,  Boug,  Don,  and  Kouban.  The  Dniester  has  its  source  in  the  Car- 
pathian mountains,  in  Galicia,  and  flowing  in  a  south-southeast  direction, 
along  the  eastern  frontier  of  Bessarabia,  falls  into  the  Black  sea,  after  a 
course  of  five  hundred  miles.  It  has  no  considerable  affluents,  and  being 
in  most  parts  shallow  and  rapid,  is  of  little  service  to  internal  navigation, 
except  during  spring  and  summer.  The  Dnieper,  which  is  one  of  the 
largest  rivers  in  Europe,  rises  in  the  government  of  Smolensk,  and,  after 

•  The  Duna  is  also  sometimes  called  the  Dwina  ;  but,  without  presuming'  to  decide  which  is  the 
more  correct  orthography,  we  have  deemed  it  better  to  designate  it  by  the  former  name,  to  prevent 
its  being  confounded  with  the  Dwina  falling  into  the  White  sea. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  29 

a  coulee  of  twelve  hundred  miles,  falls  into  the  Black  sea  at  Kiiiburn,  near 
Oczakow.  It  is  broad  and  deep,  and  may  be  navigated  with  ease  and 
safety  from  Smolensk  as  far  as  the  city  of  Ekatherinoslav ;  but  from  the 
latter  to  Alexandrofsk  it  is  interrupted  by  cataracts,  which  are  impassable 
except  for  a  brief  period  in  spring  and  autumn.  The  Boug  rises  near  the 
confines  of  Volhynia,  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  government  of  Po- 
dolia,  and  at  first  proceeds  east,  and  then  southeast,  through  that  govern- 
ment, to  Olviopol,  where  it  enters  the  government  of  Kherson,  which  it 
traverses  almost  centrally  from  north  to  south,  and  falls  into  the  estuary 
of  the  Dnieper,  near  Kherson.  Its  chief  affluents  are  the  Ingul,  Balta, 
Tchertal,  and  Salonicha.  It  has  a  course  of  above  four  hmidred  miles,  but 
its  navigation  is  greatly  obstructed  by  rocks  and  sandbanks.  The  Don 
rises  in  the  government  of  Toula,  and  flows  south,  east,  and  ultimately 
southwest.  In  its  course  east,  it  approaches  so  near  the  Volga,  that  Peter 
the  Great  had  undertaken  to  form  a  communication  between  them  by  means 
of  a  canal :  this  grand  project,  however,  was  defeated  ))y  the  irruption  of 
the  Tartars.*  This  river,  exclusive  of  its  turnings  and  windings,  discharges 
itself  into  the  sea  of  Azov,  about  four  hundred  miles  from  its  rise.  The 
Kouban  rises  in  Circassia,  nearly  fourteen  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  Black  sea,  in  the  Caucasian  mountains.  It  flows  first  north,  then  north- 
west, and  ultimately  due  west ;  passes  Ekaterinodar,  and,  traversing  a  level 
steppe,  presenting  to  the  eye  only  an  interminable  plain  of  reeds,  falls  into 
the  Black  sea,  in  the  bay  of  Kouban.  This  river  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
be  navigable.     The  water  at  its  mouth  is  so  shallow  as  to  admit  only  the 

*  The  following  account  of  tliis  and  previous  attempts  to  open  a  passage  between  the  Volga  and 
the  Don,  by  means  of  a  canal,  we  quote  from  a  history  of  Russia  published  in  the  year  1710,  during 
the  lifetime  of  Peter  the  Great  —  in  the  same  year,  in  fact,  that  the  above  entei-prise  by  that  emperor 
was  suspended  :  "  This  passage  was  first  endeavored  to  be  cut  by  Sultan  Selim,  for  the  better 
transportation  of  bis  army  to  Astrakhan  and  the  Caspian  sea  against  the  Persians,  in  1560,  but  his 
design  was  defeated  by  the  continual  irruptions  of  the  Cossacks  and  Russes.  This  enterprise  lay 
dead  till  about  1693,  when  the  czar  employed  an  engineer.  Colonel  Breckel,  to  work  on  the  com- 
munication ;  but  being  very  ill  used  by  Prince  Boris  Alexewitz  Galliczyn,  governor  of  the  province, 
who  openly  opposed  the  work,  and  who  would  neither  furnish  men  nor  materials  in  pursuance  of 
llie  czar's  order,  the  engineer,  to  avoid  his  persecution,  fled  away  to  Persia.  In  1699,  another  engi- 
neer. Captain  PeiTy,  was  employed  in  this  service,  but  met  with  the  same  discouragement  from 
Prince  Galliczyn  as  his  predecessor;  notwithstanding  which,  the  work  was  carried  on  with  pretty 
good  success  till  the  end  of  December,  1710,  when  the  czar  ordered  it  to  be  laid  aside  till  after  the 
war,  since  he  could  not  so  well  spare  the  number  of  men  required  in  the  present  juncture.  The 
digging  work  is  about  half  finished ;  twelve  thousand  men,  and  about  five  years'  time,  would  serve 
to  perfect  the  whole.  The  channel  was  to  be  large  and  deep  enough  for  ships  of  eighty  guns  to 
pass.  It  is  to  be  dug  through  near  three  English  miles,  in  which  space  there  is  a  large  mountain, 
between  the  rivers  Lavala  and  Camishinka:  the  first  falls  into  the  Don,  about  one  hundred  and 
thirty  English  miles  from  the  canal,  and  the  last  into  the  Volga,  about  nine  English  miles  from  the 
canal.  Six  sluices  are  begun,  but  none  finished  ;  and  six  more  are  to  be  made  in  the  Camishinka. 
In  all,  from  the  Lavala  to  the  place  where  the  Camishinka  falls  into  the  Volga,  are  sixty-two  thou- 
sand three  hundred  English  feet." 

The  undertaking,  though  only  temporarily  suspended,  it  appears,  was  never  resumed.  The  first 
attempt,  by  Selim  II.,  to  connect  these  rivers,  it  would  seem,  was  interrupted  by  the  Russians  them- 
selves. Another  account  states  that  the  laborers  sent  thither  by  the  Turkish  sultan  "  were  surprised 
and  killed  by  a  body  of  men  of  uncouth  figures,  strange  features,  and  barbarous  language,"  and  who 
IMoved  to  be  the  subjects  of  his  Muscovite  majesty  Ivan  the  Terrible. 


30 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 


smallest  vessels.  All  the  tributaries  of  the  Kouban  flow,  like  itself,  from 
the  Caucasus  mountains,  joining  it  on  the  left  bank :  the  principal  are  the 
Zelentchuk,  Urup,  and  the  united  streams  of  the  Laba  and  Emansu.  Its 
total  course  is  about  four  hundred  miles. 

Among  the  rivers  which  empty  into  the  Black  sea  is  the  Danube,*  which 
originates  in  two  small  streams  that  have  their  sources  in  the  eastern  de- 
clivity of  the  Black  forest,  in  the  grand-duchy  of  Baden,  at  an  elevation  of 
three  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  uniting  at  Donaueschin- 
gen.  Its  general  course  is  from  west  to  east,  falling  into  the  Black  sea 
by  three  principal  outlets,  called  respectively  the  Kilia,  Sulineh,  and  the 
Edrillis  mouths,  as  represented  in  the  subjoined  engraving. 


The  Mouths  of  the  Danube. 

The  extent  of  the  basin  of  the  Danube  is  estimated  at  two  hundred  and 
seventy  thousand  square  miles  ;  the  direct  distance,  from  source  to  mouth, 
upward  of  one  thousand  miles  ;  and  its  development — of  course,  including 
windings  —  eighteen  hundred  miles.  From  its  source  the  Danube  flows 
northeast  to  Regensberg  (Ratisbon),  in  Bavaria ;  when  it  takes  a  southeast- 
by-south  direction,  to  Waitzen,  in  Hungary,  previously  passing  Vienna  and 
Presburg.  At  Waitzen  it  suddenly  bends  round,  and  flows  nearly  due 
south  to  the  point  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Drave,  near  Esseg,  in  Sclavo- 
nia ;  thence  it  runs  south-southeast  to  Belgrade,  on  the  northern  confines 
of  the  Turkish  province  Servia,  of  which  it  subsequently  forms  the  bound- 
ary, separating  it  from  Hungary.     Continuing  its  general  easterly  course, 

*  Although  the  Danube  may  not  be  considered  strictly  a  river  of  Russia,  yet  it  being  for  about  one 
hundred  miles  from  its  embouchure  the  boundary  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  two  of  its  principal 
mouths  being  witiiin  the  Russian  teiritorj',  and  the  principalities  lying  upon  its  borders  being  the 
tlieatre  of  the  commencement  of  hostilities  in  the  pending  contest  between  the  above-named  empires, 
seem  to  render  a  description  of  that  stream  too  important  and  interesting  to  be  omitted. 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  31 

thougli  not  without  some  marked  deviations,  to  the  point  where  it  is  joined 
by  the  small  river  Bercska,  it  abruptly  turns  to  the  northeast,  and  contin- 
ues in  this  direction  to  Orsova,  a  distance  of  about  twenty-five  miles,  when, 
by  suddenly  taking  a  southeasterly  course,  it  fairly  enters  the  Turkish 
European  provinces,  forming  the  boundary-line  between  Wallachia  and 
Bulgaria.  At  Rassova,  on  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  former  prov- 
ince, it  takes  a  direction  nearly  due  north  to  Galatz,  when  it  bends  round 
to  the  southeast,  and,  after  a  farther  course  of  about  eighty  miles,  falls  into 
the  Black  sea,  by  the  several  mouths  above  enumerated. 

During  its  {progress  from  its  source,  in  Baden,  to  its  embouchure,  the 
Danube  passes  through  Wiirtemberg,  Bavaria,  the  archducliies  of  Austria, 
and  Hungary,  and  forms  the  boundary  between  the  Hungarian  Banat  on 
the  north,  and  the  Turkish  province  of  Servia  on  the  south ;  and  between 
the  Turkish  province  of  Bulgaria  on  the  south,  and  the  Danubian  princi- 
palities Wallachia  and  Molda\'ia,  and  tlie  Russian  province  of  Bessarabia, 
on  the  north. 

The  great  basin  of  the  Danube  has  been  divided  into  four  minor  basins. 
The  first  consists  of  a  vast  plateau  of  a  pentagonal  form,  sixteen  hundred 
and  forty  feet  above  the  sea  level,  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  length, 
and  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  miles  broad,  surrounded  by  mountains, 
and  comprising  a  portion  of  the  principality  of  Hohcnzollern,  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Wiirtemberg,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria. 
This  tract  is,  by  far,  the  most  fertile  and  most  populous  through  which  the 
Danube  passes  during  its  entire  career. 

The  second  basis  belongs  to  the  empire  of  Austria,  having  Vienna  nearly 
(n  its  centre,  and  comprising  the  archduchy  of  Austria,  Hungary  as  far 
east  as  Waitzen,  and  Styria.  It  is  very  irregular,  and  is  bounded  on  all 
sides  by  very  high  mountains.  Generally  it  is  well  peopled,  well  culti- 
vated, and  the  inhabitants  industrious.  The  soil  is  rich  in  mineral  prod- 
ucts, and  the  climate  one  of  the  best  in  Europe.  The  Danube  here  passes 
tlirough  a  succession  of  the  most  picturesque  scenery,  till  it  passes  Vienna. 
Below  Presburg  it  runs  with  great  velocity,  and  is  crowded  with  islands. 

The  third  basin  of  the  Danube  comprises  Hungary,  east  of  Waitzen,  and 
the  principality  of  Transylvania,  and  consists  of  an  immense  plain,  almost 
without  undulations  of  any  kind,  and  only  about  four  hundred  feet  above 
the  sea  level.  It  is  intersected  by  large  rivers,  with  marshy  banks,  and 
interspersed  with  stagnant  pools,  saline  and  sandy  wastes  ;  rich,  however, 
in  mineral  products,  in  flocks  and  herds,  and  in  wines.  It  comprises  about 
one  half  of  the  entire  basin  of  the  Danube.  The  climate  is  bad,  especially 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  marshes,  which  cover  a  space  of  about  three  thousand 
square  miles. 

The  fourth  basin  comprises  Wallachia,  Moldavia,  a  portion  of  Bessara- 
bia, and  Bulgaria.  This  tract  is  flat,  inundated,  and  marshy  along  the 
banks  of  the  river ;  dry,  mountainous,  and  difficult,  on  the  borders  of  the 
basin.     It  is  fertile  in  products  of  every  kind,  yet  ])adly  cultivated  ;  thinly 


32  '  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 

peopled,  with  miserable  roads  and  wretched  villages.  The  principal  afflu- 
ents in  this  basin  are  the  Aluta,  Sereth,  and  Pruth.  The  latter  tributary 
rises  in  the  east  side  of  the  Carpathian  mountains,  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  Gralicia;  flows  circuitously  east,  past  Czernowitz,  then  south-southeast, 
forming  the  boundary  between  Moldavia  and  Bessarabia,  and,  after  a  course 
of  more  than  five  hundred  miles,  joins  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  about 
twelve  miles  below  Galatz. 

In  its  progress  through  Turkey,  the  Danube  gradually  increases  in  width 
from  fourteen  hundred  to  twenty-one  hundred  yards  ;  and  below  Hirsova, 
in  Bulgaria,  it  forms  an  expanse  of  water  like  a  sea,  and  is  studded  with 
islands.  Excepting  between  Drenkova  and  Kladova,  the  Danube  may  be 
said  to  be  navigable  for  steamboats  from  Ulm,  in  Wiirtemberg,  to  the  sea — 
although,  in  some  places,  rendered  difficult  by  the  occurrence  of  shallows 
and  sandbanks,  intersected  by  narrow  and  intricate  channels.  The  outlets 
of  the  Danube  are  separated  from  each  other  by  several  low  islands,  cov- 
ered with  reeds  and  trees.  The  greater  part  of  the  ships  bound  up  the 
river  enter  it  by  the  Sulineh  mouth,  it  being  the  deepest.*  The  Danube 
receives  sixty  navigable  tributaries,  and  its  volume  of  water  is  nearly  equal 
to  that  of  all  the  rivers  that  empty  themselves  into  the  Black  sea  taken 
together.  Its  rapidity  is,  in  many  places  above  Orsova,  so  great,  as  to 
render  any  navigation,  except  that  of  steam,  impossible ;  but  below  that 

*  "  Prior  to  the  treaty  of  Adnanople"  (between  Russia  and  Turkey,  in  1829),  "  the  depth  of 
water  upon  the  bar  at  the  Sulineh  mouth  of  the  river  was  about  sixteen  feet.  There  is  little  more 
than  nine  feet  of  water  there  now.  The  bar  is  formed  principally  of  alluvial  deposite,  and  not  of 
sand  washed  up  by  the  sea;  consequently  nothing  could  be  effected  more  easily  than  its  removal. 
As,  however,  it  was  not  stipulated  in  the  treaty  of  Adrianople  upon  whom  this  duty  was  to  devolve, 
ill  the  year  1840  Austria  entered  into  a  convention  with  Russia,  whereby  it  was  agreed  that  a  tax 
should  be  levied  by  this  latter  power  upon  all  ships  entering  the  river  at  Sulineh ;  and,  in  consider- 
ation of  this  privilege,  Russia  became  bound  to  keep  the  mouth  of  the  river  free  from  all  such  im- 
pediments as  now  exist.  Since  that  period,  the  tax  has  been  duly  levied;  while  not  only  has  the 
obligation  arising  out  of  it  been  totally  neglected,  but  it  has  ever  been  the  end  and  aim  of  Russia  to 
allow  this  channel  —  which  she  is  not  allowed  to  fortify  —  to  fill  up,  with  a  view  of  forcing  the  river 
and  the  trade  through  the  northern  or  Kilia  branch.  This  branch  was  formerly  the  deepest,  and 
therefore  that  preferred  by  ships.  In  the  hands  of  the  Russians  it  '  silted  up,'  and  the  waters  thus 
turned  into  the  Sulineh  branch,  which  became  the  more  available.  If  the  Sulineh  should  '  silt  up,* 
it  is  probable  that  the  Kilia  branch  would  again  be  opened,  and  the  fortress  of  Ismail  would  com- 
mand the  ti-ade  of  the  Danube. 

"  So  long  as  the  Sulineh  mouth  was  in  the  possession  of  Turkey,  every  vessel  leaving  the  river 
was  compellod  to  drag  a  large  rake  behind  her.  This  was  sufficient  to  stir  up  the  mud,  which  was 
thus  carried  away  by  the  mere  force  of  the  current.  Since  then,  vessels  have  offered  to  continue 
this  practice,  but  have  been  positively  prohibited  from  so  doing.  Indeed,  it  is  absurd  to  suppose 
that  Russia  will  take  any  steps  tending  to  increase  the  trade  of  rival  countries,  by  improving  the 
navigation  of  the  river  on  which  their  prosperity  depends,  simply  because  she  is  bound  by  treaty  to 
do  so.  The  consequence  is,  that  the  difficulty  of  entering  the  Danube  is  far  greater  than  it  used 
formerly  to  be,  and  numbers  of  foreign  ships  are  lost  upon  the  bar  eveiy  year.  But  Russia  is  not 
satisfied  with  allowing  nature  to  monopolize  the  work  of  destroying  the  Danubian  trade :  she  has 
raised  an  artificial  barrier,  which  is  even  more  ruinous  to  commerce  than  that  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river.  The  stringent  quarantine  regulations  which  have  been  imposed  by  her  render  it  impossible 
for  the  produce  of  the  Turkish  provinces  to  find  an  outlet  in  this  direction,  which  is  consequently 
forced,  at  a  needless  expense,  to  Varna  and  othei  ports  on  the  Black  sea."  —  Oliphant's  Russian 
Shores  of  the  Black  Sea. 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  33 

point  its  current  is  gentle  and  equable.  A  number  of  steam-vessels  now 
ply  on  the  river,  between  its  principal  towns.  Before  steam-navigation 
was  introduced  into  the  Danube,  the  boats  which  descended  it  were  very 
rarely  if  ever  taken  back,  but  were  broken  up  at  the  end  of  their  voyage. 

The  basin  of  the  Caspian  has  to  boast  of  the  largest  and  most  important 
of  the  rivers  of  Russia,  and,  in  fact,  of  Europe,  the  Volga.  This  river  was 
formerly  considered  as  constituting  a  part  of  the  boundary-line  between 
Europe  and  Asia ;  but  since  the  limits  of  these  continents  have  been  re- 
moved to  the  Caucasus  and  the  Caspian,  its  basin,  with  those  of  its  tribu- 
taries, lie  wholly  within  Europe.  From  its  source  to  its  mouth-  its  length 
is  estimated  at  near  two  thousand  miles,  being  about  two  hundred  miles 
longer  than  the  Danube.  The  area  of  its  basin  has  been  supposed  to 
include  upward  of  six  hundred  and  thirty-six  thousand  square  miles,  or 
considerable  more  than  twice  as  much  as  the  basin  of  the  Danube. 

The  Volga  has  its  source  in  a  small  lake  at  the  western  extremity  of  the 
government  of  Tver,  in  latitude  fifty-seven  degrees  north,  and  longitude 
thirty-two  degrees  east,  two  himdred  and  twenty  miles  south-southeast  of 
St.  Petersburg ;  on  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  Valdai  plateau,  near  the 
source  of  the  Duna,  the  Dnieper,  and  other  large  rivers,  at  an  elevation  of 
about  nine  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  flows  at  first  south- 
east, and  afterward  northeast,  through  the  governments  of  Tver  and  Yaro- 
slav  ;  at  Mologa  it  turns  to  the  south-southeast,  which  direction  it  generally 
pursues  through  Yaroslav,  Kostroma,  Nijnei-Novgorod,  and  Kazan,  to  the 
confluence  of  the  Kama,  about  latitude  fifty-five  degrees  north,  and  longi- 
tude forty-nine  degrees  east.  Thenceforward  it  runs  generally  south-south- 
west through  the  governments  of  Simbirsk  and  Saratov  to  Tzaritzin,  where, 
as  previously  remarked,  it  approaches  within  thirty-three  miles  of  the  main 
stream  of  the  Don.*  It  then  turns  again  to  the  southeast  through  the  gov- 
ernment of  Astrakhan,  and  pours  itself  into  the  Caspian,  on  its  northwest 
side,  through  an  extensive  delta,  by  more  than  seventy  mouths  (the  princi- 
pal of  which  are  shown  in  the  following  engraving),  the  western  and  largest 
of  these  being  in  latitude  forty-six  degrees  north,  and  longitude  forty-eight 

*  The  attempts  by  Selim  II.  and  Peter  the  Great  to  unite  these  rivers  by  means  of  a  canal,  have 
been  made  the  subject-matter  of  a  note  on  page  29.  Oliphant,  in  his  "  Russian  Shores  of  the  Black 
Sea,"  has  the  following  remarks  in  relation  to  the  utility  and  practicability  of  such  a  union  at  thit 
point:  "  It  is  inconceivable  how  the  country  can  rest  satisfied  with  the  wretched  tram-road  which 
now  connects  two  such  important  rivers  as  the  Volga  and  the  Don.  So  far  from  there  being  any 
natural  impediment  to  the  formation  of  a  canal  across  the  isthmus  which  separates  them,  it  is  a 
perfectly  simple  undertaking,  and  the  difference  of  level  being  comparatively  trifling.  The  advan- 
tages to  be  gained  by  the  completion  of  such  a  work  must  be  apparent.  A  mere  glance  at  the  map 
will  show  that  a  canal  forty  miles  long  at  this  point  would  connect  the  Black  sea  with  the  Baltic 
and  the  Caspian,  and  thus  perfect  a  most  elaborate  system  of  inland  communication.  Nature  has 
certainly  done  all  that  could  be  expected  of  her  in  this  respect,  and  it  seems  hard  that  a  government 
should  not  enable  the  inhabitants  to  avail  themselves  of  the  natural  advantages  which  their  country 
so  eminently  possesses.  If  water-can  inge  excels  land-cariiage  in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  the 
produce  to  be  conveyed,  surely  where  iron  or  timber  form  the  articles  of  transport,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  of  the  superior  merits  of  the  fonner,  even  were  the  additional  expenses  incurred  by  the  pres- 
ent system  out  of  the  question,  or  supposing  that  a  railway  had  superseded  the  tram-road." 


u 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 


degrees  east.     Throughout  its  long  course  it  waters,  with  its  tributaries, 
js'ome  of  tlie  most  productive  portions  of  European  Russia,  and  the  region 

which  was  anciently  the  nucleus 
of  the  Russian  monarchy.  Tver, 
Yaroslav,  Kostroma,  Nijnei-Nov- 
gorod,  Simbirsk,  Saratov,  Astra,- 
khan,  and  several  otlier  towns 
are  situated  on  the  Volga ;  and 
Kazan  is  on  one  of  its  tributa- 
ries, within  a  short  distance  of 
the  main  stream. 

The  principal  affluents  of  the 
Volga  are  the  Tvertza,  ]\Iologa, 
Sheksna,  Unja,  Vetluga,  and  Ka- 
ma, from  the  north  and  east,  and 
the  Oka  and  Sura  from  the  west 
and  south.  The  Kama,  which  is 
by  far  the  largest,  is  also  the  last 
important  tributary  which  it  re- 
ceives. It  rises  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Viatka,  and  flows  with  a 
very  tortuous  course, atfirst  north 
easterly,  but  afterward  in  general 
south  or  southwest,  through  the 
governments  of  Perm  and  Kazan, 
and  between  those  of  Viatka  and 
Orenburg.  After  a  course  of  near- 
ly one  thousand  miles,  it  joins  the 
Volra,  bringino;  with  it  a  volume 
of  water  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  latter.  Its  basin  is  supposed  to  com- 
prise about  one  third  part  of  that  of  the  Volga.  Perm  is  among  the  towns 
on  its  banks. 

The  Oka  rises  in  the  government  of  Orel,  through  which,  and  the  govern- 
ments of  Toula,  Kalouga,  Moscow,  Riazan,  Tambov,  Vladimir,  and  Nijnei- 
Novgnrod,  it  flows  in  a  very  tortuous  but  mostly  northeast  direction,  join- 
ing the  Volga  at  Nijnei-Novgorod,  after  a  course  of  nearly  seven  hundred 
miles.  Its  basin  is  supposed  to  comprise  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
thousand  square  miles.  It  has  several  important  affluents.  Though  rapid, 
it  is  navigable  to  Orel,  not  far  from  its  source.  The  waters  of  the  Kama 
and  Oka  are,  like  those  of  the  Volga,  remarkable  for  their  purity  ;  and  all 
of  them  are  famous  for  their  fish.  The  Volga  is,  in  fact,  believed  to  be 
more  prolific  of  fish  than  any  other  European  river ;  and  its  fisheries  are 
an  abundant  source  of  employment  and  of  food.  The  fish  usually  taken 
comprise  sturgeon,  the  rose  of  which  furnish  the  caviar,  of  which  vast 
quantities  are  sent  from  Astrakhan  to  all  parts  of  Russia,  with  salmon, 


Mouths  of  the  Volga. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  35 

sterlet,  tench,  pike,  perch,  beluga,  <fec.  The  sterlet,  a  small  kind  of  stur- 
geon, supposed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Russian  and  Siberian  rivers,  is  much 
prized  by  the  Russian  epicures.  Exclusive  of  caviar,  the  exports  from 
Astrakhan  include  large  quantities  of  cured  fish. 

From  its  abounding  with  islands,  particularly  in  the  lower  part  of  iis 
course,  the  breadth  of  the  Volga  is  very  variable.  At  Tver,  however,  it 
is  nearly  six  hundred  feet  in  breadth ;  at  Nijnei-Novgorod,  after  it  has 
received  the  Oka,  about  twelve  hundred  feet ;  and  at  Astrakhan  it  is  usu- 
ally one  and  a  quarter  miles  across.  But  this  is  not  the  case  during  the 
entire  year,  for,  on  the  melting  of  the  ice  and  snow  in  spring,  it  is  subject 
to  great  risings,  and  inundates  large  tracts  of  the  surrounding  country. 
The  rise  begins  in  April ;  its  height  varies  greatly  in  different  places,  but 
is  greatest  in  the  middle  portion  of  the  river's  course.  At  Tver  the  total 
rise  is  about  twelve  feet  above  its  summer  level ;  at  Yaroslav  and  Nijnei- 
Novgorod,  eighteen  or  twenty ;  at  Kazan,  twenty-five  or  thirty ;  and  at 
Saratov,  from  thirty  to  forty  feet !  But  downward  beyond  this  point,  after 
which  the  Volga  receives  no  affluent  of  any  consequence,  and  its  bed  be- 
comes more  capacious,  the  height  of  its  rise  gradually  diminishes,  being  at 
Tzaritzin  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet,  and  at  Astrakhan  only  from  six 
to  eight,  or  seldom  as  high  as  twelve  feet.  The  time  of  subsidence  also 
varies  considerably  in  diflerent  parts  :  at  Nijnei-Novgorod  the  river  is  com- 
monly confined  again  within  its  bed  by  the  beginning  of  June  ;  at  Kazan, 
not  till  the  middle  of  the  same  month  ;  and  at  Astrakhan  it  does  not  dimin- 
ish to  its  ordinary  height  till  after  the  summer  solstice. 

As  before  observed,  the  surface  of  the  Caspian  is  one  hundred  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  Black  sea,  which  would  give  to  the  Volga  (estimating  its 
course  at  two  thousand  miles)  an  average  descent  of  about  five  and  a  half 
inches  per  mile.  From  the  junction  of  the  Kazan  with  the  Volga,  the  fall 
of  the  latter,  Humboldt  says,  is  greater  than  that  of  either  the  Amazon  or 
the  Nile,  and  almost  as  great  as  that  of  the  Oder.  Though  rather  a  rapid 
river,  yet,  as  it  runs  through  a  flat  country,  with  an  immense  volume  of 
water,  in  a  bed  unbroken  by  cataracts,  though  not  free  from  sandbanks,  it 
is  navigable  for  flat-bottomed  boats  nearly  to  its  source. 

Not  far  below  this  point  the  Volga  is  connected  by  a  canal  with  the  Duna, 
establishing  a  direct  water-communication  between  the  Caspian  and  the 
Baltic.  The  Ivanofska  canal,  in  the  government  of  Toula  (which  unites 
the  Upa,  a  tributary  of  the  Oka,  with  the  Don),  opens  a  communication 
(though  a  remote  one)  between  the  Caspian  and  the  Black  sea ;  and,  by 
means  of  the  Vischnej-Volotchok  canal,  between  the  Mesta  and  Tvertza 
rivers,  and  the  canal  between  the  Sestra  and  Istra,  in  the  government  of 
Moscow,  Petersburg  and  Moscow  are  directly  connected.  Other  canals 
connect  the  basin  of  the  Volga  with  that  of  the  Dwina,  the  lake  Onega, 
&c. :  and  nowhere  else  has  so  extensive  a  system  of  inland  navigation  been 
effected  by  artificial  means,  with  so  little  labor.  This  navigation  is,  how- 
ever, suspended  by  the  frost  at  least  one  hundred  and  sixty  days  each  year. 


^5(3  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 


HOBSE-BOAT,   WITH   BaRGES,    ON  THE   VoLGA, 


Though  the  situation  of  the  Volga,  remote  from  the  great  marts  of  Eu- 
rope, Asia,  and  Africa,  with  its  embouchure  in  the  Caspian,  renders  it  of 
much  less  commercial  importance  than  it  would  be  under  other  circum- 
stances, it  is  still  the  main  artery  of  Russia,  and  the  grand  route  of  the 
internal  traffic  of  the  empire.  It  has  been  estimated  that  in  the  first  thirty 
years  of  the  present  century,  from  six  to  seven  hundred  vessels  a  year  came 
down  the  Volga  to  Astrakhan,  while  from  three  hundred  to  four  hundred 
and  sixty  sailed  from  that  port  to  others  on  the  upper  course  of  the  river. 
Unfortunately,  it  would  seem  as  if  the  V6lga  had  been  for  some  considera- 
ble period  decreasing  in  depth  ;  and  it  is  said  that  of  late  years  sandbanks 
have  accumulated  so  much,  particularly  between  Nijnei-Novgorod  and  Ka- 
zan, that  the  vessels  laden  with  salt  from  Perm,  which  in  the  early  part  of 
last  century  used  to  bring  cargoes  of  from  one  hundred  and  thirty  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  pounds,  can  now  only  convey  cargoes  of  about 
ninety  thousand  pounds ;  and,  in  the  portion  of  its  course  now  referred  to, 
it  is  navigated  with  difficulty  even  by  the  two-masted  vessels  of  Astrakhan. 

Owing  to  the  flatness  of  the  country  through  which  they  flow,  and  the 
vast  length  of  their  course,  the  rivers  of  Russia  are  but  little  interrupted 
by  cataracts,  generally  flow  with  a  tranquil  stream,  and  afford  great  facili- 
ties to  internal  navigation.  The  severity  of  the  climate  no  doubt  prevents, 
during  a  considerable  portion  of  the  year,  all  intercourse  by  water ;  and, 
as  already  stated,  renders  the  rivers  falling  into  the  Arctic  ocean  of  com- 
paratively little  value.  Luckily,  however,  the  frost,  which  interrupts  navi- 
gation, affords  the  greatest  facilities  to  land-travelling. 

The  lakes  as  well  as  the  rivers  of  Russia  are  upon  a  gigantic  scale. 
The  lake  or  sea  (as  it  is  also  called)  of  Baikal,  in  the  government  of 
Irkoutsk,  Eastern  Siberia,  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  in  the  world.  Its 
greatest  length,  in  a  north-northeast  and  south-southwest  direction,  is  nearly 
four  hundred  miles  ;  but,  where  greatest,  its  breadth  does  not  exceed  sixty 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


37 


pjiles,  and  is  in  most  parts  much  less.  It  is  of  very  unequal  depth,  sand- 
banks and  shallows  occurring  alongside  of  all  but  unfathomable  abysses. 
It  is  situated  in  a  mountainous  country,  and  receives  several  considerable 
rivers,  while  its  surplus  water  is  entirely  carried  off  by  the  Angara,  a  large 
and  rapid  river,  an  affluent  of  the  Yenisei. 

The  fisheries  of  Lake  Baikal  are  very  valuable.  Great  numbers  of  seals, 
of  a  silvery  color,  are  captured,  the  skins  of  which  are  sold  to  the  Chinese. 
Sturgeon,  to  the  extent  of  about  one  thousand  poods*  a  year ;  salmon,  &e., 
are  also  taken ;  but  the  grand  object  of  the  fishery  is  the  omul,  a  sort  of 
herring  (^Salmo  autumnalis^vel  mig-ratorius} ,  taken  in  vast  numbers  (about 
one  hundred  thousand  poods  a  year)  in  August  and  September,  when  it 
ascends  the  rivers.  The  most  singu- 
lar fish  belonging  to  the  Baikal  is  the 
golomynka  (^Caliyonimus  Baicaleii- 
szs),  from  four  to  six  inches  in  length, 
so  very  fat,  that  it  melts  before  the 
fire  like  butter.  The  latter  is  never 
taken  alive,  but  is  cast  dead  upon  the 
shore,  sometimes  in  immense  quanti- 
ties, after  storms.  It  yields  an  oil, 
sold  to  great  advantage  to  the  Chi- 
nese. The  surface  of  the  lake  is  fro- 
zen over  from  November  to  the  end 
of  April,  or  the  beginning  of  May. 
The  pilots  and  sailors  who  navigate 

.  the  lake,  speak  of  it  with  much  reverence,  calling  it  the  Holy  sea  (Sviatore 
More),  and  the  mountains  about  it  the  Holy  mountains;  and  are  highly 
displeased  with  any  person  who  speaks  of  it  with  disrespect,  or  calls  it 
a  lake. 

In  European  Russia,  the  lakes  of  Ladoga,  Onega,  Peipus,  Ilmen,  and 
Bielo-Ozero,  are  of  the  greatest  extent.  Lake  Ladoga  lies  between  the 
government  of  St.  Petersburg  on  the  south,  Olonetz  on  the  east,  and  Vi- 
borg  on  the  north  and  west.  Its  greatest  length,  from  north  to  south,  is 
one  hundred  and  thirty  miles ;  its  average  breadth  is  about  seventy-five 
miles ;  and  its  area,  six  thousand  three  hundred  square  miles.  It  is  the 
largest  lake  in  Europe,  and  receives  no  fewer  than  sixty  streams  ;  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  are  the  Volkhov  anc  Siasi,  which  enter  it  on  the  south,  and 
the  Tvir,  which  enters  it  on  the  east,  beaj-ing  the  surplr  ^  water  ^-  I.ak( 
Onega.  It  discharges  itself  at  its  southvest-^Ji  exa-emi.j,  by  tae  ^eva, 
which  falls  into  the  Baltic.  It  contains  numerous  islands,  many  of  whicli 
are  inhabited,  and  its  shores  are  much  indented,  generally  low,  and  send 
out  so  many  shelving  rocks  into  the  water,  as  to  make  the  navigation  very 
dangerous.  To  avoid  the  danger,  a  canal,  giving  the  Volkhov  a  direct 
communication  with  the  Neva,  has  been  cut  along  its  southern  shore.     It 

*  A  pood  is  equal  to  about  thirty-six  pounds.     Ten  poods  make  one  berkovitz. 


/.•PiT^jf  rs.JT. 


Russian  Pilots. 


38  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

has  numerous  strong  currents,  and  violent  storms  are  frequent.  It  is  well 
supplied  with  fish,  and  contains  seals. 

Lake  Onega  lies  near  the  centre  of  the  government  of  Olonetz,  and  east- 
northeast  of  Lake  Ladoga,  next  to  which  it  is  the  largest  lake  in  Europe. 
Its  greatest  length  from  north-northwest  to  south-southeast  is  one  hundred 
and  thirty  miles  ;  its  greatest  breadth  is  fifty  miles  ;  and  its  area  comprises 
about  four  thousand  square  miles.  It  is  of  a  very  irregular  shape,  partic- 
ulaily  toward  the  north,  where  it  is  much  indented,  and  forms  numerous 
creeks,  bays,  and  islands.  Its  shores  are  generally  rocky,  and  its  waters 
beautifully  clear,  and  well  supplied  with  fish.  Its  navigation  is  much  im- 
peded by  shoals  and  sandbanks.  The  principal  streams  wlncli  it  receives 
are  the  Migra,  the  Shuia,  the  Vodla  and  the  Vytegra.  Its  only  outlet  is 
the  Tvir,  by  which,  as  previously  mentioned,  it  discharges  itself  into  Lake 
Ladoga ;  but  the  Murinskoi  canal,  by  connecting  its  affluent  the  Vyterga 
with  the  Kayla,  an  affluent  of  Lake  Bielo,  has  brought  it  into  communica- 
tion with  the  basin  of  the  Volga. 

Lake  Peipus,  or  Tchoudskoe-Ozero,  is  situated  between  the  governments 
of  St.  Petersburg,  Esthonia,  and  Livonia.  Its  greatest  length  is  fifty-five 
miles,  and  its  breadth  thirty  miles.  The  depth  is  considerable,  and  has 
floated  twenty-four-gun  frigates.  It  receives  the  Embach  and  Kosa  on  the 
southwest,  the  Tcherma  on  the  east,  and  the  Jettcha  on  the  southeast ;  and 
discharges  itself  on  the  northeast,  by  the  Narova,  into  the  gulf  of  Finland. 
It  is  well  supplied  with  fish.  In  1702,  a  naval  engagement  took  place  on 
the  lake  between  the  Swedes  and  Russians,  in  which  the  latter  had  the 
advantage. 

Lake  Ilmen  lies  in  and  near  the  western  borders  of  the  government  of 
Novgorod.  It  is  nearly  in  the  form  of  an  equilateral  triangle,  at  whose 
northern  angle  stands  the  city  of  Novgorod.  Its  greatest  length  is  about 
thirty-three  miles,  and  its  breadth  twenty-eight  miles.  It  receives  numer- 
ous streams,  and  discharges  itself,  by  the  Volkhov,  into  Lake  Ladoga.  Its 
navigation  is  rendered  dangerous  by  sudden  gusts  of  wind.  Lake  Manytch, 
on  the  frontiers  of  the  governments  of  Caucasus  and  the  Don  Cossacks,  is 
sometimes  also  called  Lake  Ilmen. 

Bielo-Ozero  (White  lake)  also  lies  in  the  government  of  Novgorod, 
about  two  hundred  and  forty  miles  east  of  St.  Petersburg.  It  is  twenty- 
five  miles  long,  by  twenty  broad.  Several  streams  flow  into  it,  and  it 
sends  its  waters  by  the  Sheksna  into  the  Volga.  It  is  very  deep,  abounds 
in  fish,  and,  by  means  of  canals,  communicates  with  tlie  Onega,  the  Souk- 
hona,  and  the  Dwina. 

Numerous  other  lakes,  of  less  extent,  are  scattered  throughout  the  coun- 
try, which  (and  the  remark  will  apply  to  rivers,  mountains,  and  other 
natural  features  of  minor  importance,  not  alluded  to  in  this  chapter)  will 
l)e  incidentally  noticed  in  connection  with  the  governments  or  provinces 
to  which  they  respectively  belong. 

A  country  like  Russia,  extending  from  the  Arctic  ocean  to  the  Black 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  39 

sea,  might  be  supposed  to  have  every  variety  of  climate ;  and  this  is  in 
some  measure  the  case.  When  spring  commences  in  one  division  of  this 
vast  empire,  another  experiences  all  the  rigors  of  winter.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Crimea  and  the  Caucasian  provinces,  however,  no  part  of  Rus- 
sia can  be  said  to  be  generally  hot ;  and  even  in  them  the  frost  in  winter 
is  often  very  severe.  The  climate  of  Russia  is,  in  fact,  proverbial  for  its 
severity ;  and  this  increases  not  only  as  we  advance  toward  the  north,  but 
also  as  we  advance  toward  the  east ;  the  cold  being  decidedly  greater  in 
Siberia  than  in  the  same  latitudes  in  European  Russia,  a  difference  which 
is  also  sufficiently  perceptible  in  the  provinces  on  the  east  and  west  sides 
of  the  latter.  This,  no  doubt,  is  owing  to  various  causes  ;  but  principally, 
perhaps,  to  the  greater  cultivation  of  the  western  provinces,  and  their 
j)roximity  to  the  Baltic ;  and  to  the  vast  extent  of  frozen  sea  and  land 
traversed  by  the  winds  from  the  northeast.  Beyond  the  sixty-fifth  degree 
of  latitude  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  and  ice  for  about  nine  months 
in  the  year ;  and  during  the  other  three  months  ice  is  always  found  at  a 
little  distance  below  the  surface.  Grain-crops  can  not  be  depended  upon 
in  European  Russia  beyond  the  sixty-second  degree  of  latitude ;  and  the 
great  agricultural  provinces  lie  to  the  south  of  the  fifty-eighth  degree.  The 
fruits  of  temperate  climates  are  seldom  met  with  beyond  the  fifty-second 
degree. 

Spring  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  any  place  in  the  Russian  calendar. 
The  transition  from  frost  to  fine  weather  is  usually  very  rapid.  In  a  brief 
period  after  tlie  snow  and  ice  have  disappeared,  the  fields  and  trees  are 
clothed  in  the  livery  of  summer,  and  vegetation  makes  an  extraordinary 
progress.  At  St.  Petersburg  the  summer  is  as  mild  and  agreeable  as  in 
the  south  of  France  ;  but  there,  and  in  all  the  northern  provinces,  it  is  very 
variable.  As  we  advance  toward  the  south,  it  becomes  steadier,  and  the 
heats  increase.  The  autumn,  or  the  period  of  transition  from  summer  to 
winter,  is  the  most  unpleasant  season  in  Russia:  the  sky  is  generally 
cloudy,  and  rains  and  storms  are  very  prevalent.  The  Crimea,  from  its 
high  southern  latitude,  and  its  being  embosomed  in  the  Euxine,  has  the 
most  agreeable  climate  in  the  empire. 

The  storms  of  Russia  are  a  peculiar  characteristic  of  the  climate  of  that 
country.  They  are  divided  into  three  classes.  The  least  violent  and  most 
common  is  called  the  miafjeL  The  second  and  severer  kind  occurs  more 
rarely,  and  always  in  autumn  or  winter  :  it  is  the  samjots.  This  storm  is 
dangerous,  and  wo  betide  the  traveller  who  finds  himself  exposed  to  its 
fury  on  an  open  country-road  !  Escape  from  it  is  out  of  the  question.  The 
driving  shower  of  snow  renders  it  an  impossibility  to  keep  the  eyes  open, 
and  no  horse  will  advance  a  step,  flogged  and  spurred  as  he  may  be.  The 
best  and  only  possible  means  of  safety,  to  a  traveller  thus  exposed,  is  to 
throw  himself  flat  on  the  ground,  and  let  hnnself  be  snowed  over,  especially 
if  he  can  reach  the  shelter  of  some  little  elevation  which  prevents  the  wind 
from  getting  a  hold  of  him ;  otherwise  it  will  take  him  up  with  irresistible 


40  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

force,  and  whirl  him  like  a  feather  in  the  air.  But  the  samjots,  terrible 
though  it  be,  is  a  mere  shadow  of  the  ving-a :  the  former  it  is  possible  to 
survive ;  but  nothing-  withstands  the  latter.  Fortunately,  unmistakeable 
indications  announce  its  coming  for  some  days  beforehand.  Then  nobody 
sets  out  upon  a  journey,  not  even  to  the  next  village,  though  it  be  but  a 
mile  or  two  off.  Precautions  are  taken  for  the  safety  of  the  house,  by  pro- 
tecting it,  on  the  north  side  with  heavy  stones,  and  by  propping  it  up,  as 
well  as  barns  and  stables,  on  the  south  side.  The  tabunen  (troops  of  wild 
horses)  scamper  with  all  haste  to  the  nearest  forest ;  droves  of  cattle  and 
flocks  of  sheep  seek  shelter  wherever  it  is  to  be  found.  Whatever  the  storm 
overtakes  upon  the  open  plain  —  man  or  beast,  caravans  drawn  by  oxen  or 
by  horses — is  lost,  without  a  chance  of  rescue. 

An  icy  shower  of  snow  is  the  forerunner  of  the  terrible  blast :  it  falls  so 
thick,  and  drives  so  horizontally  through  the  air,  that  to  withstand  it  is 
impossible.  This  prelude  to  the  hurricane  is  soon  followed  by  the  formi- 
dable blasts  and  circling  whirlwinds  which  succeed  it,  and  which  gather 
up  from  the  earth,  like  chaff  from  the  thrashing-floor,  the  objects  exposed 
to  their  violence,  and  hurl  them  to  and  fro  in  the  air.  And  yet  the  rage 
of  the  unfettered  element  is  not  here  at  its  height :  for  when  the  storm 
seems  to  have  exhausted  its  fury  in  the  manner  described — often  raging 
thus  during  a  period  of  several  days — then  first  begins  the  real  tempest, 
a  blast  which  nothing  can  resist.  It  uproots  whole  forests,  tosses  the  lof- 
tiest fir-trees  into  the  air  like  blades  of  straw,  and  often  conveys  them,  high 
above  the  earth,  whole  miles  away !  It  levels  stables  and  barns,  unroofs 
houses,  and  throws  down  church-towers,  so  that  the  district  it  has  visited 
appears,  after  its  destructive  passage,  and  for  distances  of  several  days' 
journey,  like  a  land  ravaged  by  fire  and  sword.  On  all  sides  are  seen 
herds  of  dead  cattle,  trees  uprooted,  and  villages  tverthrown.  In  exposed 
situations,  the  vinga  has  been  known  to  tear  up  isolated  stables — to  trans- 
port through  the  air  their  fragments  and  the  cattle  they  contained — and 
far,  far  from  the  spot,  to  hurl  these  down  shattered  upon  fields  and  roofs ! 
With  varying  fury  the  monster  rages  for  some  days,  leaving  behind  him, 
on  his  departure,  death,  destruction,  and  lamentations.  Happily,  he  comes 
but  seldom ;  his  visits  are  not  for  every  generation :  but  when  he  docs 
come,  all  that  his  icy  breath  touches  is  devoted  to  annihilation. 

It  should  perhaps  be  added  that  these  terrible  tornadoes  are  more  par- 
ticularly a  feature  of  the  climate  of  Southern  Russia,  and  especially  the 
steppes,  and  are  incidentally  alluded  in  that  connection  on  a  future  page. 
The  more  northern  sections  of  the  empire  are  comparatively  free  from 
such  unwelcome  visitations  of  the  terrific  storm-king  — 

"Who  howls  over  Russia's  desolate  plains, 
Where  a  death-cold  silence  ever  reigns, 
Until  he  comes  with  his  trumpet-breath. 
To  chant  his  anthem  of  fear  and  death." 


POLITICAL   DIVISIONS.  41 


CHAPTER   II. 

POLITICAL    DIVISIONS. 

IT  was  incidentaVxy  mentioned,  in  the  previous  chapter,  that  the  Russian 
empire  is  parcelled  into  the  two  great  divisions  of  European  and 
Asiatic  Russia  by  the  natural  boundary  of  the  Ural  mountains.  In 
its  upper  part,  the  Ural  range  forms  such  a  conspicuous  natural  barrier, 
that  its  title  to  fix  the  frontiers  of  Europe  and  Asia,  so  far  at  least  as  the 
governments  of  Archangel  and  Vologda  extend,  has  been  universally  rec- 
ognised. To  the  south  of  this,  however,  authorities  have  differed  as  to 
what  constitutes  the  true  division-line  of  the  two  continents.  Some,  in 
giving  the  boundary,  quit  the  Ural  chain  at  the  sources  of  the  Yishera,  a 
tributary  of  the  Kama,  follow  it  down  to  its  junction  with  the  latter-named 
river,  thence  down  the  Kama  to  its  junction  with  the  Volga,  and  finally 
follow  the  Volga  to  its  mouth  in  the  Caspian  sea.  This  boundary  has  the 
merit  of  being  well  defined,  and  of  giving  a  prominence  to  the  Volga,  whose 
mighty  flood  would  seem  almost  to  entitle  it  to  be  the  boundary  of  a  conti- 
nent. The  line,  however,  more  generally  adopted  by  modern  geographers, 
and  which  is  the  one  adhered  to  in  the  maps  attached  to  this  volume,  is  to 
follow  the  Ural  chain  southward  till  it  reaches  the  sources  of  the  river  Ural, 
and  thence  follow  the  course  of  this  river  to  its  mouth  in  the  Caspian.  This 
boundary-line  is  deemed  the  preferable  one,  as  it  has  the  advantage  of  being 
at  once  simple  and  definite.  Between  the  Caspian  and  Black  seas,  the 
central  chain  of  the  Caucasus  is  now  generally  considered  as  the  natural 
boundary-line  of  Europe  and  Asia ;  and  consequently  the  Trans-Caucasian 
provinces,  Georgia,  Russian  Armenia,  Shirvan,  &c.,  more  strictly  belong 
to  Asiatic  Russia.  But,  as  the  same  phys  ^al  region  prevails  on  both  sides 
of  the  Caucasian  range,  and  the  provinces  on  both  sides  are  embraced  in 
the  same  political  government,  we  have,  as  the  most  convenient  mode  of 
describing  them,  included  them  all  under  the  division  of  European  Russia. 
The  divisions  of  the  Russian  empire  have  differed  materially  at  different 
periods.  Peter  the  Great  made  some  important  changes  in  the  distribu- 
tion that  had  existed  previously  to  his  epoch.  The  whole,  however,  was 
remodelled  and  placed  on  a  new  footing  by  Catherine  II.  in  1775.  She 
divided  the  entire  empire  into  three  great  regions  —  those  of  the  north, 
middle,  and  south.  Each  of  these  regions  was  subdivided  into  govern- 
ments, of  which  there  were  at  first  forty-two,  and  at  the  end  of  her  reign 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 


fifty.  Paul  made  some  ill-advised  changes  on  tliis  distribution,  which  were 
set  aside  on  the  accession  of  Alexander. 

The  existing  political  divisions  were  mostly  fixed  by  the  latter  in  1822, 
nearly  on  the  basis  laid  down  by  Catherine.  The  empire  is  divided  into  gov- 
ernments (exclusive  of  certain  territories  called  provinces,  or  oblasts,  not 
formed  into  governments).  Of  these  governments,  by  far  the  greater  num- 
ber belong  to  European  Russia,  which  includes  those  classed  under  the 
general  divisions  of  the  Baltic  Provinces,  Great  and  Little  Russia, 
Western,  Southern,  and  Eastern  Russia,  Russian  Poland,  and  the  Cau- 
casian Provinces  ;  while  the  vast  tract  of  Asiatic  Russia  has  been  divided 
into  only  two  governments  —  that  of  Western  Siberia,  including  the  prov- 
inces of  Tobolsk,  Tomsk,  and  Yenesei ;  and  Eastern  Siberia,  comprising 
the  provinces  of  Irkoutsk,  Yakoutsk,  Okhotsk,  and  Kamtschatka. 

The  following  table,  made  up  from  the  latest  and  most  authentic  sources, 
gives  the  names,  with  the  superficial  area  in  square  miles,  and  population, 
of  the  governments  and  provinces  into  which  the  diflerent  sections  of  the 
empire  are  divided :  — 


POLITICAL   DIVISIONS.  Abia  ik  S«.  M>.        Pop.  1B50. 

The  liALTic  Provinces  :— 

Finland 144  000 1,539.000 

St  Petersburg 18,600 991,000 

Esthonia 7,2:W 317,000 

I  ivoiiia      17,340 830,000 

Corn-land 10,000 564,000 


POLITICAL  DIVISIONS. 


AsEA  IN  Sq.  Ma.        Fop.  I81/O 


Total 197,170 4,241,000 

Gbkat  Russia  : — 

Archangel 350,000 2.59,000 

Vologda       150,000 839,000 

Olonetz 67,000 268,000 

N.,v<rorod 55,000 926,000 

p.kov  21,900 791,000 

'IVpr  ■■  24,000 1.3.54,000 

t^molenVk.".' 21,000 1,194,000 

Moscow 31-500 1.402,000 

V'lroslav  17,000 1,028.000 

Kostroma 38,400 1,076,000 

Niii.ei-Novgorod 20,100 1,202,000 

Vladimir... 17,500 1,271,000 

1,311.3,000 
1,786  000 
1,251,500 
1,026,500 
1,. 533,000 


Riazan  14,000.. 

Tambov 24.000 

Toula 12,000 

Kalouga 10,560 

Orel,  or  Orlov 17,000 

Koursk      16,000 .1,714,000 

Voronej 30,000 1.691,000 


Southern  Russia  : — 

Bessarnbia 16,000 808,000 

Kherson 36,(100 859,000 

Taiirida 30,000 584,000 

Ekatherinoslav 35,000 888,000 

Don  Cossaclifl 53,000 718,000 


Total 170,000 3,857,000 

Astrakhan  Provinces: — 

Astrakhim 43,000 290,000 

Saratov* 73,000 1.753.000 

Orenburg* 128,000 1,987,000 


Total 244,000. 


.4,030,000 


Kazan  Provinces  : — 

Perm 127.000 1070,000 

ViMtka 52,500 1,696,000 

Simbirsk* 24,000 1,345,000 

Ptnza 14,000 1,109  000 

Kazan 23,500 1,370,000 


Total 917,260 


22,004,000 


J^iTTLE  Russia  : — 

T.hernieov 23,000 1,4.59.000 

Kharkov 21,000 1,497,000 

Poltava         22.000 1 ,820.000 

Kiev 20,500 1,638,000 


Total 86,500 6,414,000 

Western  Russia  : —    , 

Podolia,  or  Podolsk 15,000  1,737.000 

Volbynia 29  000 1,474,000 

Miii.sk 37,000   1,067,000 

Mogbilev 19,300 950.000 

Vitepsk 16  800 805,000 

VVihia 24,400 898  000 

Grodno 15,00il 925,000 

Bialystok 3,400 282,000 

Russian  Poland 47,610 4,811,000 


Total 207,510 12,949,000 


Total 241,000 7,190,000 

Caucasian  Provinces  :— 

fi.-or"ia 18,000 300,000 

Shirvan 9,200 150,000 

Armenia 8.000 160000 

Imeritia 4,830 170,000 

Mingrelia 7,200 430,000 

Our, a 1,500 6.5.000 

Abassia 2.640 52,000 

Circassia 32,250 550,000 

Caucasus 40,000 1.50,000 

Daghestan 9,300 190,000 


Total. 


.132,920 2,217  000 


SlBTiKIA  :  — 

Toliolsk 694,000 985,000 

Tomsk 380,000 779,000 

Yeuisei.^^k 945.000 20.5,000 

Irkoutsk 150,000 507,000 

Yiikoutsk 1,400.000 103,000 

Okhotsk 170,000 8,000 

Kamtschatka,  &c 81.000 .5.000 

Total. 3,823,000 2,652.000 

Grand  Total 6,019,360 65  554,000 

*  These  s;overiiment.s  include  in  their  amounts  the  .irea  (;l>).om>  sq. 
miles)  and  pO|iul:itioii  (1,116,000)  of  the  new  government  of  S>aAUi, 
formed  of  jiortionj  ol'them,  by  imiierial  ukase  of  December  la,  1S60. 


THE  BALTIC   PROVINCES  —  FINLAND.  43 


THE    BALTIC    PROVINCES. 


Finland,  called  by  tlie  inhabitants  Snomeiv-maa,  or  Land  of  Marshes, 
lies  between  the  sixtieth  and  seventieth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the 
twcnty-fil'st  and  thirty-second  degrees  of  east  longitude,  forming  the  ex- 
treme northwestern  portion  of  the  Russian  empire,  including  the  province 
of  Viborg  and  the  western  portion  of  Russian  Lapland,  which  are  politi- 
c:dly  connected  with  it.  It  has  on  tlic  north  the  Norwegian  province  of 
Finmark ;  on  the  east,  the  governments  of  Archangel  and  Olonetz ;  on  the 
.south,  the  lake  Ladoga,  the  government  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  gulf  of 
Finland ;  and  on  the  west,  Sweden  and  the  gulf  of  Bothnia.  Its  length 
from  north  to  south  is  seven  hundred  and  thirty  miles  ;  its  average  breadth 
is  about  one  himdred  and  eighty-five  miles  ;  and  its  area  one  hundred  and 
fort3'-four  thousand  square  miles.  Its  greater  portion  is  a  table-land,  reach- 
ing generally  from  four  to  six  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and 
interspersed  with  hills  of  no  great  elevation.  In  the  north,  however,  are 
the  Mauselka  mountains,  with  an  average  height  supposed  to  be  between 
three  and  four  thousand  feet. 

The  coasts,  particularly  in  the  soutli,  are  surrounded  by  a  vast  number 
of  rocky  islands,  separated  from  the  mainland  and  from  each  other  by  intri- 
cate and  narrow  channels,  rendering  the  shores  of  Finland  easy  of  defence 
in  case  of  hostile  attack  by  sea.  But  the  chief  natural  feature  of  the  coun- 
try is  its  myriads  of  lakes,  which  occupy  a  large  proportion  of  its  surface  ; 
and  some  of  which,  as  the  Enare,  Saima,  Pa'iyane,  and  others,  are  of  con- 
siderable size.  The  greater  number  of  these  are  in  the  south  and  east ; 
they  have  frequent  communications  with  each  other,  and  generally  abound 
with  islands,  the  natural  strength  of  whose  situation  has  been  taken  advan- 
tage of  "to  cover  them  with  batteries,  some  of  them  impregnable  save  to 
want  or  famine.     There  are  no  rivers  of  any  importance. 

The  climate  is  rigorous  ;  even  in  the  south  the  winter  lasts  seven  months 
of  the  year,  and  the  summer  season,  which  commences  in  June,  terminates 
in  August.  Dense  fogs  are  very  frequent ;  heavy  rains  take  place  in  au- 
tumn, and  in  May  and  June  the  thaws  nearly  put  a  stop  to  all  travelling. 
In  the  north  the  sun  is  absent  during  December  and  January ;  but  during 
the  short  summer,  while  that  luminary  is  almost  perpetually  above  the  hori- 
zon, the  heat  is  often  very  great,  and  near  Uleaborg  the  grain  is  sowed  and 
reaped  within  six  weeks  ! 

The  principal  geological  formations  are  granite,  which  very  easily  disin- 
tegrates, hard  limestone,  and  slate.  The  soil  for  the  most  part  is  stony 
and  poor ;  but  how  barren  soever,  Finland  is  more  productive  than  the 
opposite  part  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula ;  and  when  it  belonged  to  the 
Swedish  crown,  it  furnished  a  good  deal  more  grain  than  was  necessary 
for  its  own  consumption,  and  was  termed  the  granary  of  Sweden.  Barley 
and  rye  are  the  kinds  of  grain  chiefly  cultivated,  and  the  rye  of  Yasa  is 


44  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

celebrated  for  its  excellence :  wheat  and  oats  are  but  little  grown.  The 
peasants  are  obliged,  from  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  to  dry  all  the 
grain  in  ovens,  after  which  it  will  keep  for  fifteen  or  eighteen  years.  Pulse, 
hops,  hemp,  flax,  and  a  little  tobacco,  are  raised  ;  and  potatoes  were  intro- 
duced about  the  year  1762,  but  they  have  not  yet  been  brought  into  gen- 
eral use.  Only  a  small  proportion  of  the  surface  is  under  culture.  The 
land  requires  a  large  quantity  of  manure,  and  that  in  common  use  is  wood- 
ashes,  procured  by  setting  fire  to  the  forests  and  underwood,  after  which 
operation  heavy  crops  are  sometimes  obtained.  The  natural  poverty  of 
the  soil  is  such  that,  excepting  in  the  southern  province  of  Tavastehus, 
wliere  it  is  deprived  of  a  continual  supply  of  artificial  stimulus,  the  crops 
rapidly  fall  ofi",  and  the  cleared  land  is  soon  abandoned  for  another  portion 
of  soil,  the  wood  on  which  is  purposely  destroyed.  This  plan  of  manuring 
the  land,  though  well  enough  adapted  to  bring  the  fens  covered  with  brush- 
wood under  cultivation,  is  highly  injurious  to  the  forests,  and  consequently 
to  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  national  wealth.  The  forests  are  very  exten- 
sive, and  reach  as  far  north  as  latitude  sixty-nine  degrees.  They  consist 
principally  of  pine  and  fir ;  but  they  contain  also  beech,  elm,  poplar,  oak, 
ash,  birch,  &c. 

Timber,  deals,  potash,  pitch,  tar,  and  rosin,  are  among  the  most  impor- 
tant products  of  Finland.  Cherries  and  apples  ripen  at  Yasa,  and  a  spe- 
cies of  crab-apple  groAvs  wild  in  the  west ;  but  other  fruits,  except  a  few 
kinds  of  berries,  are  rare.  Next  to  agriculture,  cattle-breeding  and  fishing 
are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  people.  Pasturage  is  scarce  and  indiffer- 
ent, and  forage  rare  ;  but  cattle,  goats,  and  hogs,  which  are  fed  upon  leaves, 
strtiw,  <fec.,  are  comparatively  numerous.  In  the  north,  the  peasants  pos- 
sess large  herds  of  reindeer. 

Bears,  wolves,  elks,  deer,  foxes,  beavers,  polecats,  and  various  kinds  of 
game,  abound  in  Finland.  Seal  and  herring  fisheries  are  established  on 
many  parts  of  the  coast ;  and  the  salmon  and  strsemling  (  Clupea  hareng-us') 
are  caught  in  great  quantities  in  the  lakes,  supplying  the  inhabitants  with 
an  important  part  of  their  food.  Iron-mines  were  formerly  wrought,  but 
at  present  only  bog-iron  is  procured.  Lead,  sulphur,  arsenic,  nitre,  and  a 
little  copper,  are  met  with ;  salt  is  very  scarce,  and  is  one  of  the  chief 
articles  of  import. 

The  manufactures  of  Finland  are  quite  insignificant.  Except  the  prod- 
ucts of  a  few  iron-forges,  and  glass,  sailcloth,  and  hose  factories,  they  are 
entirely  domestic.  The  peasant  prepares  his  own  tar,  potash,  and  char- 
coal ;  constructs  his  own  boat-furniture  and  wooden  utensils  ;  and  weaves 
at  home  the  coarse  woollen  and  other  fabrics  he  uses.  He  often  lives  one 
hundred  miles  from  any  town,  and  is  therefore  thrown  for  the  most  part 
upon  his  own  resources  and  ingenuity  for  the  supply  of  his  wants.  In 
some  districts  the  inhabitants  never  repair  to  a  town  but  to  obtain  salt. 
The  exports  consist  of  timber,  butcher's  meat,  butter,  skins,  tar,  and  fish, 
to  other  parts  of  the  empire  and  to  Sweden,  with  which  countries  the  prin 


THE   BALTIC 


PROVINCES —  FINLAND. 


45 


Russian  Elk  and  Bears. 


cipal  intercourse  is  maintained.  There  are  a  few  good  roads,  made  by  the 
Swedes  while  they  were  in  possession  of  the  country ;  but  they  do  not 
extend  far  into  the  interior.  Post-horses  are  furnished,  as  in  Sweden,  by 
the  adjacent  farmers.  In  commercial  dealings,  the  Russian  is  the  currency 
established  by  law  ;  but  Swedisli  paper-money  is  in  circulation,  and  is  gen- 
erally preferred  by  the  population. 

Administratively,  Finland  is  divided  into  eight  Icenes^  or  governments, 
viz.,  Viborg,  St.  Michael,  Nyland,  Tavastehus,  Abo-Biomeborg,  Vasa,  Ku- 
opia,  and  Uleaborg-kaiana  ;  and  these  again  are  subdivided  mio)  fogderier^ 
or  districts,  hcerades,  &c.  The  chief  towns  are  Helsingfors,  the  present 
capital ;  Abo,  the  former  capital ;  Tavastehus,  Yasa,  Uleaborg,  and  Tor- 
nea.  A  Russian  military  governor  resides  at  Helsingfors,  which  is  one  of 
the  great  naval  stations  of  the  Baltic,  and  is  strongly  fortified.  Finland 
has  a  diet,  composed  of  the  four  orders  of  the  nobility,  clergy,  citizens,  and 
peasantry,  and  a  code  of  laws  and  judicial  system  similar  to  that  of  Swe- 
den ;  but  the  diet  is  rarely  convoked,  except  to  consent  to  the  imposition 
of  fresh  taxes,  a  senate  more  recently  established  having  replaced  it  in  the 
exercise  of  its  functions.  The  annual  revenue  derived  by  the  crown  from 
Finland  is  about  one  million  dollars  ;  the  whole  of  it  is,  however,  expended 
in  the  country.  Among  their  privileges  is  the  one  that  none  but  a  native 
Finlander  can  hold  any  office  of  trust  in  the  country.  The  regiments 
raised  in  Finland  are  also  not  promiscuously  intermixed  with  the  general 


46  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUiJSIA. 

forces  of  the  Russian  empire  ;  and  their  fleet,  by  far  the  best-manned  por- 
tion of  the  Russian  naval  force,  forms  a  distinct  squadron  under  the  Fin- 
nish flag.  Almost  all  the  population  are  Lutherans,  under  the  bishops  of 
Abo  and  Borgo  ;  except  in  tlie  government  of  Viborg,  where  they  belong 
to  the  Russian  (Greek)  church.  Public  education  is  very  backward  ;  there 
is  a  university  at  Helsingfors,  besides  schools  in  all  the  towns,  but  there  is 
a  great  deficiency  of  country-schools. 

On  the  western  coast,  and  in  the  Aland  archipelago  (which  is  included 
in  Finland),*  the  inliabitants  are  mostly  of  Swedish  origin,  and  in  the  south- 
east of  Russian  descent ;  but  the  great  majority  of  the  population  are  Finns. 
The  latter  have,  by  many  geographers,  been  identified  with  tlic  Fenni  of 

*  The  Aland  archipclag-o  is  a  group  of  islands  at  the  entrance  of  the  gulf  of  Bothnia,  between 
fifty-nine  degrees  fifty  minutes  and  sixty  degrees  thirty-two  minutes  north  latitude,  and  nineteen 
degrees  ten  minutes  and  twenty-one  degrees  seven  minutes  east  longitude,  consisting  of  more  than 
eighty  inhahitt-d  and  upward  of  two  hundred  uninhabited  islets  and  rocks  (sharoii),  occupying  an 
area  of  about  four  hundred  and  seventy  square  miles,  and  divided  into  three  oblong  clusters  by  the 
straits  of  Delet  and  Lappvasi.  The  Baltic  bounds  them  to  the  south  ;  on  the  west  the  straits  of 
Alaiidsliaf  separates  them  from  Sweden,  its  width  being  about  twenty-four  miles  ;  and  on  the  east 
the  straits  (  f  Wattuskiftet,  which  are  scarcely  two  miles  broad  where  they  are  narrowest,  and  about 
fourteen  wlu  re  they  are  bioadest,  interpose  between  them  and  the  Finland  shore.  The  principal 
islands  are,  Aland,  which  gives  name  to  the  group,  .Temland,  Lumparland,  Ekeroe,  Fogloe,  Kum- 
linge,  Braendoe,  Vordoe,  and  Hannne.  The  population  of  the  whole  group  is  fourteen  thousand, 
entirely  of  Swedish  extraction.  —  Most  of  the  islands  stand  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  are  intersected  by  chains  of  granite  rocks,  which  occasionally  rise  into  peaks, 
and  are  full  of  hollows.  There  are  no  rivers,  but  many  small  lakes.  The  surface  is  either  a  thin 
layer  of  clay  or  rich  mould,  slalestone,  or  sand.  The  climate,  though  keen,  and  at  times  .severe,  is 
more  temperate  than  that  of  Finland.  There  are  extensive  forests,  chiefly  of  birches  and  pines  ; 
the  pasture-grounds  are  very  poor,  excepting  near  some  parts  of  the  coast;  and  the  arable  land,  on 
which  rye  and  barley  are  mostly  grown,  produces  a  sufficiency  for  domestic  consumption,  the  best 
yieliliiig  seven-fold.  Hops,  cabbages,  parsnips,  carrots,  and  other  roots,  potatoes,  and  a  little  flax, 
are  likewise  raised.  Nuts  form  an  article  of  export.  The  horned  cattle,  of  which  there  are  upward 
of  twelve  thousand,  are  small  in  size,  and  few  of  the  cows  have  horns;  the  latter  furnish  the  "Aland 
cheeses,"  which  are  much  sought  after,  and  made  principally  in  the  island  of  Fogloe.  Of  shepp 
there  are  above  thirteen  thousand,  the  wool  of  which  is  converted  into  coarse  stuffs  and  sailcloth; 
horses  and  goals  are  also  bred  in  considerable  numbers.  The  fisheries  are  productive,  particularly 
of  henings  {strbmlinge)  and  seals,  of  the  first  of  which  six  thousand  tons  and  upward  are  annually 
salted.  Waterfowl  abound.  The  exports  consist  of  salt  meat,  butter,  cheese,  hides  and  skins,  dried 
and  salted  fish,  wood  for  fuel,  ifcc. ;  and  the  imports  of  salt,  colonial  produce,  iron-ware,  woollens, 
cottons,  and  other  manufactures,  &c.  —  The  Alandcrs  are  excellent  seamen,  and  navigate  small 
vessels  of  their  own  that  trade  with  the  adjacent  parts;  they  are  Swedes  in  their  language,  man- 
ners, and  usages.  There  are  a  number  of  good  harbors,  many  of  which  liave  been  fortified  i)y  the 
Russians,  wVio  keep  up  a  disproportionately  large  military  force  in  the  islands,  as  well  as  a  numer- 
ous flotilla,  called  the  "  Skaerenflott."  —  The  islands  contain  eight  parishes  and  as  many  churches, 
and  seven  churches  or  chapels  of  ease.  Aland,  the  largest  island,  is  nearly  circular,  being  about 
seventeen  miles  in  length  and  sixteen  in  breadth  ;  it  contains  above  nine  thousand  inhabitants,  and 
has  an  excellent  harbor  at  Ytternaes,  on  the  west  side,  capable  of  containing  the  whole  Russian 
fleet;  and  a  citadel  in  which,  it  is  said,  sixty  thousand  men  might  be  quartered  !  It  is  divided  by 
a  narrow  strait  from  Ekeroe,  the  westernmost  island,  which  has  a  telegraph,  and  is  inhabited  by  the 
pilots  who  are  employed  by  the  Russian  government  for  conducting  the  mails  and  travellers.  On 
the  eastern  coast  of  Aland  is  the  old  castle  of  Castleholm,  now  in  ruins.  Kumlinge  has  a  popula- 
tion of  three  thousand.  —  These  islands  were  wrested  by  Russia  from  Sweden  in  1809;  and  give 
the  former  a  position  from  which  they  may  easily  make  a  descent  on  the  Swedish  coast.  The  first 
victory  of  the  Russians  over  the  Swedes,  in  the  war  with  Charleg  XH.,  was  gained  in  the  iieighboi^ 
hood  of  these  islands,  by  Peter  the  Great,  in  1714. 


THE   BALTIC   PROVINCES  —  FINLAND. 


47 


I'liASA.N'TS  OK  Finland. 


Tacitus,  and  the  Phinni  of  Ptolemy.  There  are,  however,  circumstances 
which  give  rise  to  considerable  doubt  respecting  such  identity.  The  Finns 
call  themselves  Sonomalaisetio,  or  "  inhabitants  of  the  marshes."  They 
have  no  analogy  with  the  Slavonian  or  Teutonic  races.  They  are  of  mid- 
dle height,  and  robust,  flat-faced,  witli  prominent  cheek-bones,  light,  red- 
dish, or  yellowish-brown  hair,  gray  eyes,  little  beard,  and  a  dull,  sallow 
complexion.  They  are  courageous,  hospitable,  and  honest ;  but  obstinate 
in  the  extreme,  and  it  is  said  unforgiving  and  revengeful.  They  have  not 
the  gay  disposition  of  their  Slavonic  neighbors,  but  are  grave  and  unsocial 
Almost  every  one  is  a  poet  or  musician. 


43  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

The  customs  and  habits  of  the  Finns  have  been  handed  down  time  im- 
memorial and  their  costume  forcil)ly  brought  their  supposed  eastern  origin 
to  the  mind  of  Mr.  Elliot,  who  observes,  in  his  "  Letters  from  the  North 
ot  Europe :"  "  I  could  fancy  myself  in  Asia.  The  peasants  wear  long, 
loose  robes,  of  a  coarse  woollen  manufacture,  secured  by  a  silken  cincture, 
like  the  kummerbund  of  the  mussiilmans.  Their  dress,  except  the  Euro- 
pean hat,  resembles  that  of  the  Beoparries  of  Cabul.  In  Russia  or  Old 
Finland,  the  peasants  wear  a  cloak  or  caftan,  sometimes  called  a  khalaat, 
resembling  in  form,  as  well  as  in  name,  the  eastern  dress."  The  Finns 
make  frequent  use  of  hot  vapor  baths,  and  Malte-Brun  considers  it  certain 
that  it  was  they  who  communicated  the  custom  to  their  Russian  con- 
querors. 

The  Finns  were  pagans,  living  under  their  own  independent  kings,  till 
the  twelfth  century ;  about  the  middle  of  which  Finland  was  conquered  by 
the  Swedes,  who  introduced  Christianity.  The  province  of  Viborg  was 
conquered  and  annexed  to  Russia  by  Peter  the  Great,  in  1721.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  country  became  part  of  the  Russian  dominions  (also  by 
conquest)  in  1809. 

Abo  (pronounced  OZ>o),  the  former  capital  of  Finland,  lies  on  the  river 
Aurajoki,  between  the  gulfs  of  Bothnia  and  Finland.  The  streets  of  the 
town  strike  a  stranger  at  first  as  enormously  wide,  though  they  by  no 
means  exceed  the  usual  dimensions  of  Russian  towns  ;  but  the  low  style  of 
building,  almost  universal  in  this  town,  and  the  number  of  sites  at  present 
unoccupied  by  houses,  joined  to  the  solitary  appearance  of  its  almost  de- 
serted thoroughfares,  give  an  air  of  desolation  to  the  whole  place.  The 
glory  of  Abo  has  indeed  departed.  It  had  once  a  flourishing  port,  and  a 
well-attended  university  :  its  trade  is  now  inconsiderable,  and  its  university 
is  removed  to  Helsingfors,  the  Russian  capital  of  Finland. 

A  destructive  fire,  the  ravages  of  which  are  even  now  not  fully  repaired, 
came  to  give  the  final  blow  to  the  already  sinking  fortunes  of  Abo.  This 
fearful  conflagration,  which  took  place  in  the  year  1827,  consumed  nearly 
the  whole  city,  including  the  university  and  its  valuable  library,  and  other 
public  buildings.  The  fire  raged  for  two  whole  days,  and  was  not  extin- 
guished until  seven  hundred  and  eighty-six  houses,  out  of  eleven  hundred, 
were  a  mass  of  blackened  ruins.  When  the  town  was  rebuilt,  the  public 
edifices,  as  well  as  the  houses,  were  placed  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
each  other,  and  the  town  now  covers  much  more  ground  than  formerly, 
though  its  inhabitants  do  not  exceed  twelve  thousand,  which,  from  being 
spread  over  so  large  a  surface,  do  not  give  one  the  idea  of  amounting  even 
to  that  number. 

Abo  is  the  most  ancient  city  in  Finland ;  its  history  being  coexistent 
with  the  reign  of  Eric  the  Saint,  that  is,  from  1150  to  1160,  the  period  at 
which  Christianity  was  first  introduced  into  this  wild  and  cold  region. 
The  castle  is  as  ancient  as  the  town,  and  arrested  more  than  once  the  on- 
ward march  of  the  Russian  armies.     It  was  in  the  dungeons  of  this  build- 


THE   BALTIC    PROVINCES FINLAND.  49 

iug  that  Eric  XIV.  was  imprisoned  previous  to  his  death,  which  took  place 
some  time  afterward  at  Orebyhus.  The  castle  is  now  used  as  a  prison,  and 
is  garrisoned  by  half  a  battalion  of  infantry.  The  cathedral  of  Abo  is  also 
highly  interesting — not,  however,  on  account  of  its  external  appearance, 
which  is  coarse  and  heavy,  but  for  the  architectural  structure  of  its  inte- 
rior, which  is  of  three  epochs ;  but  this  cathedral  is  more  particularly  wor- 
thy of  interest  from  its  having  been  the  cradle  of  Christianity  in  Finland  : 
here  the  first  episcopal  chair  was  instituted,  and  for  centuries  the  first 
families  were  buried.  The  vaults  of  the  chapels  are  filled  with  their  re- 
mains, and  some  of  their  monuments  are  not  unworthy  of  mention.  On  one 
of  them  is  an  epitaph  to  Caroline  Morsson,  a  girl  taken  from  the  ranks  of 
the  people  by  Eric  XIV.,  and  who,  after  having  worn  the  Swedish  diadem, 
returned  to  Finland  and  died  in  obscurity,  while  her  royal  husband,  as  has 
been  before  stated,  ended  his  days  in  a  prison.  In  the  same  chapel,  and 
at  the  end  of  it,  are  two  statues  in  white  marble,  the  size  of  life,  kneeling 
on  a  sarcophagus,  supported  by  columns  of  black  marble :  these  are  the 
wealthy  and  powerful  Clas  Tott,  grandson  of  Eric  XIV.,  and  his  wife.  In 
another  chapel  is  the  monument  of  Stalhandsk,  one  of  the  generals  and 
heroes  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  The  fire  of  1827  completely  gutted  this 
church,  and  not  only  were  the  altar  and  organ  destroyed,  but  even  the 
bells  were  melted  by  the  devouring  element.  Subscriptions  have  restored 
the  cathedral ;  and  a  patriotic  Finn,  a  baker  by  trade,  who  had  amassed 
about  fifteen  thousand  dollars  in  his  business,  and  was  without  a  near  rela- 
tive, left  that  sum  to  purchase  an  organ  at  his  death.  Effect  was  given  to 
his  wishes,  and  an  organ  of  five  thousand  pipes,  the  largest  in  northern 
Russia,  now  raises  its  decorated  and  painted  head  nearly  to  the  roof  of 
the  building. 

Gustavus  Adolphus  founded  an  academy  here  in  1630,  which  Christina 
his  daughter  subsequently  elevated  into  a  university.  Abo,  like  Amiens, 
Ryswick,  and  Cintra,  is  distinguished  by  a  treaty,  being  the  spot  on  which 
the  relations  between  Russia  and  Sweden  were  settled  by  a  peace  during 
the  last  century.  Here,  too,  Alexander  and  Bernadotte  concluded  in  1818 
that  treaty  which  arrayed  Sweden  against  France,  and  placed  the  Swedish 
monarch,  a  Frenchman,  in  the  anomalous  position  of  fighting  against  his 
own  countrymen. 

The  town  of  Helsingfors  is,  historically  speaking,  comparatively  of  mod- 
ern creation,  having  been  founded  by  King  Gustavus  Vasa  in  the  sixteenth 
century :  its  name  came  from  a  colony  of  the  province  of  Helsing-land,  in 
Sweden,  which  had  been  established  in  the  neighborhood  for  several  cen- 
turies. In  1639,  however,  the  town  changed  its  site,  and  the  inhabitants 
moved  their  wooden  houses  nearer  the  seashore ;  and  on  the  spot  where 
Helsingfors  now  stands  —  war,  plague,  famine,  and  fire,  ravaged  it,  each 
in  its  turn,  and  the  end  of  a  century  found  it  with  a  population  of  only  five 
thousand  souls.  At  the  present  time  it  numbers  sixteen  thousand,  exclu- 
sive of  the  garrison. 

4 


OO  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

The  Russians  have  greatly  augmented  and  improved  Holsingfors  since  it 
came  into  their  possession,  more  particularly  since  the  year  1819,  when  it 
became  the  capital  of  Finland  ;  the  removal  to  it  of  the  university  of  Abo, 
and  the  senate,  after  the  conflagration  of  that  town  in  1827,  also  materially 
increased  its  importance.  The  streets  are  long,  broad,  and  laid  out  at 
right  angles,  as  in  most  Russian  towns.  The  houses  are  large  and  regular, 
and  a  handsome  granite  quay  extends  along  the  water  in  front  of  the  town. 
Among  the  fine  buildings  worthy  of  mention  is  the  senate-house.  The 
<:hambers  in  which  the  various  branches  of  the  assembly  meet,  for  the  ordi- 
nary purposes  of  business,  are  simple,  and  furnished  in  good  taste.  The 
large  hall,  intended  for  the  meeting  of  the  senate  on  great  occasions,  con- 
tains a  splendid  throne  for  the  emperor,  who  once  presided  in  person ;  it 
is  hung  with  portraits  of  former  (Swedish)  governors  of  Finland.  Tlie 
i-emains  of  the  library,  sa\-ed  from  the  fire  of  Abo,  is  at  present  preserved 
in  this  building.  It  consists  of  about  eighty  thousand  volumes,  chiefly  edi- 
tions of  the  classics  taken  from  the  monasteries,  during  the  "  seven  years' 
war."  An  extensive  collection  of  sag-as,  or  traditionary  records,  and 
other  documents,  relating  to  the  history  of  Finland,  unfortunately  fell  a 
])rey  to  the  flames. 

Another  handsome  building  is  the  university,  which  has  twenty-four  fac- 
ulties and  twenty-two  professors,  and  where  may  be  seen  the  act  which 
incorporated  that  of  Abo,  with  the  signature  of  the  illustrious  Oxenstiern, 
the  Swedish  prime  minister  under  Queen  Cliristina.  The  latter  is  one  of  tlie 
oldest  institutions  of  learning  in  Russia,  having  been  founded  by  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  as  an  academy,  in  1630,  and  subsequently  raised  to  a  university 
by  Christina,  as  before  stated.  Printing  was  not  introduced  into  Finland 
till  1(341,  eleven  years  after  the  academy  was  founded,  when  Wald,a  Swe- 
dish printer,  established  himself  at  Abo. 

The  approach  to  Helsingfors  by  water  is  exceedingly  striking :  the  har- 
bor is  very  extensive,  and  well  protected  by  the  works  and  fortress  of 
Sweaborg,  capable  of  containing  twelve  thousand  men ;  these  are  built  on 
seven  islands,  and  from  the  extent  of  the  fortifications,  and  the  strength  of 
their  position,  it  has  been  termed  by  the  Russians  the  Gibraltar  of  the  north. 
The  original  fortress  was  built  by  Count  Ehrenswerd,  field-marshal  of  Swe- 
den, and  completed  in  1758.  After  the  conquest  of  Viborg  and  Ingerma- 
nia  by  Peter  the  Great,  it  was  the  last  stronghold  of  the  Swedes.  In  March, 
1808,  it  was  besieged  by  the  Russians ;  and,  two  months  after.  Admiral 
Cronstadt,  who  defended  the  place  with  fifteen  hundred  men  and  two  frig- 
ates, capitulated  to  a  force  scarcely  sufficient  to  man  the  walls ! 

There  are  several  agreeable  walks  in  the  neighborhood  of  Helsingfors ; 
among  them  may  be  cited  that  to  the  forests  of  Stands vik,  the  solitary 
I'oast  near  Mailand,  and  the  verdant  gardens  of  Traeskenda.  The  town  is 
much  resorted  to  in  summer  by  visiters  from  St.  Petersburg,  Revel,  <fec. 

Tornea  lies  on  the  northwest  frontier  of  Finland,  on  a  peninsula  in  the 
river  Tornea,  where  it  falls  into  the  gulf  of  Bothnia.     It  has  but  about  one 


THE   BALTIC   PROVINCES  —  ST.    PETERSBURG.  63 

thousand  inhabitants.  This  little  town,  which  was  built  by  the  Swedes  in 
1602,  consists  of  two  principal  streets  of  wooden  houses.  It  has  a  consid- 
erable trade  in  the  exportation  of  stock-fish,  reindeer,  skins,  furs,  iron, 
planks,  tar,  butter,  pickled  salmon,  &c.  The  climate  is  very  severe,  though 
less  so,  perhaps,  than  might  be  expected  from  its  high  latitude.  In  June 
the  sun  is  visible,  from  a  mountain  in  the  neighborhood,  at  midnight,  above 
the  horizon. 

Tornea  is  celebrated  in  the  history  of  science  for  the  visit  made  to  it  in 
1736,  by  the  French  academicians  Maupertuis,  Clairaut,  Monnier,  and  Ca- 
mus, accompanied  by  the  Swedish  astronomer  Celsius,  with  a  view  to  the 
determination  of  the  exact  figure  of  the  earth.  The  operations  do  not, 
however,  appear  to  have  been  conducted  with  sufficient  accuracy ;  and 
there  is  a  discrepancy  of  about  two  hundred  toises  (twelve  hundred  feet) 
between  the  length  of  the  degree,  as  determined  by  the  academicians,  and 
that  measured  by  the  Swedish  astronomer  Svanberg  in  1801.  This  town, 
along  with  tlie  grand-duchy  of  Finland,  was  ceded  to  Russia  by  Sweden, 
by  the  treaty  of  Frederickshausen,  in  1809. 

Vexed  as  the  Swedes — a  proud  and  martial  people — must  be  to  sec 
eome  of  their  finest  provinces  torn  from  them,  and  transferred  to  their 
more  powerful  neighbor,  the  separation  was  to  the  full  as  keenly  felt  by 
the  Finns.  Not  only  from  forming  an  influential  and  integral  part  of  a 
kingdom,  were  they  at  once  reduced  to  a  petty  province  of  a  boundless 
empire,  but  their  ancient  ties  of  friendship  and  afi"ection  were  torn  asunder. 
They  can  have  no  great  sympathy  with  Russia — no  fellowship  in  her  glory 
—  no  anxiety  for  her  distant  conquests.  But  with  Sweden  it  was  far  dif- 
ferent :  the  steel-clad  Finns  formed,  under  the  mighty  Adolphus,  a  part  of 
that  unconquered  army  that  humbled  to  the  dust  the  imperial  pride  of 
Austria ;  and,  in  later  days,  they  shared  under  Charles  XII.  the  glories  of 
Narva,  and  their  stubborn  valor  retrieved  for  a  moment  the  waning  for- 
tunes of  the  fatal  day  of  Poltava.  The  very  people  are  the  same :  the 
kindness,  the  open-hearted  frankness  of  manner,  the  unwearied  civility,  and 
the  scrupulous  honesty,  of  the  Swede,  are  alike  to  be  met  with  throughout 
the  w^hole  of  the  western  provinces  of  Finland.  The  traveller,  during  his 
wanderings,  will  hardly  meet  with  a  people  so  attaching,  or  with  whom  he 
will  so  soon  find  himself  on  terms  of  intimacy,  as  the  Swedes  and  Finns. 
This  remark  perhaps  requires  qualification  as  applied  to  the  peasantry  of 
the  more  eastern  provinces,  of  the  unmixed  Finnish  race,  who  are  repre- 
sented to  be  habitually  grave  and  taciturn.' 

The  government  of  St.  Petersburg  (being  that  in  which  the  capital  of 
the  empire  is  situated)  lies  between  the  fifty-eighth  and  sixty-first  degrees 
of  north  latitude,  and  the  twenty-eighth  and  thirty-fourth  degrees  of  east 
longitude ;  having  the  gulf  and  government  of  Finland  and  Lake  Ladoga 
on  the  north,  Olonetz  on  the  northeast,  Novgorod  on  the  east  and  south- 
east, Pskov  on  the  south,  and  Lake  Peipus  and  the  government  of  Esthonia 


64  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF    RUSSIA. 

or  Revel  on  the  west.  Its  greatest  length  from  northeast  to  southwest  is 
two  hundred  and  sixty-five  miles,  and  its  breadth  ninety  miles,  comprising 
an  area  of  about  eighteen  thousand  six  hundred  square  miles.  It  is,  for 
the  most  part,  a  low  flat,  covered  to  a  considerable  extent  with  lakes  and 
swamps,  excepting  small  portions  of  the  north  and  south,  the  former  being 
broken  by  the  low  hills  of  Olonetz,  and  the  latter  partly  traversed  by  a 
ramification  of  the  Valdai  mountains.  The  wliole  of  its  drainage  is  carried 
into  the  gulf  of  Finland,  either  directly  by  the  Neva,  Louga,  and  Narova, 
or  indirectly  by  the  Volkhov,  Siasi,  Pacha,  Tvir,  and  Oiat,  which  have 
their  mouths  in  Lake  Ladoga. 

The  climate  is  severe,  and  the  soil  by  no  means  fertile ;  not  above  one 
third  of  the  surface  is  under  cultivation,  and  the  grain  produced  falls  far 
short  of  the  consumption.  The  forests  are  very  extensive.  There  are  no 
minerals  of  any  consequence.  Manufactures  liave  advanced  with  rapid 
strides,  particularly  in  the  capital,  and  trade,  both  foreign  and  domestic,  is 
very  extensive. 

For  administrative  purposes,  the  government  is  divided  into  eight  dis- 
tricts. The  greater  part  of  it  belonged  to  ancient  Ingria,  which,  during 
the  war  between  the  Swedes  and  Russians,  in  the  time  of  Charles  XII., 
became  the  principal  theatre  of  hostilities,  and  in  consequence  suftei'ed 
dreadfully.  Ultimately,  Peter  the  Great  succeeded  in  conquering  it,  and 
it  was  finally  secured  to  Russia  by  the  peace  of  Nystadt. 

St.  Petersburg,  the  capital  (which  is  fully  described  on  future  pages), 
had,  up  to  the  breaking  out  of  hostilities  with  Turkey  and  the  western 
powers,  the  most  extensive  foreign  trade  of  any  city  in  the  north  of  Eu- 
rope. This  arises  not  so  much  from  its  great  population  as  from  its  being 
the  only  great  maritime  inlet  on  the  gulf  of  Finland,  and  from  its  vast  and 
various  communications  with  the  interior.  By  means  partly  of  canals,  but 
principally  of  rivers,  St.  Petersburg  is  connected  with  the  Caspian  sea, 
goods  being  conveyed  from  the  latter  to  the  capital,  a  distance  of  fourteen 
hundred  and  thirty-four  miles,  without  once  landing  them.  The  iron  and 
furs  of  Siberia  and  the  teas  of  China  are  received  at  St.  Petersburg  in  tlie 
same  way  ;  but,  owing  to  the  great  distance  of  these  countries,  and  the  short 
period  during  which  the  rivers  and  canals  are  navigable,  they  take  three 
years  in  their  transit  by  water  !  Immense  quantities  of  the  less  bulky  and 
more  valuable  species  of  goods  are  also  brought  to  the  city  during  the  win- 
ter upon  the  ice  in  sledges.  The  principal  article  of  export  is  tallow ;  and 
next  are  hemp,  flax,  iron,  copper,  grain  (mostly  wheat),  timber,  potashes, 
canvass,  linseed  and  hempseed,  with  their  oils,  furs,  hides,  leather,  cordage, 
caviare,  wax,  tar,  &c.  The  chief  imports  are  sugar,  and  other  colonial 
products  ;  cotton  yarn,  raw  cotton,  and  cotton-stuffs  ;  dye-stuffs,  wines,  silks, 
woollens,  hardware,  fine  linen  from  Holland,  &c. ;  salt,  lead,  tin,  coal,  &c. 

Kronstadt,  properly  the  port  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  principal  station 
of  the  Russian  navy  in  the  Baltic,  is  situated  on  the  long,  flat,  and  arid 
island  of  Kotlin,  near  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  gulf  of  Finland,  and 


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THE   BALTIC   PROVINCES  —  ST.    PETERSBURG.  57 

abotlt  twenty  miles  from  St,  Petersburg.  The  town  is  built  in  the  form  of 
an  irregular  triangle,  on  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  isle,  opposite 
the  mouth  of  the  Neva,  and  is  strongly  fortified  on  all  sides.  On  the  south 
side  of  Kotlin  is  the  narrow  channel,  through  which  only  one  vessel  can 
pass  at  a  time,  from  the  gulf  to  the  capital,  and  scores  of  guns  could  here 
be  brought  to  bear  on  an  enemy,  by  means  of  a  fortress  erected  on  a 
detached  islet ;  or,  if  arriving  on  the  opposite  side,  by  the  batteries  of 
Ricsbank,  and  the  citadel  of  Kronslot. 

The  appearance  of  Kronstadt  is  respectable.  It  is  regularly  built,  and 
contains  many  straight  and  well-paved  streets,  and  several  squares.  The 
houses,  however,  are  all  low,  being  generally  of  one  story,  with  those  sin- 
gular red-and-grecn  painted  roofs  common  in  Russia ;  and  are  mostly  of 
wood,  with  the  exception  of  those  belonging  to  the  government,  which 
number  nearly  two  hundred,  and  are  nearly  all  built  of  stone.  The  town 
is  entered  by  three  gates,  and  is  divided  into  two  sections,  the  command- 
ant's division  and  the  admiralty,  each  of  which  is  subdivided  into  two  dis- 
tricts. It  is  also  intersected  by  two  canals,  which  have  their  sides  built 
of  granite,  and  are  both  deep  and  wide  enough  to  admit  the  largest  ves- 
sels. The  one,  Peter's  canal,  is  used  as  a  repairing  dock ;  and  the  other, 
Catherine's  canal,  for  commercial  purposes. 

Kronstadt  contains  three  Greek  churches :  that  of  the  Transfiguration, 
a  large  wooden  edifice,  built  by  Peter  the  Great,  and  covered  with  images  ; 
Trinity  church,  and  St.  Andrew's  church,  in  the  Byzantine  style,  with  a 
handsome  cupola.  There  are  also  two  Greek  chapels,  and  three  other 
churches,  one  each  for  Lutherans,  English,  and  Roman  catholics.  Between 
the  two  canals  stands  a  handsome  palace,  built  by  Prince  Menchikoff,  now 
occupied  as  a  naval  school,  and  attended  by  three  hundred  pupils.  The 
other  public  buildings  deserving  of  notice  are  the  marine  hospital,  fitted  up 
with  twenty-five  hundred  beds  ;  the  exchange,  customhouse,  admiralty,  ar- 
senal, barracks,  cannon-foundry,  &c.,  and  the  small  palace  in  which  Peter 
the  Great  resided,  and  in  the  gardens  of  which  are  several  oaks  planted 
by  his  own  hand.  The  shady  alleys  of  the  gardens  form  the  principal 
promenade. 

The  harbor  of  Kronstadt  lies  to  the  south  of  the  town,  and  consists  of 
three  sections :  the  military  or  outer  harbor,  which  is  the  great  naval  sta- 
tion of  Russia,  and  is  capable  of  containing  thirty-five  ships-of-the-line  ;  the 
middle  harbor,  properly  intended  for  the  fitting  out  and  repairing  of  ves- 
sels ;  and  the  innermost  harbor,  running  parallel  with  the  last,  and  used 
only  by  merchant-vessels,  of  which  some  hundreds  might  lie  in  it.  Two 
thirds  of  the  external  commerce  of  Russia  pass  through  Kronstadt,  although 
the  depth  of  water  at  the  bar  is  scarcely  nine  feet,  and  ice  blocks  up  the 
harbor  nearly  five  months  in  the  year  ;  the  shipping  season  continuing  only 
from  May  to  November.  Kronstadt  has  constant  communication  with  the 
opposite  shores,  and  steamers  now  ply  regularly  between  it  and  the  capital. 
The  population  in  winter  is  about  twenty  thousand,  exclusive  of  the  gar- 


58  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

risou,  and  marine  ;  but  including  these,  in  summer,  it  is  not  less  than  sixty 
thousand. 

The  Rev.  J.  0.  Choules,  who  accompanied  Mr.  Vanderbilt  in  his  excur- 
sion to  the  principal  seaports  of  Europe  in  his  beautiful  steam-yacht  the 
"  North  Star,"  in  1853,  mentions  an  interesting  characteristic  of  that  nor- 
thern latitude  which  they  witnessed,  June  21,  while  anchored  in  tlie  road- 
stead of  Kronstadt :  "  This  is  the  longest  day  [of  summer],  and  the  sun  did 
not  set  till  nearly  ten  o'clock,  and  then  rose  again  before  two ;  and  all  the 
interval  was  one  continued  bright  twilight,  so  that  we  could  read  the  small 
type  of  a  newspaper  on  deck  witli  great  ease.  At  half-past  twelve,  a  bright 
halo  indicates  the  proximity  of  tlie  sun  to  the  horizon  during  his  absence. 
All  were  on  deck  to  witness  the  sun  rise,  and  I  do  not  think  we  shall  soon 
forget  the  novelty  of  twenty-four  hours'  daylight  in  one  day." 

The  remaining  Baltic  provinces — Esthonia,  Livonia,  and  Courland — 
are  situated  on  the  south  of  the  gulf  of  Finland,  and  to  the  east  of  the  Bal- 
tic ;  and,  from  their  importance  in  an  agricultural  point  of  view,  rank  high 
among  the  tributary  lands  of  the  great  autocrat.  They  are  also  known  as 
the  German  provinces,  the  higher  classes  having  still  retained  the  language 
and  customs  of  their  German  ancestors.  These  provinces  present  an  in- 
teresting field  to  both  the  student  of  history  and  the  ethnographer. 

EsTHONiA  (anciently  Esthland,  or  Revel)  is  situated  between  the  fifty- 
eighth  and  sixtieth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  twenty-third  and 
twenty-ninth  degrees  of  east  longitude  ;  having  on  the  east  the  government 
of  St.  Petersburg,  on  the  south  Lake  Peipus  and  the  government  of  Riga, 
on  the  west  the  Baltic,  and  on  the  north  the  gulf  of  Finland.  Its  area,  in- 
cluding the  islands  belonging  to  it,  is  about  seven  thousand  two  hundred 
square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  generally  flat,  but  diversified  in  parts  with 
undulating  hills.  It  contains  many  small  lakes  and  streams,  but  has  no 
navigable  river.  Its  shores  are  bold  and  rocky.  The  climate  is  rigorous  ; 
the  winters  are  long  and  severe,  and  fogs  and  violent  winds  are  common 
throughout  the  year. 

The  soil  is  in  great  part  sandy,  and  rather  infertile  :  the  cultivable  lands 
are  supposed  to  compare  with  those  which  are  unproductive,  including  the 
forests,  &c.,  as  one  to  three.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  employment  of  the 
population,  and  more  grain  is  produced  than  is  sufficient  for  home  con- 
sumption :  it  is  principally  rye,  barley,  and  oats  ;  but  wheat  and  buckwheat, 
besides  flax,  hemp,  hops,  and  tobacco,  are  also  raised.  The  greater  part 
of  the  grain  not  required  for  food  is  set  apart  for  the  purpose  of  distilling 
spirituous  liquors,  large  quantities  of  which  are  consumed  by  the  lower 
orders  of  the  people,  who  are  much  addicted  to  the  vice  of  drunkenness. 
Different  species  of  pulse  are  extensively  cultivated,  and  form  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  nourishment  of  the  peasantry.     Fruit-trees  are  neglected ; 


THE   BALTIC   PROVINCES  —  ESTHONIA.  59 

but  certain  wild  fruits  are  very  abundant.  The  pine,  fir,  &c.,  are  the  most 
common  forest-trees  ;  but  the  oak,  elm,  and  beech,  &c.,  are  met  with.  A 
good  many  head  of  live  stock  are  reared,  and  some  are  driven  into  this 
])rovince  from  other  and  distant  ones,  to  be  fattened  for  the  St.  Petersburg 
markets. 

The  oxen  and  horses  of  Esthonia  are  very  indifferent,  as  well  as  the 
sheep,  goats,  &c.,  though  active  endeavors  have  been  made  to  improve  the 
breed  of  the  latter.  Poultry  is  abundant.  The  lakes  do  not  contain  many 
fi-sh,  but  the  fisheries  on  the  coasts  are  of  importance  to  the  inhabitants. 
Among  the  wild  animals,  may  be  enumerated  a  few  elks ;  and  the  bear, 
wolf,*  badger,  fox,  &c.,  inhabit  the  forests. 

*  The  wolf  is  the  most  common  of  all  the  wild  animals  in  Esthonia.  It  is  so  great  a  torment  to 
tiic  peasants  and  shepherds,  that  the  month  of  December,  when  cold  and  hunger  diives  the  wolves 
oftenest  to  the  dwellings  of  man,  it  is  called  by  them  "  Vilku  Mehncs,'^  or  Wolf's  Month.  In  Janu- 
liurv,  the  howling  of  the  wolves  is  a  common  nocturnal  music.  The  following  account  of  an  Estlio- 
nial  female  abandoning  her  children  to  wolves,  thrillingly  illustrates  tlie  danger  to  which  the  inhab- 
itants of  that  region  are  exposed  to  attacks  from  these  ravenous  beasts.  It  also  explains  the  scene 
given  in  the  engraving  on  page  61 :  "  An  Esthonian  woman,  during  the  winter  of  1807,  undertook 
a  jouniey  to  a  distant  relation,  not  only  without  any  male  companion,  but  with  three  children,  the 
youngest  of  which  was  still  at  the  breast.  A  light  sledge,  drawn  by  one  horse,  received  the  little 
party;  the  way  was  narrow,  but  well  beaten  ;  the  snow  on  each  side  deep  and  impassable;  and  to 
turn  back,  without  danger  of  sticking  fast,  not  to  be  thought  of. 

"  The  first  half  of  the  journey  was  passed  without  accident.  The  road  now  ran  along  the  skirts 
of  a  pine-forest,  when  the  ti-aveller  suddenly  heard  a  suspicious  noise  behind  her.  Casting  back  a 
look  of  alarm,  she  saw  a  troop  of  wolves  trotting  along  the  road,  the  number  of  which  her  fears  hin- 
dered her  from  estimating.  To  escape  by  flight  is  her  first  thought;  and  with  unsparing  whip  she 
urges  into  a  gallop  the  horse,  which  itself  snuffs  the  danger.  Soon  a  couple  of  the  strongest  and 
most  hungr}'  of  the  beasts  appear  at  her  side,  and  seem  disposed  to  stop  the  way.  Though  their 
intention  seems  to  be  only  to  attack  the  horse,  yet  the  safety  of  both  the  mother  and  the  children 
depends  on  the  preservation  of  the  animal.  The  danger  raises  its  value  ;  it  seems  entitled  to  claim 
for  its  preservation  an  extraordinaiy  sacrifice.  As  the  mariner  throws  overboard  his  richest  treas- 
ures to  appease  the  raging  waves,  so  here  has  necessity  reached  a  height  at  which  the  emotions  of 
the  heart  are  dumb  before  the  dark  commands  of  instinct;  the  latter  alone  suffers  the  unhappy  wo- 
man to  act  in  this  distress.  She  seizes  her  second  child,  whose  bodily  infirmities  have  often  made 
it  an  object  of  anxious  care,  whose  cry  even  offends  not  her  ear,  and  threatens  to  whet  the  appetite 
of  the  bloodthirsty  monsters — she  seizes  it  with  an  involuntary  motion,  and  before  the  mother  is 
conscious  of  what  she  is  doing,  it  is  cast  out,  and  the  last  cry  of  the  victim  still  sounded  in  her  ears, 
when  she  discovered  that  the  troop,  which  had  remained  some  minutes  behind,  again  closely  pressed 
on  the  sledge.  The  anguish  of  her  soul  increases,  for  again  the  murder-breathing  forms  are  at  her 
side.  Pressing  the  infant  to  her  heaving  bosom,  she  casts  a  look  on  her  boy,  four  years  old,  who 
crowds  closer  and  closer  to  her  knee.  '  But,  dear  mother,  1  am  good,  am  I  not  ?  You  will  not 
throw  me  into  the  snow,  like  the  bawlcr?'  —  'And  yet!  and  yet !'  cried  the  wretched  woman,  in  the 
wild  tumult  of  despair,  'thou  art  good,  but  God  is  merciful! — Away!'  The  dreadful  deed  was 
done.  To  escape  the  furies  that  raged  within  her,  the  woman  exerted  herself,  with  powerless  lash, 
to  accelerate  the  gallop  of  the  exhausted  horse.  With  the  thick  and  gloomy  forest  before  and  be- 
liind  her,  and  the  nearer  and  nearer  trampling  of  her  ravenous  pursuers,  she  almost  sinks  under  her 
anguish;  only  the  recollection  of  the  infant  that  she  holds  in  her  arms  —  only  the  desire  to  save  it 
—  occupies  her  heart,  and  with  difficulty  enables  it  to  bear  up.  She  did  not  venture  to  look  behind 
her.  All  at  once,  two  rough  paws  are  laid  on  her  shoulders,  and  the  wide-open,  bloody  jaws  of  an 
enormous  wolf  hung  over  her  head.  It  is  the  most  ravenous  beast  of  the  troop,  which  having  partly 
missed  its  leap  at  the  sledge,  is  dragged  along  with  it,  in  vain  seeking  with  its  hinder  legs  for  a 
resting-place,  to  enable  it  to  get  wholly  on  the  frail  vehicle.  The  weight  of  the  body  of  the  mon- 
sler  draws  the  woman  backward.  Her  arms  rise  with  the  child:  half  torn  from  her,  half  aban- 
doned, it  becomes  the  prey  of  the  mvenous  beast,  which  hastily  carries  it  off  into  the  forest.     Ex- 


60  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

A  few  mineral  products  are  obtained  in  this  province,  but  they  are  of  no 
great  consequence.  Nearly  all  the  manufactures  are  domestic :  the  peas- 
antry weave  their  own  coarse  woollens,  and  some  very  tolerable  linen 
stuffs.  In  the  islands,  the  building  of  boats  is  a  principal  employment. 
Distilleries  are  common  in  every  part  of  the  country,  the  free  use  of  stills 
being  one  of  the  most  important  of  their  ancient  privileges  that  the  Estho- 
nians  preserve.  The  chief  exports  are  grain,  spirits,  salt  fish,  and  hides ; 
among  the  chief  imports  are  herrings  and  salt. 

The  port  of  Revel  is  tlie  centre  of  the  trade  of  the  government.  For 
administrative  purposes,  the  province  is  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
governor-general  of  Riga,  and  consists  of  four  districts  (Revel,  HajDisal, 
Weissenstein,  and  Wesenberg)  ;  but  it  has  its  own  provincial  council,  judi- 
cial court,  &c.  Nearly  all  the  inhabitants  are  Lutherans.  A  compara- 
tively very  small  proportion  of  the  population  is  educated. 

Revel  (called  by  the  Russians  Kolyvmi),  the  capital  of  Esthonia,  is  situ- 
ated on  a  small  bay  on  the  south  side  of  the  gulf  of  Finland,  two  hundred 
miles  west-southwest  of  St.  Petersburg.  Its  population  is  about  fifteen 
thousand.  The  city  proper,  included  within  the  ramparts,  is  small ;  and 
although  it  has  many  good  brick  houses,  its  streets  are  narrow  and  irregu- 

liausted,  stunned,  senseless,  she  drops  the  reins,  and  continues  her  journey,  ignorant  whether  she  is 
delivered  from  her  pursuers  or  not. 

"  Meantime  the  forest  grows  thinner,  and  an  insulated  farmhouse,  to  which  a  side-road  leads, 
appears  at  a  moderate  distance.  The  horse,  left  to  itself,  follows  this  new  path ;  it  enters  through 
an  open  gate  ;  panting  and  foaming  it  stands  still;  and,  amid  a  circle  of  persons  who  crowd  round 
with  good-natured  surprise,  the  unhappy  woman  recovers  from  her  stupefaction,  to  throw  herself, 
with  a  loud  scream  of  anguish  and  horror,  into  the  arms  of  the  nearest  human  being,  who  appears  to 
her  as  a  guardian  angel.  All  leave  their  work  —  the  mistress  of  the  house  the  kitchen,  the  thrasher 
the  barn,  the  eldest  son  of  the  family,  with  his  axe  in  his  hand,  the  wood  which  he  had  just  cleft 
—  to  assist  the  unfortunate  woman  ;  and,  with  a  mixture  of  curiosity  and  pity,  to  learn,  by  a  hundred 
inquiries,  the  circumstances  of  her  singular  appearance.  Refreshed  by  whatever  can  be  procured 
at  the  moment,  the  stranger  gradually  recovers  the  power  of  speech,  and  ability  to  give  an  intelli- 
gible account  of  the  dreadful  trial  which  she  has  undergone.  The  insensibility  with  which  fear  and 
distress  had  steeled  her  heart  begins  to  disappear:  but  new  terrors  seize  her  —  the  dry  eye  seeks  in 
vain  a  tear  —  she  is  on  the  brink  of  boundless  misery.  But  her  narrative  had  also  excited  conflict- 
ing feelings  in  the  bosoms  of  her  auditors ;  though  pity,  commiseration,  dismay,  and  abhorrence, 
imposed  alike  on  all  the  same  involuntary  silence:  One  only,  unable  to  command  the  overpowering 
emotions  of  his  heart,  advanced  before  the  rest  —  it  was  the  young  man  with  the  axe:  his  cheeks 
were  pale  with  affright  —  his  wildly-rolling  eyes  flashed  ill-omened  fire.  'What!'  he  exclaimed; 
'three  children  —  thine  own  children! — the  sickly  innocent — the  imploring  boy  —  the  infant  suck- 
ling—  all  cast  out  by  the  mother,  to  be  devoured  by  the  wolves!  Woman,  thou  art  unworthy  to 
live!'  And,  at  the  same  instant,  the  uplifted  steel  descends  with  resistless  force  on  the  skull  of  the 
wretched  woman,  who  falls  dead  at  his  feet.  The  perpetrator  then  calmly  wipes  the  blood  off  the 
murderous  axe,  and  returns  to  his  work. 

"The  dreadful  tale  speedily  came  to  the  knowledge  of  the  magistrates,  who  caused  the  uncalled 
avenger  to  be  arrested  and  brought  to  trial.  He  was,  of  course,  sentenced  to  the  punishment 
ordained  by  the  laws  ;  but  the  sentence  still  wanted  the  sanction  of  the  emperor.  Alexander  caused 
all  the  circumstances  of  this  crime,  so  extraordinary  in  the  motives  in  which  it  originated,  to  be 
reported  to  him  in  the  most  careful  and  detailed  manner.  Here,  or  nowhere,  he  thought  himself 
called  on  to  exercise  the  godlike  prerogative  of  mercy,  by  commuting  the  sentence  passed  on  the 
criminal  into  a  condemnation  to  labor  not  very  severe;  and  he  accordingly  sent  the  young  man  tt» 
the  fortress  of  Dunamunde,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Duna,  there  to  be  confined  to  labor  during  the 
emperor's  pleasure." 


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THE   BALTIC   PROVINCES  —  ESTHONIA.  63 

lar.  There  are  several  Lutheran,  a  Roman  catholic,  and  some  Greek 
churches,  all  stone  edifices ;  and  various  charitable  and  educational  estab- 
lishments, the  latter  including  a  gymnasium,  episcopal  seminary,  and  a 
school  (pension')  for  nobles.  The  castle,  a  modern  edifice,  is  appropriated 
to  the  provincial  authorities  :  the  municipal  officers,  who  are  elected  hy  the 
city,  reside  in  the  town-hall.  The  admiralty  is  the  principal  remaining 
public  building.  The  suburbs,  consisting  mostly  of  wooden  houses,  cover 
a  large  extent  of  ground  along  the  shore.  Revel  is  much  resorted  to  as  a 
watering-place,  and  has  some  good  warm  baths,  a  theatre,  several  clubs  or 
casinos,  and  three  or  four  public  libraries,  one  of  which,  the  property  of 
the  city,  is  said  by  Possart  to  contain  ten  thousand  volumes. 

This  town  is  one  of  the  stations  for  the  Russian  fleet,  and  has  a  harbor 
defended  by  several  batteries.  This  port,  which  was  materially  improved 
in  1820,  is  deeper  than  that  of  Kronstadt,  though  more  difficult  of  en- 
trance. The  roadstead,  formed  by  some  islands,  is  well  sheltered.  The 
long  duration  of  the  frost  is  the  principal  drawback  on  Revel  as  a  naval 
station,  though  that  is  a  disadvantage  which  it  shares  in  common  with  the 
other  Russian  ports  in  the  Baltic. 

Though  not  connected  with  the  interior  by  any  navigable  river.  Revel 
has  a  considerable  trade.  Its  principal  exports  are  grain,  spirits,  hemp, 
flax,  timber,  and  other  Baltic  produce ;  the  imports  consist  of  colonial 
produce,  herrings  from  Holland  and  Norway,  salt,  cheese,  wine,  tobacco, 
fruits,  dye-stufis,  cotton  yarn,  stuffs,  and  other  manufactured  goods,  &c. 
A.  portion  of  the  customs'  revenue  is  enjoyed  by  the  town. 

Revel  was  founded  by  the  Danes  in  1218,  and  afterward  sold  by  them 
to  the  knights  of  the  Teutonic  order.  In  1561,  it  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  Swedes  ;  l)ut,  as  before  remarked,  in  treating  of  the  province,  it  was 
taken  from  them  by  the  Russians  in  1710. 

Like  ancient  Thebes,  Revel  is  entered  by  seven  gates  ;  they  are  all  pic- 
turesque erections,  decorated  with  various  historical  mementos,  the  arms 
of  the  Danish  domination,  the  simple  cross  of  the  order  on  the  municipal 
shield  of  the  city.  The  Schmieedetforte  is  celebrated  for  a  daring  act  of 
magisterial  justice,  which  took  place  in  1535.  At  all  times  a  petty  ani- 
mosity had  existed  between  the  rich  burghers  and  the  lawless  nobility  of 
the  province,  who  troubled  the  commerce  of  the  city,  and  lauglied  at  the 
laws  of  the  former;  and,  on  one  occasion,  the  ati'ocious  murder  of  one  of 
his  own  peasants  in  the  streets  of  Revel,  by  Baron  Uxkiill,  of  Reisenberg, 
so  exasperated  the  magistrates,  that  they  menaced  the  murderer  with  the 
utmost  severity  of  tlie  laAv  if  ever  he  came  within  their  jurisdiction.  Nev- 
ertheless, and  despising  their  threat,  the  baron,  attended  l3y  a  slender  reti- 
nue, entered  the  city  in  mere  bravado  ;  when  the  magistrates,  true  to  tlieir 
word,  seized  him,  and  after  due  trial  he  was  condemned  and  executed  in 
full  view  of  his  friends,  without  the  walls,  beneath  the  Schmiedepforte. 
Long  and  sanguinary  were  the  disputes  which  followed  this  act ;  and,  as 
some  pacification  to  UxkiiU's  memory,  the  burghers  walled  up  the  gate- 


64  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 

way,  which  was  not  reopened  till  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 
In  the  summer  there  is  an  annual  fair,  called  the  Jahrmarkt,  which  is 
held  beneath  the  old  elm-trees  before  the  cliurch  of  St.  Nicholas  —  a  most 
interesting  scene  to  the  stranger — and  forms  the  morning  lounge  of  the 
inhaljitants  during  that  season  of  the  year.  In  the  evening,  Catherinthal 
is  the  favorite  promenade.  This  is  an  imperial  lustschloss,  or  palace,  at  a 
little  distance  from  the  town,  surrounded  with  fine  trees  and  well-kept 
grounds,  or  what  is  here  termed  "  ein  superber  park,^'  which  during  six 
weeks  of  the  summer  months  is  thronged  with  fashionable  groups,  who  eat 
ices,  drink  chocolate,  talk  scandal,  and  make  love,  as  people  do  elsewhere. 
This  residence,  which  is  literally  a  bower  of  verdure  redeemed  from  a 
waste  of  sand,  is  the  pleasant  legacy  of  Peter  the  Great  to  the  city  of 
Revel,  Being  a  frequent  visiter  to  Revel,  it  was  here  that  he  first  erected 
a  modest  little  house  beneath  the  rocks  of  the  Laaksberg-,  from  the  win- 
dows of  which  he  could  overlook  his  infant  fleet  riding  at  anchor  in  the 
bay,  and  which  still  exists.  But  a  few  years  previous  to  his  death,  the 
present  palace,  within  a  stone's  throw  of  his  Dutch  house  —  for  all  Peter 
the  Great's  own  private  domicils  testify  whence  he  drew  his  first  ideas  of 
comfort — was  constructed,  which  he  surrounded  with  pleasure-grounds, 
and  presented  to  his  consort,  by  the  name  of  Catherinthal.  This  gift  he 
increased  by  the  purchase  of  surrounding  estates  to  the  amount  of  several 
millions  of  dollars  —  sufficient  to  have  assured  to  the  empress,  in  case  of 
need,  a  fitting  retreat  from  the  frowns  of  Russian  fortune.  Tliese  estates 
have  been  gradually  alienated  and  bestowed  on  private  individuals,  and 
Catherinthal  is  reduced  to  little  more  than  its  gardens.  It  has  been  the 
temporary  sojourn  of  all  the  crowned  heads  of  Russia  in  succession  ;  and 
the  treaty  of  peace  concerning  Silesia  (wrested  from  Austria  by  Frederick 
the  Great  in  the  Seven  Years'  War),  between  the  two  most  powerful  wo- 
men of  coeval  times  whom  the  world  has  ever  known — Maria  Theresa  of 
Austria,  and  Catherine  II.  of  Russia — was  here  ratified  in  1746. 

Livonia  (called  by  the  Russians  Lifliandua,  and  by  the  Germans  Liv- 
land,  or  Liefland')  is  situated  on  the  Baltic,  having  on  the  north  the  gov- 
ernment of  Esthonia ;  on  the  east  the  lake.  Peipus,  separating  it  from  the 
government  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  governments  of  Pskov  and  Vitepsk  ; 
on  the  south  the  latter  and  Courland ;  and  on  the  west  the  gulf  of  Livonia. 
Its  length  from  north  to  south  is  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles,  and 
its  average  breadth  one  hundred  and  seventeen  miles.  Including  the  island 
of  (Esel,  in  the  Baltic,  it  has  an  area  of  about  seventeen  thousand  three 
hundred  square  miles. 

The  coast  and  the  greater  part  of  the  surface  of  this  province  are  flat  and 
marshy ;  but  in  the  districts  of  Venden  and  Dorpat  are  some  hills  of  con- 
siderable elevation ;  Eierberg,  one  of  these,  being  nearly  eleven  hundred 
feet  in  height.  There  are  several  extensive  lakes  :  the  principal,  Virtserf, 
which  is  twenty-four  miles  in  length,  by  from  two  to  six  in  breadth,  com- 


THE  BALTIC   PROVINCES  —  LIVONIA.  65 

municates  with  the  kike  Peipus  l)y  the  Embach.  Besides  the  last  named, 
the  chief  rivers  are  the  Duna,  which  forms  the  southern  boundary,  the  Evst, 
and  the  Bolder-Aa. 

The  soil  of  Livonia,  though  in  some  parts  loamy,  is  in  general  sandy ; 
but,  being  abundantly  watered,  it  is,  by  proper  manuring,  rendered  very 
productive.  Rye  and  barley  are  the  principal  crops,  and  more  of  both  is 
grown  than  is  required  for  home  consumption.  Wheat  and  oats  are  less 
cultivated  ;  buckwheat  is  raised  on  sandy  soils  ;  flax,  hops,  and  pulse,  arc 
also  produced,  and  the  potato  culture  is  on  the  increase :  fruits  are  of  very 
indiflerent  quality.  In  some  districts,  agriculture  is  tolerably  well  con- 
ducted. The  forests  are  an  important  source  of  wealth,  and  supply  excel- 
lent timber.  They  abound  also  with  game,  of  which  every  landowner  is 
the  sole  proprietor  of  all  on  his  domain.  In  this  manner,  many  noblemen, 
in  addition  to  the  bears  and  wolves,  the  latter  of  which  are  sometimes  very 
destructive  to  the  cattle,  may  count  whole  herds  of  deer,  elks,  foxes,  and 
lynxes,  among  their  live  stock.  But  as  in  any  of  the  German  provinces  it 
is  never  customary  for  one  noble  to  exclude  another  from  his  hunting- 
grounds,  each  landholder  is  privileged  to  sport  over  the  whole  country. 
The  rich  landowners  sometimes  invite  all  their  neighbors  for  twenty  miles 
round  to  a  greart  hunt  (the  preparation  for  which  is  seen  in  the  engraving 
on  the  following  page).  The  field  is  then  taken  for  eight  successive  days 
against  the  shy  inhabitants  of  the  forest,  in  sledges,  droskies,  and  coaches, 
or  on  horseback,  accompanied  by  multitudes  of  peasants  and  dogs.  The 
meals  are  taken  under  the  sliade  of  a  lofty  fir-tree,  from  which  a  lynx  has 
just  been  expelled,  or  in  the  den  of  a  bear  which  has  just  been  overcome, 
or  in  the  lair  of  a  newly-shot  elk.  Sometimes  a  corps  of  musicians  accom- 
panies the  party,  and  cards  and  dice  are  seldom  wanting.  It  might  be 
imagined  that  Tacitus  had  made  his  remarks  on  the  ancient  tribes  of 
Germany,  in  these  haunts  of  their  unsophisticated  descendants ;  except 
that,  instead  of  savages  clothed  in  bearskins,  these  hunters  are  always  well 
dressed,  sometimes  young  and  handsome,  and  generally  well  educated  and 
intelligent.  The  assuming  of  the  to^a  virilis  was  the  great  era  in  the  life 
of  a  Roman  youth.  The  fowling-piece  is  here  an  em1)lem  of  the  same  sig- 
nificance. Even  little  boys,  as  soon  as  they  can  stand  alone,  are  initiated 
into  the  merry  life  of  the  hunter,  and  father,  son,  and  grandson,  often  hunt 
together.  The  first  elk  shot  by  a  nobleman's  son  is  talked  of  l>alf  his  life  ; 
and  the  last  bear  conquered  by  an  old  man,  before  his  death,  is  long  thought 
of  with  mournful  pride  by  his  friends.  In  some  noble  families  the  passion 
for  hunting  has  taken  such  deep  root,  that  every  member  of  it  is  a  modern 
Nimrod  ;  while  in  others,  few  in  numbers,  a  dislike  to  sporting  is  an  heredi- 
tary characteristic.  There  are  many  noblemen  to  be  found  who  were  never 
out  of  their  forests  and  wildernesses,  wlio  in  the  seventy  years  of  their 
existence  have  used  up  more  than  a  hundred  calfskins  for  hunting-boots, 
and  who  have  expended  more  saltpetre  on  game  than  their  forefathers 
required  to  conquer  the  country ! 

5 


66 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 


FnEFARING   FOR   THE    ChASK. 


The  rearing  of  live  stock,  though  not  altogether  neglected,  does  not  re- 
ceive adequate  attention ;  the  breed  of  black  cattle  is,  however,  in  the 
course  of  being  improved.  Horses  and  sheep  are  very  inferior.  The  fish- 
eries, both  on  the  coast  and  in  the  fresh  waters,  are  important.  Chalk, 
alabaster,  and  other  calcareous  materials,  are  abundant. 

Rural  industry  and  the  distillation  of  spirits  are  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant occupations.  The  manufactures  of  this  government  are,  however, 
more  extensive  than  those  in  its  vicinity.  The  peasantry  spin  linen  yarn, 
and  weave  their  own  cloths ;  and  in  the  towns,  especially  Riga,  there  are 
sugar-refineries,  and  tobacco,  woollen-cloth,  cotton,  linen,  glass,  and  other 
factories,  which  employ  about  four  thousand  hands,  and  produce  goods  to 
the  amount  of  eleven  or  twelve  millions  of  roubles*  a  year. 

*  The  etymology  of  the  word  "  rouble"  is  from  the  Russian  word  ruhit,  to  cut,  or  hew  off;  as 
in  former  times  silver  was  current  only  in  bars,  from  which  it  was  customary  for  a  debtor  to  strike 
off  with  a  hammer  and  chisel  the  amount  which  he  had  to  pay.  The  rouble  is  of  two  kinds,  very 
different  in  value:  the  silver  rouble  (which  is  the  basis  of  all  financial  transactions),  worth  about 
seventy-five  cents,  and  which  is  divided  into  one  hundred  silver  "  cnpeks  ;"  and  the  paper  rouble, 
about  equal  to  a  franc,  or  nineteen  cents,  and  which  is  divided  into  one  hundred  copper  copekg. 
The  paper  rouble  was  originally  of  the  same  value  as  the  silver  rouble,  but  it  became  very  much 
depreciated  in  consequence  of  the  vast  quantities  issued  to  meet  the  wonts  of  the  government.  A 
ukase  of  July  33,  1843,  created  a  new  paper  money  (billets  de  credit),  of  the  nominal  value  of  the 
silver  rouble,  and  intended  to  supersede  the  old  paper  rouble.     Although  guarantied  by  a  fund 


THE  BALTIC   PROVINCES  —  LIVONIA.  67 


Tlie  northern  part  of  Livonia  formerly  constituted  a  portion  of  Esthonia, 
and  the  southern  a  part  of  Lithuania.  The  population  consists  of  Estho- 
nians,  Lithuanians,  Russians,  Germans,  and  (along  a  portion  of  the  coast) 
Lives,  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  from  whom  it  has 
derived  its  name.  About  eighty-five  thousand  of  the  inhabitants  reside  in 
the  towns,  and  these,  as  well  as  the  nobles,  clergy,  &g.,  are  chiefly  of  Ger- 
man descent.  Until  1824,  the  Esthonians  and  Lithuanians  were  in  a  state 
of  predial  slavery ;  now,  however,  they  are  free,  but  without  the  right  to 
hold  real  property.  The  prevailing  religion  is  the  Lutheran ;  there  are 
only  about  twelve  thousand  individuals  of  the  Greek  church,  and  other 
professions  of  faith.  Education  is  tolerably  advanced  in  the  towns,  and 
the  university  of  Dorpat,  in  this  government,  is  the  first  in  the  empire. 
But,  after  all,  few  of  the  inhabitants  are  said  to  be  receiving  public  in- 
struction. 

Livonia  has  a  governor-general,  whose  authority  extends  over  other 
Baltic  provinces ;  but  it  has  its  own  provincial  assembly,  magistracy,  &c., 
and  has  preserved  many  peculiar  privileges,  among  which  is  that  of  exemp- 
tion from  the  state  monopoly  of  ardent  spirits.  It  was  divided  into  nine 
districts  by  Catherine  II.  Riga,  the  capital,  is  the  centre  of  its  commerce. 
The  other  chief  towns  are  Dorpat,  Pernau,  Fellin,  and  Arensburg  in  the 
island  of  (Esel. 

Riga,  the  capital  of  Livonia,  is  situated  on  the  Duna,  about  nine  miles 
from  its  embouchure  in  the  gulf  of  Riga.  Its  population,  including  the 
garrison  of  ten  thousand  men,  is  about  seventy  thousand.  About  two  thirds 
of  the  resident  population  are  Lutherans,  the  rest  consisting  of  members  of 
the  Russo-Greek  church,  Roman  catholics  &c. 

Riga  is  strongly  fortified.  It  consists  of  the  town,  properly  so  called, 
and  the  suburbs  ;  the  former  being  entirely  enclosed  by  the  fortifications. 
The  streets  in  the  town  are  narrow  and  crooked,  and  the  houses  generally 
of  brick.  In  the  suburbs,  which  are  much  more  extensive,  the  streets  are 
broad  and  regular,  and  the  houses  mostly  of  wood.  One  of  the  suburbs 
lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  the  communication  with  it  being  main- 
tained by  a  bridge  about  twenty-four  hundred  feet  in  length. 

Among  the  public  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  consecrated  in  1211,  and 
rebuilt  in  1547  ;  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  built  in  1406,  with  a  tower  four 
hundred  and  forty  feet  in  height,  being  the  most  elevated  in  the  empire, 
and  commanding  a  fine  view  of  the  city  and  adjacent  country ;  the  castle, 
the  seat  of  the  chancellery,  and  of  the  general  and  civil  governors  ;  hall  of 
the  provincial  states,  town-house,  exchange,  arsenal,  <fec.  A  magnificent 
column,  surmounted  by  a  colossal  bronze  statue  of  Victory,  was  erected  in 
1817,  by  the  mercantile  body,  in  honor  of  the  emperor  Alexander  and  the 

deposited  in  the  vaults  of  the  fortress  of  St.  Petersburg^,  and  receivable  in  payment  of  taxes,  customs, 
and  ill  fact  all  debts  whatever,  the  heavy  emission  called  for  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  govern 
ment  in  the  present  war  has  caused  them  to  fall  rapidly  in  value,  and  they  may  reach  as  great  a 
depreciation  as  that  which  befell  the  old  issue. 


68  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

Russian  army.  Among  the  literary  establishments  are  a  gymnasium,  a 
lyceum,  a  school  of  navigation,  and  various  elementary  schools,  a  public 
library,  an  observatory,  a  society  of  Lettonian  literature,  &c.  In  the  library 
are  contained  a  curious  arm-chair  that  once  belonged  to  Charles  XII.,  a 
very  old  bible,  some  letters  written  by  Luther  to  the  senate  of  Riga,  and 
a  ball  which  is  said  to  have  been  fired  by  Peter  the  Great  in  the  siege  of 
1710,  and  lodged  in  the  wall  of  the  library.  The  esplanade  and  gardens, 
both  in  and  near  the  town,  are  well  laid  out.  There  is  a  celebrated  festi- 
val held  here  on  St.  John's  day,  the  24th  of  June,  called  "  the  Flower- 
Feast  ;"  also  one  which  bears  the  singular  title  of  the  "  Hugger  Sorrow,''^ 
in  commemoration  of  a  siege  in  which  the  inhabitants  suffered  greatly  from 
famine. 

The  manufactures  of  Riga  are  of  no  great  importance,  though  of  late 
they  have  materially  improved.  Those  of  cotton,  cloth,  and  rugs,  are  the 
most  important.  There  are  also  various  sugar-houses,  tobacco-manufacto- 
ries, breweries,  &c. 

Owing  to  her  situation  on  a  large  navigable  river,  Riga  is  the  entrepot 
of  an  extensive  country ;  and  is,  in  respect  of  foreign  commerce,  the  next 
town  in  the  Russian  dominions  to  St.  Petersburg.  Grain  used  to  be  the 
principal  article  of  export,  but  it  is  now  far  surpassed  by  flax  and  flax- 
seed, the  exports  of  which  have  increased  very  rapidly.  The  other  great 
articles  of  export  are  hemp  and  hempseed,  timber,  including  masts  and 
deals,  hides,  tallow,  coarse  linen,  and  canvass,  &c.  The  imports  consist 
principally  of  sugar,  and  other  colonial  products,  dye-stuifs,  wines,  cotton, 
cotton-stuffs  and  cotton-yarn,  woollens,  salt,  herrings,  &c.  There  is  a  bar 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  which  has  usually  from  twelve  to  thirteen  feet  of 
water ;  and  it  is  customary  for  vessels  drawing  more  than  this  to  load  and 
unload  the  whole  or  a  part  of  their  cargoes  at  Bolder-Aa,  a  small  port  out- 
side the  bar.  The  entrance  to  the  river,  at  Dunaraunde,  is  guarded  by  a 
fort,  where  is  also  the  customhouse.  The  ships  arriving  at  Riga  vary  from 
one  thousand  to  fifteen  hundred  a  year.  If  we  may  depend  upon  the  offi- 
cial accounts,  the  city  has  increased  very  rapidly,  though  it  has  occasion- 
ally suffered  considerably  from  inundations. 

Dorpat  lies  on  the  Embach,  and  on  the  high  road  between  Riga  and  St. 
Petersburg,  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  northeast  of  the  former,  and  one 
hundred  and  seventy  miles  southeast  of  the  latter  city.  It  has  over  four- 
teen thousand  inhabitants.  The  history  of  this  town  is  a  stirring  and 
stormy  one.  The  Russians  from  the  east,  the  Teutonic  knights  from  the 
west,  the  quarrels  of  both  with  the  aboriginal  Esthonians,  and  the  bloody 
wars  between  the  Russians,  Swedes,  and  Poles,  more  than  once  laid  it  in 
ashes.  Its  university  was  founded  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1632,  the  year 
of  his  death  (while  leading  his  troops  at  the  great  battle  of  Lutzen,  against 
the  Austrians),  and,  after  various  vicissitudes,  it  took  refuge  in  Sweden, 
to  avoid  the  Russian  army,  in  1710.  Professors,  students,  libraries,  muse- 
ums—  all  departed;  and  returned  only  under  the  auspices  of  the  emperor 


THE   BALTIC   PROVINCES  —  LIVONIA.  69 

Alexander  in  1802.  It  now  contains  forty-five  professors,  and  six  hundred 
or  more  students,  and  has  a  high  reputation  in  Russia. 

Among  the  professors  at  this  university  one  name  may  be  cited  of  great 
fame  —  that  of  Struve,  whose  astronomical  labors  have  procured  him  a 
well-earned  reputation  throughout  Europe.  The  observatory  on  the  Dom- 
berg,  from  the  character  of  the  work  done  there,  is  ranked  among  the  most 
celebrated  institutions  in  this  branch  of  science.  Here  is  a  great  refract- 
ing telescope,  the  work  of  Frauenhofer,  mounted  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
iron  roof,  revolving  round  a  vertical  line,  affords  complete  protection  from 
the  weather  without  hindering  the  view  of  any  point  in  the  heavens.  This 
was  designed  and  constructed  by  Mr.  Parrot,  and  so  beautifully  is  it  exe- 
cuted, that  one  hand  is  enough  to  impel  and  guide  the  machinery  which 
moves  the  telescope  and  roof.  The  emperor  Alexander  presented  the  tele- 
scope to  the  university.  Struve  is  now  at  the  head  of  the  observatory  near 
St.  Petersburg,  and  the  telescope  which  he  now  directs  toward  the  heavens 
is  on  a  far  more  gigantic  scale  than-  his  old  friend  of  Dorpat.  Some  of  the 
apparatus  which  was  used  in  measuring  a  portion  of  the  meridian  of  Dor- 
pat  is  to  be  seen  here.  The  library  has  a  very  curious  locality,  being  situ- 
ated in  the  ruins  of  the  old  Dom.  The  views  hence  are  very  fine.  The 
broad  crown  of  the  hill,  adorned  by  numerous  avenues  of  trees,  is  called 
Cathedral  place  :  the  ruins  of  a  church,  destroyed  in  1775,  by  a  fire  which 
consumed  nearly  the  whole  town,  explains  the  origin  of  this  name. 

On  the  Domberg  are  likewise  the  schools  of  anatomy  and  natural  history, 
the  museums,  &c.  The  philosophical  instruments  are  remarkable  for  their 
having  been  made  for  the  most  part  by  a  Russian  artisan  of  the  name  of 
Samoiloff.  Of  all  the  collections  of  the  university,  that  of  the  botanical 
garden  is  the  most  complete ;  it  contains  more  than  eighteen  thousand 
plants,  some  of  which  are  not  to  be  fpund  in  the  other  botanical  gardens 
of  Europe. 

Dorpat,  like  Revel,  had  once  its  corps  of  Sckwarze  Haenpter,  or  "  asso- 
ciation of  citizens  for  the  defence  of  the  city."  It  is  now  a  mere  convivial 
club.  Among  its  treasures  is  a  magnificent  goblet  of  glass  and  gold,  two 
feet  high,  on  the  side  of  which  are  engraved  a  beetle,  a  humming-bird,  and 
a  butterfly.  Whoever  could  only  drink  to  the  beetle,  was  fined  two  bot- 
tles ;  whoever  reached  the  humming-bird,  only  one  ;  and  he  whose  draught 
attained  as  deep  as  the  butterfly,  was  exempt  from  fine. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Dom,  no  vestige  remains  at  Dorpat  of  the 
ancient  Gothic  nucleus  of  the  town ;  all  is  new.  The  fortifications  have, 
as  at  Frankfort  and  Hamburgh,  been  converted  into  agreeable  promenades. 
A  granite  bridge  over  the  Embach,  which  is  navigable  up  to  Dorpat,  adds 
not  a  little  to  the  appearance  of  the  town. 

Near  Dorpat  is  the  picturesque  ruin  of  Schloss  Ring-en,  formerly  one  of 
the  largest  castles  of  Livonia.  These  ruins  are  a  perpetual  monument  of 
the  ferocious  feuds  between  two  neighboring  noblemen,  the  lord  of  Ringen 
and  the  lord  of  Odempa.     An  old  family  quarrel  between  them  had  been 


70  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

heightened  by  various  personal  insults  into  the  deadliest  mutual  liatred. 
Notwithstanding  this,  they  sometimes,  when  their  interests  demanded  it, 
visited  and  entertained  one  another  with  outward  civility.  One  day  ihe 
lord  of  Ringen  invited  the  lord  of  Odempa  to  a  banquet.  The  latter  came, 
enjoyed  the  feast  much,  and  was  particularly  pleased  with  one  costly  dish, 
which  his  host  strongly  recommended  to  him  —  so  much  so,  that  he  wished 
to  know  what  it  was  made  of;  but  this  was  a  secret,  said  the  lord  of  Rin- 
gen, As  the  visiter  was  returning  to  Odempa,  however,  a  servant  was 
sent  after  him,  with  a  message,  that  if  he  remembered  what  the  Persian 
king  Astyages,  son  of  Cyaxares,  served  up  to  his  servant  Harpagus,  he 
would  know  how  the  delicate  dish  which  had  pleased  him  so  much  was 
composed.  The  horror-struck  father  flew  home  to  seek  his  only  little  son, 
but  sought  him  in  vain :  the  lord  of  Ringen  had  served  up  to  him  for  dinner 
his  own  son's  heart  and  brains ! 

The  infuriated  nobleman  attacked  Schloss  Ringen  that  same  night  with 
all  his  men  ;  and,  though  the  lord  of  Ringen  was  prepared  for  the  attack, 
yet  the  superhuman  fury  of  the  father,  and  the  justice  of  his  cause,  over- 
came all  opposition.  The  castle  was  stormed,  reduced  to  ruins,  and  the 
hearts  and  brains  of  its  defenders  thrown  to  the  dogs. 

The  histories  of  these  old  Livonian  castles  are  often  very  romantic  and 
tragical ;  and,  though  these  bloody  feuds  have  been  modified  by  the  spirit 
of  the  age,  the  animosity  of  neighboring  nobles  now  develops  itself  in  in- 
terminable litigation. 

CouRLAND  (which  the  Slavonians  call  Kors,  and  the  Germans  Kurland) 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Livonia  and  the  gulf  of  Riga,  on  the  west  by 
the  Baltic,  on  the  south  by  Wilna  and  a  small  portion  of  Prussia,  and  on 
the  east  by  Vitepsk.  Its  greatest  length  from  northwest  to  southeast  is 
two  hundred  and  thirty  miles ;  its  breadth  varies  from  one  hundred  and 
fifty  miles,  and  diminishes  from  west  to  east,  till  it  terminates  almost  in  a 
point.     It  comprises  an  area  of  about  ten  thousand  square  miles. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Mittau,  the  capital,  the  surface  is  diversified  by 
hills  of  very  moderate  height — Huneinberg  and  Silberberg,  the  highest, 
not  exceeding  five  hundred  feet ;  but  elsewhere,  and  particularly  toward 
the  coast,  it  is  flat,  and  contains  extensive  sandy  tracts,  often  covered  with 
heaths  and  morasses.  About  two  fifths  of  tlie  whole  government  are  occu- 
pied by  forests,  and  there  are  no  fewer  than  three  hundred  lakes,  mostly 
of  small  extent ;  but  Usmeiten,  the  largest,  has  a  circuit  of  twenty-four 
miles,  is  in  many  places  twelve  fathoms  deep,  and  abounds  with  fish.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Aa  and  the  Windau.  The  latter  is  above  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  yards  wide  at  its  mouth,  and  is  in  course  of  being  connected 
with  the  Niemen  by  a  canal,  commenced  in  1825.  The  extent  of  the  sur- 
face occupied  by  swamps  and  lakes  produces  frequent  mists,  rendering  the 
air  both  damp  and  cold ;  but  the  climate,  notwithstanding,  is  said  not  to 
be  unhealthy. 


THE   BALTIC   PROVINCES — COURLAND. 


71 


Agriculture  forms  the  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants,  and  is  in  a 
more  advanced  state  than  in  some  of  the  neighboring  governments,  though 
tlie  land  is  generally  of  a  light,  sandy  texture,  and  requires  to  be  frequently 
and  heavily  manured.  The  best  soil  is  on  tlie  frontiers  of  Livonia,  and 
yields  large  crops  of  barley  and  oats,  but  very  little  wheat.  In  the  same 
neighborhood  a  little  hemp  and  flax  are  grown.  The  grain  produced  ex- 
ceeds the  consumption.  Fruit-trees  thrive  tolerably  well,  but  the  produce 
is  indifferent.  Tobacco,  too,  is  grown,  but  only  in  patches.  The  timber 
of  the  forests  consists  of  birch,  alder,  beech,  pine,  and  oak,  but  is  not  con- 
sidered fit  for  shipbuilding. 

The  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  are  generally  of  inferior  breeds ;  but  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  improve  the  last  by  the  introduction  of  the  me- 
rino. In  all  the  larger  forests,  the  gigantic  elk  of  the  north  abounds  ;  but 
the  German  nobles  take  such  delight  in  hunting  it,  that  it  seems  likely  to 
disappear  in  some  districts.  Elks  are  most  numerous  in  eastern  Courland, 
on  the  frontiers  of  Livonia,  where  twenty  or  thirty,  and  sometimes  forty  or 
fifty,  are  often  killed  in  one  day's  hunting.     The  original  (or  Slavonic) 


ELK-HnNTlNG   IN   COURLAND— "  In   AT  THE   DKATH." 

inhabitants  of  the  country,  behave  more  generously  to  this  noble  animal ; 
and  a  female  elk  is  often  seen  feeding,  with  her  young  ones,  along  with 
the  shepherd  and  his  flock.  The  elk  has  never  been  tamed,  and  all  at- 
tempts to  turn  its  gigantic  strength  to  the  service  of  man  have  been  unsuc- 
cessful. Its  flesh,  which  is  a  very  frequent  dish  here,  has  a  taste  between 
that  of  beef  and  venison.  The  skin  forms  extremely  hard  and  thick  leather ; 
it  is  in  many  places  impenetrable  to  a  musket-ball.     An  elk  is  seldom  killed 


72  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

by  the  first  or  second  shot ;  they  sometimes  even  escape  with  four  musket- 
bullets  in  the  body.  The  bear  has  quite  abandoned  this  province ;  hares 
and  deer  are  common,  and  the  wild  hog  is  a  frequent  guest  from  Lithuania. 
The  fishing,  particularly  along  the  coast,  is  of  an  average  annual  value  of 
about  fifteen  thousand  dollars.  The  minerals  are  confined  to  a  little  iron, 
limestone,  and  amber.  The  manufactures  are  insignificant,  with  the  excep- 
tion perhaps  of  tiles,  which  are  made  to  a  considerable  extent.  Distilleries 
also  are  numerous. 

Mittau,  the  capital,  is  the  only  town  of  any  size  ;  the  principal  seaports 
are  Libau  and  Windau,  both  on  the  western  coast.  About  half  of  the  in- 
habitants belong  to  the  primitive  race  of  Lettes.  They  chiefly  occupy  the 
rural  districts,  and,  up  to  1820,  were  divided  into  peasants  and  serfs.  At 
present  they  are  free,  but  do  not  possess  any  property.  The  prevailing 
religion  is  Lutheran — the  Greek  church,  notwithstanding  the  proselyting 
attempts  of  the  Russians,  barely  counting  fifteen  thousand  adherents. 

Mittau  (Lettish,  Jelg-ava),  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situ- 
ated in  a  low,  flat,  and  sandy  district,  on  the  river  Aa,  over  which  is  a 
bridge  of  boats,  twenty-five  miles  southwest  of  Riga.  It  covers  a  very 
large  space,  of  which,  however,  a  considerable  portion  is  occupied  by  gar- 
dens, and  is  on  the  whole  very  indiff"erently  built ;  the  houses  are  chiefly 
of  wood,  painted  green  or  reddish-brown.  Many  of  the  streets  are  narrow 
and  crooked,  but  some  are  also  wide,  straiglit,  and  regular.  The  most 
interesting  building  is  the  castle,  the  residence  of  the  old  dukes  of  Cour- 
land  (who  governed  the  province  after  its  recovery  from  Poland  until  its 
incorporation  with  Russia  in  1795).  It  had  almost  become  a  mere  ruin, 
when,  in  1739,  Marshal  Biron,  the  favorite  of  the  empress  Anne,  when  he 
was  chosen  chief  of  the  Courland  chivalry,  commenced  a  palace  on  the 
same  site,  which  he  completed  after  his  return  from  exile.  It  stands  on 
an  island,  surrounded  by  the  canals  of  the  Aa,  and  is  built  in  the  Versailles 
style.  A  fire  nearly  destroyed  it  in  1788,  when  it  was  rebuilt,  and  subse- 
quently became  the  residence  of  Louis  XVIII.  of  France,  when  travelling 
under  the  title  of  Count  de  Lille.  It  is  now  inhabited  by  the  chief  ofiicers 
of  the  city,  and  a  portion  of  it  is  set  apart  for  the  imperial  family. 

Among  the  other  buildings  of  Mittau,  may  be  mentioned  four  churches 
—  a  Greek,  a  Roman  catholic,  a  Lutheran,  and  a  reformed ;  three  Jewish 
synagogues,  a  museum,  a  library  of  twenty  thousand  volumes,  an  observa- 
tory, a  gymnasium  with  nine  professors,  a  hospital,  an  orphan  and  a  lunatic 
asylum,  a  casino,  and  a  theatre  capable  of  containing  three  thousand  spec- 
tators. Its  manufactures,  which  are  of  little  moment,  include  linen,  hosiery, 
soap,  and  leather  ;  and  its  trade  is  very  limited.  The  population  is  about 
thirteen  thousand. 

Libau  (Lettish,  Lepe'ia)  is  situated  on  the  Baltic,  beside  the  lake  Libau, 
being  the  most  southern  Russian  port  on  that  sea,  and  therefore  possesses 
an  importance  from  its  becoming  navigable  earlier  in  the  spring  than  any 
other.     It  is  walled,  and  entered  by  a  gate  from  the  north.     Its  streets  are 


THE   BALTIC   PROVINCES  —  GENERAL  SUMMARY.  73 

narrow,  and  mostly  unpaved ;  and  its  market-place,  though  large,  is  irreg- 
ular. The  houses  are  of  wood,  and  only  one  story  high.  It  has  Lutheran, 
Roman  catholic,  and  Calvinistic  churches,  a  hospital,  and  an  orphan  asy- 
lum. The  port,  though  commodious,  has  only  from  eight  to  twelve  feet  of 
water,  and  can  not,  therefore,  be  entered  by  vessels  of  much  burden.  It 
has,  however,  a  considerable  trade :  tlie  greater  part  of  the  produce  of 
Courland,  as  cattle,  linseed,  grain,  hides,  tallow,  &c.,  being  exported  from 
it.  Its  imports  are  chiefly  colonial  products,  manufactured  goods,  wine, 
oil,  fruits,  &c.  The  distance  from  Mittau  is  one  hundred  and  five  miles. 
Its  population  is  about  five  thousand. 

Windau  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  and  is 
the  most  northern  town  in  the  government  of  Courland.  It  forms  a  sort 
of  miniature  copy  of  Libau,  and  its  importance  is  mostly  a  prospective  one. 

The  provinces  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Baltic  were  originally  peopled 
by  tribes  of  Wendish  origin,  who  held  fast  to  their  heathen  rites  and  idol- 
worship  long  after  Christianity  was  permanently  established  tliroughout 
the  rest  of  Europe.  Warlike,  restless,  and  piratical,  they  were  engaged  in 
ceaseless  struggles  with  the  Danes  and  other  powers  of  the  north,  but, 
above  all,  with  the  Hanse  Towns  of  Germany,  crippling  their  commerce, 
and  threatening  the  very  existence  of  the  infant  mercantile  republic.  A 
powerful  fleet  was  speedily  equipped,  and  a  landing  effected  on  the  coast 
of  Livonia.  A  species  of  crusade  was  preached  against  these  warlike  idol- 
aters, whose  stubborn  attachment  to  the  dark  rites  and  ceremonies  of  their 
forefathers  defied  the  zeal  and  eloquence  of  the  military  prelates  who 
founded  Riga  and  Yorkeel  toward  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century.  These 
worthies  established  the  order  of  the  "  Brethren  of  the  Cross  and  Sword" 
(^Schwert  Bruder'),  the  members  of  which  were  principally  natives  of 
Bremen  and  Lubeck,  to  the  former  of  which  cities  Albrecht  von  Apelden, 
the  founder  of  the  order,  belonged. 

In  the  full  spirit  of  the  name  they  bore,  these  warlike  adventurers  speed- 
ily enlarged  the  territories  of  the  Hanse  Towns.  Ignorant  of  the  language 
and  despising  the  habits  of  the  natives,  their  principal  weapon  of  conver- 
sion to  the  true  faith  was  that  sword  by  which  they  held  their  footing  on 
the  sliores  of  the  east  sea ;  thougli  on  one  occasion  the  bishop  of  Riga  is 
reported  to  have  edified  the  minds  of  heathen  Wends  by  a  dramatic  repre- 
sentation of  a  variety  of  scenes  from  the  Bible,  while  all  writers  concur  in 
describing  the  cruelties  practised  upon  the  unbelieving  natives  by  these 
Christian  warriors  as  of  the  most  revolting  and  barbarous  description. 
They  were  not  long  permitted  to  pursue  their  career  of  conquest  and  tyr- 
anny with  impunity.  On  the  north,  they  were  compelled  to  recoil  before 
the  arms  of  the  Dane ;  while  the  Russians,  alarmed  at  the  near  approach 
of  such  formidable  neighbors,  roused  the  natives  to  avenge  the  wrongs  of 
half  a  century  of  oppression :  and  the  flame  of  insurrection  spread  far  and 
wide  throughout  Livonia  and  Esthonia.     Many  Germans  were  cut  off  by 


74  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP  RUSSIA. 

the  insurgents  ;  but  at  length  Bishop  Bernhard,  falling  upon  their  tumultu- 
ous forces  with  his  disciplined  chivalry,  routed  the  Wends  and  their  allies, 
and  slew  them  mercilessly.  The  Russian  town  of  Dorpat  was  taken,  and 
a  German  colony  established  there,  in  1220.  The  capture  of  the  isle  of 
(Esel,  to  the  rocky  fastnesses  of  which  the  best  and  bravest  of  the  Livo- 
nians  had  retired  as  a  last  refuge,  and  the  voluntary  conversion  of  the 
Courlanders,  completed  the  power  of  the  brotherhood. 

In  1230,  Frederick  II.,  emperor  of  Germany,  conferred  the  conquered 
provinces  as  an  imperial  fief  on  Valquin,  the  grand-master  of  the  order ; 
and  everything  seemed  to  promise  the  rapid  rise  of  a  mighty  kingdom  — 
when  a  sudden  attack  of  the  Lithuanians  laid  low  the  grand-master  and 
his  hopes  of  conquest,  and  nearly  annihilated  the  entire  forces  of  the  broth- 
erhood. The  scanty  relics  of  this  powerful  body  now  called  for  aid  on 
their  brethren  the  Teutonic  knights,  who  were  anxiously  seeking  a  fairer 
field  for  military  achievements  than  the  East,  where  they  were  alike  ha- 
rassed by  the  open  violence  of  the  mussulman,  and  the  jealousy  of  the  rival 
orders,  the  Templars  and  Hospitallers.  The  presence  of  these  hardy  war- 
riors restored  the  Christians  to  their  former  superiority  in  the  field ;  and 
these  new-comers  soon  rivalled  the  knights  of  the  cross  and  sword  in  cru- 
elty, burning  whole  villages  that  had  relapsed  into  idolatry,  and  making, 
in  the  words  of  one  of  their  own  bishops,  "  out  of  free-born  men  the  most 
wretched  slaves."  As  allies  of  the  Poles,  they  built  on  the  Vistula  the 
fort  of  Nassau ;  and,  sallying  forth  thence,  took  by  storm  the  holy  oak  of 
Thorn,  the  chief  sanctuary  of  the  Prussians,  and  beneath  its  far-spreading 
arms,  as  in  a  citadel,  the  knights  defended  themselves  against  the  frantic 
attacks  of  the  idolaters. 

A  general  rising  of  the  natives,  and  a  war  of  extermination,  reduced  the 
numerous  forces  of  the  knights  to  a  few  scanty  troops,  and  their  ample 
domains  to  three  strongholds ;  and,  after  various  alternate  defeats  and 
Adctories,  they  were  rescued  from  entire  destruction  by  a  crusade,  under 
the  command  of  the  Bohemian  monarch  Ottokar  the  Great,  who  founded 
the  city  of  Konigsberg  in  1260,  and  gave  for  a  time  new  life  and  vigor  to 
the  falling  fortunes  of  the  northern  chivalry. 

Internal  dissensions,  and  the  consequent  establishment  of  a  second  grand- 
master, who  held  his  seat  at  Mergentheim,  weakened  the  growing  power 
of  the  reviving  brotherhood  ;  and  the  fatal  battle  of  Tanenberg,  in  1410, 
gave  a  mortal  blow  to  the  importance  of  this  "  unnatural  institution."  But 
the  knights  still  retained  the  whole  eastern  coast  of  the  Baltic,  from  the 
Narova  to  the  Vistula,  and  it  was  not  until  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century 
that  the  arms  of  Poland  compelled  them  finally  to  relinquish  their  claims 
to  the  district  of  eastern  and  western  Prussia. 

The  ancient  spirit  of  the  order  awoke  once  again  in  the  grand-master 
Tlettenberg,  who  routed  the  Russians  in  1502,  and  compelled  the  czar  to 
agree  to  a  truce  for  fifty  years ;  but  the  stipulated  time  had  no  sooner 
elapsed  than  the  Russians  again  invaded  them :  and,  too  feeble  any  longer 


THE   BALTIC   PROVINCES — GENERAL  SUMMARY.  75 

to  resist  such  powerful  enemies,  the  knights  were  glad  to  purchase  peace, 
and  the  undisturbed  possession  of  the  province  of  Courland  as  a  fief  of  the 
Polish  crown,  by  surrendering  Esthonia  to  Sweden,  and  Livonia  to  the 
Poles,  while  the  districts  of  Narva  and  Dorpat  were  incorported  with  the 
empire  of  Russia.  Still  the  brotherhood  existed.  Without  importance  as 
an  independent  power,  but  valuable  as  an  ally,  its  friendship  was  sought 
and  courted  by  the  various  intrigues  and  commotions  of  the  Russian  throne 
during  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  office  of  grand-master 
or  duke  of  Courland  was  last  held  by  Marshal  Biron,  the  French  favorite 
of  the  empress  Anne  ;  and,  in  1795,  on  the  fall  of  Poland,  and  its  partition 
by  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  Courland  was  fully  incorporated  with  the 
Russian  empire  by  Catherine  II. 

The  only  surviving  relic  of  the  Teutonic  knights,  besides  the  palace  near 
Mittau,  is  the  beautiful  hall  of  the  preceptory  at  Marienberg,  in  Prussia. 
"  In  June,  1809,"  says  Menzel,  "  the  king  of  Wiirtemburg  took  pos- 
session of  Mergentheim,  the  principal  settlement  of  the  Teutonic  knights. 
The  astonished  inmates  beheld  with  fury  the  new  protestant  officials,  and 
rose  in  open  rebellion  against  the  proposed  traffic  with  their  rights.  They 
were  easily  subdued  and  savagely  punished ;  for  they  were  condemned  to 
the  galleys,  and  compelled  to  work  in  chains  in  the  royal  gardens  at  Stutt- 
gard.  Thus  ended  the  far-famed  order  of  the  Teutonic  knights."  Almost 
the  only  mention  of  the  order  in  the  later  history  of  Germany  is  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  Swedish  general  Horn  to  the  grand-mastership  of  Mergentheim, 
during  the  Tliirty  Years'  War,  in  order  to  enable  him  to  treat  with  the 
nobles  and  cities  of  the  empire  as  an  equal.  The  ancient  palace  of  the 
Teutonic  knights  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  is  at  present  used  as  a  barrack 
for  the  Austrian  garrison. 

The  iniiabitants  of  Esthonia,  Livonia,  and  Courland,  have,  in  language 
and  manners,  much  in  common — much  that  is  characteristic  of  the  German 
Baltic  provinces  of  Russia ;  but  a  more  practised  eye  will  discover  much 
that  is  characteristic  only  of  particular  parts.  The  Livonian  German  is 
as  different  from  the  German  of  Courland,  as  the  Saxon  is  from  the  Prus- 
sian, and  the  Bavarian  from  the  Austrian,  and  they  despise  one  another 
quite  as  intensely.  Upon  the  whole,  the  Livonian  is  considered  as  the 
most  refined  and  cultivated,  the  Esthonian  as  the  best  soldier,  and  the 
Courlander  as  possessed  of  most  natural  ability.  Even  within  each  prov- 
ince, differences  may  be  observed  between  the  inhabitants  of  different 
parts ;  and  a  practised  eye  and  ear,  for  instance,  can  readily  discover 
whether  a  German  of  Courland  comes  from  the  neighborhood  of  Libau  or 
Mittau. 

In  comparison  with  the  Germans,  Lettes,  and  Esthonians,  the  other  ele- 
ments of  the  population,  the  Swedes,  Poles,  Jews,  gipsies,  and  Russians, 
are  very  insignificant.  Of  these,  of  course,  the  Russians  are  by  far  the 
most  important.  A  few  small  islands,  Wrangelsholm,  Nargen,  Worms, 
Runoe,  <fec.,  are  inhabited  by  a  race  of  Swedish  origin,  who  preserve  much 


76 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 


of  tlieir  original  Swedish  character.  The  nobility  of  Swedish  origin  have, 
however,  become  thoroughly  Germanized. 

The  Poles  are  found  occasionally  in  the  towns,  but  they  are  few  and 
scattered,  and  are  completely  lost  among  the  rest  of  the  population. 

The  gipsies  wander  homeless  through  Esthonia,  Livonia,  and  Courland. 
as  through  other  countries,  and  continue  their  old  nomadic  way  of  life, 
in  spite  of  the  severest  laws  against  them.  They  are  less  numerous  in 
Livonia  than  in  Courland.  They  employ  themselves  much  in  tiie  same 
way  as  in  other  countries,  namely,  as  horse-stealers,  cattle-dealers,  tinkers, 
&c.  They  are  in  many  cases  still  permitted  to  remain  under  the  command 
of  their  own  chiefs  or  gipsy  kings,  because  they  pay  more  respect  to  them 
than  to  any  other  authorities,  and  because  these  chiefs  can  be  made  re- 
sponsible for  the  offences  of  their  subjects.  For  instance,  if  a  gipsy  king 
is  threatened  with  punishment  for  the  thefts  of  his  people,  the  offender  is 
soon  discovered. 


tUMBOils. 


Gipsy  Woman  and  Child. 


The  Jews  are  seldom  to  be  met  with  anywhere  but  in  Courland,  for  in 
Livonia  and  Esthonia  a  Jew  is  actually  prohibited  from  remaining  more 
than  twenty-four  hours  in  any  town  or  city.  In  Courland,  however,  they 
are  found  everywhere — in  the  towns,  villages,  and  estates  (edellibferi)  — 
where  they  occupy  themselves  in  agriculture,  and  in  different  mechanical 


THE  BALTIC   PROVINCES  —  GENERAL   SUMMARY.  77 

arts,  as  smiths,  carpenters,  masons,  &c.  In  the  towns  they  are  also  tai- 
lors, tinkers,  glaziers,  shoemakers,  brokers,  and  shopkeepers  ;  but  the 
hackney-coachmen  in  the  towns,  and  the  innkeepers  and  brandy-dealers  in 
tlie  country,  are  almost  exclusively  Jews.  They  practise  a  variety  of  cun- 
ning and  artful  tricks  in  dealing  out  their  brandy  to  the  peasants,  and 
induce  them  to  drink  by  taking  credit,  receiving  various  little  goods  and 
chattels  in  payment  for  their  spirits,  and  so  on.  In  this  way  they  often 
completely  ruin  the  poor  Lettes  and  Esthonians. 

More  than  a  third  of  the  beggars  and  mendicants  of  Courland  are  Jews, 
and  the  depth  of  want  and  misery  into  which  these  Jewish  beggars  are 
sunk  is  fearful  to  contemplate.  As  smugglers,  the  Jews  on  the  frontiers 
of  Courland  and  the  Lithuanian  provinces  are  so  expert  as  often  to  defy 
the  most  rigorous  precautions  of  the  Russian  government. 

The  old  ordinances  of  the  dukes  of  Courland  against  this  unfortunate 
race  are  ridiculous  enough,  and  aim  at  nothing  less  than  the  immediate 
and  total  annihilation  of  Judaism  in  the  country.  They  are  generally  en- 
titled "  Ordinances  for  the  total  abolition  of  the  Jews,"  and  some  of  them 
commence  thus :  "  It  is  our  earnest  will  and  pleasure  that  in  six  weeks  no 
Jew  shall  anywl^ere  remain  within  our  dukedom."  How  little  the  Jews 
troubled  themselves  about  the  ducal  will  and  pleasure,  is  proved  by  the 
fact  that,  instead  of  six  weeks,  one  hundred  years  have  passed  without 
even  decreasing  their  numbers.  Another  ducal  edict  commands  that  "  all 
Jews  caught  in  the  streets  shall  have  their  horse  and  cart  and  all  their 
property  taken  from  them,  shall  be  severely  flogged,  and  then  ignomini- 
ously  expelled  from  the  town."  It  is  also  added  that  all  persons  receiving, 
sheltering,  or  succoring  Jews,  "  shall  be  punished  in  the  most  exemplary 
manner." 

These  edicts,  though  they  doubtless  banished  many  Jews  from  the  coun- 
try, had  no  lasting  effects,  for  all  the  gaps  were  soon  filled  again.  The 
Russian  government,  though  it  has  not  attempted  total  abolition,  or  banish- 
ment in  six  weeks,  has  yet  attempted  to  curb,  restrain,  and  put  down  the 
poor  Jews,  in  various  ways.  At  one  time  all  Jews  were  to  confine  them- 
selves to  agriculture ;  at  another  time  all  Jews  without  property  were  to 
be  transported  to  Siberia,  where  the  government  would  provide  them  with 
property.  By  an  imperial  ukase,  issued  in  1840,  all  poor  Jews  were  to  be 
collected,  and  brought  together  out  of  every  town,  by  their  respective  coun- 
sellors or  advisers  {rathsherrn'),  to  Mittau.  There  the  rabbins  assembled 
them,  and  set  forth  to  them  the  condescending  grace  of  their  emperor,  whose 
wish  it  was  that  they  should  henceforth  be  employed  in  agriculture — an 
occupation  so  much  to  be  preferred  to  all  others,  and  so  peculiarly  adapted 
for  preserving  men  in  the  paths  of  morals  and  religion.  "  Endowed  with 
rich  presents  by  the  charitable  citizens  of  Mittau,"  we  are  told,  "  and  full 
of  gratitude  to  their  generous  benefactors,  the  emigrants  set  forth,  followed 
by  the  tears  and  prayers  of  the  compassionate."  The  rabbins,  no  doubt, 
endeavored  to  persuade  the  poor  creatures  that  they  were  going  to  a  land 


78 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP  RUSSIA. 


COURLAND  JbW,   WITH   DuLCIMKR. 


of  promise,  but  unfortunately  the  province  of  Kherson,  their  destination, 
has  a  very  different  character. 

The  Russians  of  the  Baltic  provinces  may  be  divided  into  those  who 
only  wander  for  a  time  about  the  country,  and  those  who  are  completely 
domesticated.  The  Russian  serfs  easily  obtain  permission  of  their  lords 
to  wander  out  into  the  world  and  seek  their  fortunes,  provided  they  pay  a 
certain  yearly  sum  as  obrok,  or  service-money.  Quick  and  shrewd  in 
everything,  though  they  never  do  any  tiling  thoroughly  well,  they  are  very 
useful  in  provinces  like  those  of  the  Baltic,  where  industrious  and  intelli- 
gent workmen  are  scarce,  and  where  they  supply  the  deficiencies  of  the 
indolent  and  unskilful  natives.     The  strong,  lively,  active  serf  of  Russia 


THE  BALTIC   PROVINCES  —  GENERAL  SUMMARY.  79 

will  perform  three  times  as  much  work  in  a  given  time  as  a  Lette  or  Es- 
thonian.  In  all  labors  which  require  skill  and  expedition,  such  as  the 
laying  out  of  a  garden,  the  building  of  a  house,  &c.,  the  German  nobleman 
will  rather  employ  Russian  workmen  than  tlieir  own  serfs.  They  are  par- 
ticularly expert  as  carpenters,  and  make  a  good  deal  of  money  wandering 
from  estate  to  estate  with  their  tools  slung  at  their  girdles. 

The  Russians  have  a  greater  genius  and  predilection  for  the  trade  of 
peddler  and  itinerant  merchant  than  for  any  mechanical  art.  They  travel 
about  the  country  in  little  one-horse  carts,  vending  Russian  books,  pictures, 
and  fancy  wares,  as  well  as  earthenware,  tobacco,  <fec.  But  the  Russians 
of  these  provinces  do  not  confine  themselves  to  mechanical  pursuits  ;  they 
often  engage  in  speculations  of  various  kinds.  In  spring  they  will  buy  up 
the  future  produce  of  the  gardens  from  the  lords  of  the  soil,  to  sell  the 
fruit  afterward  by  retail  in  St.  Petersburg.  Sometimes  they  form  compa- 
nies, and  undertake  for  certain  sums  the  erection  of  bridges,  public  build- 
ings, &c.  Sometimes  they  hire  large  pieces  of  land  in  the  neighborhood 
of  towns,  where  they  grow  vegetables  for  the  use  of  the  citizens.  A  Rus- 
sian who  yesterday  entered  the  service  of  a  merchant  to  pack  hemp  and 
flax  in  the  harbor,  will  to-day  turn  coachman  to  a  nobleman  who  wishes  to 
cut  a  figure,  with  a  fine,  handsome,  long-bearded  Russian  on  his  coach-box, 
and  to-morrow  will  return  home  with  what  he  has  earned.  The  Russians 
domesticated  in  the  provinces  either  live  in  the  villages  as  peasants,  or  in 
the  suburbs  of  the  towns  as  citizens.  The  former  chiefly  employ  themselves 
in  fishing.  The  Russians  are  the  most  expert  fishermen  in  the  world  on 
riA'crs,  and  their  nets  generally  swim  the  pond  or  stream  into  which  they 
are  thrown  completely  clear  of  all  living  creatures ;  so  much  so,  indeed, 
that  Avhen  ponds  are  hired  for  a  certain  time,  a  stipulation  will  often  be 
made  by  their  owners  that  no  Russians  shall  fish  in  them. 

The  Russians  who  inhabit  the  suburbs  of  the  towns  are  almost  without 
exception  of  low  origin ;  but  many  of  them  have  in  some  way  managed  to 
free  themselves  from  serfdom,  and  some  have  raised  themselves  to  consid- 
erable rank  and  wealth,  particularlj^  those  who  trade  between  Riga,  Revel, 
<fec.,  and  the  interior  of  Russia,  in  wood,  flax,  hemp,  tallow,  &c.  They 
inhabit  the  daily  spreading  and  rising  suburbs,  demanding,  with  ever- 
increasing  loudness  and  impatience,  an  equality  of  rights  with  the  German 
burghers  within  the  cities. 

The  vegetable-gardeners  in  the  environs  of  the  towns  are  exclusively 
Russians ;  they  spread  themselves  all  round  the  cities  with  their  cabbage 
and  asparagus  gardens.  None  know  better  than  they  do  how  to  turn  every 
warm  ray  of  sunshine  to  the  advantage  of  their  plants,  and  how  to  protect 
them  from  the  severity  of  the  northern  climate. 

If  we  cast  a  summary  glance  over  the  whole  population  of  the  German 
Baltic  provinces,  we  find  — 

The  original  inhabitants,  the  Lettes  and  Esthonians,  are  agricultural 
laborers,  with  a  very  few  exceptions. 


80  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OP  RUSSIA. 

The  Germans  are  the  aristocracy  of  the  country,  and  consist  of  the 
nobility,  living  on  their  own  estates,  of  the  merchants  and  tradesmen  in 
the  towns,  and  of  the  liter aten. 

The  most  rising  and  industrious  class  are  the  Russian  settlers  and  travel- 
ling mechanics  and  tradesmen.  The  Jews  are  scattered  through  tlie  prov- 
inces as  innkeepers,  small  shopkeepers,  and  beggars,  and  the  gipsies  as 
thieves  and  liorse-dealers. 

The  whole  population  of  the  German  Baltic  provinces  is  about  one  and 
a  half  millions,  and  the  population  decreases  in  density  toward  the  north. 
Of  one  thousand  inhabitants,  about  nine  hundred  are  Lettes  and  Esthoni- 
ans,  fifty  Germans,  thirty  Russians,  five  Swedes,  and  fifteen  Jews. 

As  regards  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  these  provinces,  the  interesting 
but  almost  unnoticed  races  of  the  Lettes  and  Lithuanians  are  a  perpetual 
and  puzzling  enigma.  "  Lonely  and  unconnected  with  any  of  the  surround- 
ing nations,"  says  Kohl,  "  they  occupy  their  little  nook  of  northern  land, 
evidently  unsimilar  and  unrelated  to  any  European  nation,  and  bear  affinity 
only  to  the  tribes  that  inhabit  the  far  East,  at  the  foot  of  Dawalagiri,  or 
on  the  shores  of  the  Ganges.  '  Esmi,''  I  am  —  says  the  Lithuanian  :  ^Asmi,'' 
I  am — says  the  Hindu  of  the  Himalayas.  ^  Eimi,'  I  go — says  the  Lette 
of  the  Baltic  :  '■Aimi''  is  the  Hindu  word  for  expressing  the  same  idea.  On 
the  Niemen,  ^Divas'  is  the  word  for  God:  on  the  Ganges,  ^ Daivas^  signi- 
fies the  same.  It  is  unnecessary  to  know  more  Sanscrit  than  can  be  learned 
from  Ruckert's  poems,  to  be  struck  by  the  extraordinary  Indian  character 
of  the  pronunciation,  language,  and  tones,  of  the  Lithuanian  and  Lette. 
The  languages  are  the  same  in  form  ;  the  pronouns,  adverbs,  and  numerals, 
are  similar;  the  names  of  the  commonest  animals,  of  the  different  parts  of 
the  human  body,  &c.,  are  tlie  same  in  the  Sanscrit  as  in  the  Lithuanian. 
Indeed,  whole  Sanscrit  sentences  may  easily  be  put  together,  which  the 
peasant  of  the  Niemen  will  at  once  understand.  From  these  and  many 
other  proofs  there  can  hardly  remain  a  doubt  that  the  Lithuanians  and 
Lettes  must  have  come  more  directly  from  the  primeval  birthplace  of  the 
human  race  than  any  other  European  nation. 

"  The  oldest  historians  of  these  tribes  of  the  Baltic  describe  them  as 
governed  by  a  supreme  high-priest,  called  the  '  Krihvo,''  and  by  subordinate 
priests,  the  '  Veideloten.'  Groves  of  oak  and  other  trees  are  named  as  the 
residences  of  these  priests,  and  the  temples  of  the  deities  they  worshipped. 
This  caste  of  priests  was  probably  of  Hindu  origin  and  character,  and  lasted 
until  Christendom  and  its  popes  expelled  the  heathenism  of  the  north." 


GREAT   RUSSIA  —  ARCHANGEL.  81 


CHAPTER   III. 

GREAT    RUSSIA. 

ARCHANGEL  (or  Arkanghelsk),  which  is  by  far  the  largest  govern- 
ment as  regards  territorial  extent,  and  yet  the  smallest  in  point  of 
population,  in  Great  Russia,  occupies  the  whole  country  from  the 
Ural  mountains  on  the  east  to  the  grand  principality  of  Finland  on  the 
west,  a  distance  of  over  nine  hundred  miles ;  and  from  the  frontiers  of 
Vologda  and  Olonetz  on  the  south  to  the  Arctic  ocean  and  the  White  sea 
on  the  north,  about  four  hundred  miles.  It  includes  the  eastern  portion 
of  Russian  Lapland,  and  also  Nova  Zembla  (six  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
long  by  one  hundred  and  fifty  wide),  and  some  other  large  islands  in  the 
Arctic  ocean.  Its  most  eastern  limit  is  about  sixty-eight  degrees  east  longi- 
tude, and  its  most  western  thirty  degrees  east ;  its  most  southern  point  is 
at  about  latitude  sixty-one  degrees  north,  and  its  most  northern  the  ex- 
treme point  of  Nova  Zembla,  in  about  latitude  seventy-six  degrees  north. 
Its  area  is  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  square  miles. 

The  largest  portion  by  far  of  this  vast  territory  is  condemned  to  perpet- 
ual sterility.  The  part  of  it  within  the  arctic  circle  consists  principally  of 
an  almost  boundless  expanse  of  sandy  and  mossy  plains,  having  ice,  even 
in  the  middle  of  summer,  always  a  little  below  the  surface.  The  country 
on  this  side  the  arctic  circle  consists,  also,  of  immense  plains,  partly  occu- 
pied with  forests  that  cover  more  than  half  the  entire  extent  of  the  prov- 
ince ;  partly,  but  in  a  very  inferior  degree,  by  low  pasture-grounds ;  and 
partly  with  lakes,  morasses,  &c.  The  principal  towns  are  Archangel, 
Onega,  Dwina,  Mezen,  and  Petchora. 

Owing  to  the  severity  and  variableness  of  the  climate,  grain  crops  can 
not  be  depended  upon :  in  consequence,  even  in  the  southern  district,  where 
the  land  is  most  fertile,  they  are  but  little  attended  to  ;  though  considera- 
ble quantities  of  hemp  and  flax  are  raised.  The  principal  wealth  of  the 
government  consists  in  its  immense  and  apparently  inexhaustible  forests  ; 
but  fishing  and  hunting  are  the  chief  employments.  The  reindeer  is  the 
domestic  animal  of  the  Laplanders  and  Samoides,  the  former  occupying 
the  northwestern  and  the  latter  the  northeastern  parts  of  the  government. 
Among  the  tribes  now  mentioned,  dried  fish  occupies  the  place  of  bread ; 
and  in  the  more  southern  districts,  the  inner  barks  of  trees,  and  certain 
species  of  moss,  are  intermixed  with  meal,  or  substituted  for  it  in  the 

6 


82  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

making  of  bread.  Horses  and  cattle  are  diminutive,  and  but  little  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  their  treatment.  The  district  of  Kholmogory,  on  the  Dwina, 
a  little  below  Archangel,  where  the  pasturing  is  exceedingly  good,  must, 
however,  be  excepted  from  this  remark.  A  breed  of  Dutch  cattle,  im- 
ported into  this  district  by  Catherine  I.,  and  distributed  among  the  inhab- 
itants, still  preserves  its  superiority ;  and  the  calves  of  these  cattle,  being  * 
well  fed,  furnish  the  delicate  white  veal  so  much  esteemed  at  St.  Peters- 
burg and  other  markets. 

Ship  and  boat  building,  and  the  preparation  of  pitch  and  tar,  are  carried 
on  to  a  considerable  extent.  A  good  deal  of  coarse  linen  is  made  by  the 
peasantry  of  Archangel,  and  of  the  contiguous  districts ;  and  they  also 
manufacture  a  good  deal  of  cordage,  and  immense  quantities  of  mats,  with 
leather,  tallow,  turpentine,  potash,  &c. 

The  population  of  this  province,  though  originally  Finnish,  is  now  essen- 
tially Russian.  The  Samoides,  who  are  almost  at  the  bottom  of  the  scale 
of  civilization,  though  spread  over  an  immense  surface,  do  not  exceed  six 
or  seven  thousand  individuals.  They  are  exempted  from  the  obrok,  and 
from  compulsory  military  service,  paying  only  the  issaak,  or  tribute  im- 
posed on  the  Russian  Asiatic  tribes.  The  Laplanders,  wlio  are  a  little 
more  advanced,  do  not  amount  to  more  than  two  thousand  indi\dduals. 
They  are  subject  to  the  capitation  tax. 

Russian  Lapland  (called  by  the  natives  Sameanda,  by  the  Swedes  Lapp- 
mark,  and  by  the  Russians  Laplandiia)  comprises  that  portion  of  the  coun- 
try under  the  name  of  Lapland,  lying  between  the  river  Tornea  on  the  west 
and  the  White  sea  on  the  east,  and  is  divided  between  the  governments 
of  Archangel  and  Finland.  It  has  an  area  of  about  seventy  thousand 
square  miles,  being  of  somewhat  larger  extent  than  tliat  portion  of  Lapland 
lying  in  Sweden  and  Norway. 

From  both  position  and  physical  conformation,  Lapland  is  one  of  the 
most  forbidding  regions  of  the  globe,  consisting  either  of  rugged  mount- 
ains—  gome  of  them  covered  with  perpetual,  and  many  of  them  only  for  a 
short  period  free  from  snow — or  of  vast  monotonous  tracts  of  moorland 
wastes.  This  extensive  territory  appears  to  have  been  at  one  time  wholly 
occupied  by  the  people  to  whom  it  owes  its  name ;  but  its  southern  and 
better  portions  have  been  gradually  encroached  upon  by  Swedes,  Norwe- 
gians, and  Finlanders,  till  the  Laplanders  proper  have,  in  a  great  measure, 
been  cooped  up  within  the  arctic  circle.  There  they  retain  their  distinc- 
tive features  and  ancient  customs,  and  find  ample  scope  to  follow  their 
favorite  modes  of  life,  either  as  mountain  Laplanders  (^Fjelde-Finner} ,  lead- 
ing a  nomadic  life,  and  pasturing  large  reindeer-herds ;  or  sea  or  shore 
Laplanders  (^Sde- Firmer'),  who,  too  poor  to  possess  such  hei'ds,  have  been 
obliged  to  fix  their  residence  upon  the  coast,  and  subsist  chiefly  by  fishing. 
^  The  origin  of  the  Laplanders,  as  a  race,  has  greatly  puzzled  ethnographers, 
in  consequence  of  their  presenting  a  combination  of  physical  properties  not 
possessed  exclusively  by  either  the  Mongolian  or  the  Caucasian  stock,  but 


• 


GREAT  RUSSIA  —  ARCHANGEL. 


85 


belonging  partly  to  the  one  and  partly  to  the  other.  The  prevailing  opin- 
ion, however,  is,  that  they  are  only  a  variety  of  Tsehude,  or  Finns.  Their 
chief  characteristics  are — low 
stature,  seldom  exceeding  four 
feet  nine  inches  high ;  great 
muscular  power,  shown  both  in 
their  agility  and  in  a  strength 
of  arm,  enabling  them  to  bend 
a  bow  which  an  ordinary  Nor- 
wegian could  not  handle  ;  a 
large  head ;  dark,  long,  and 
glossy  hair ;  small  brown  eyes, 
obliquely  placed,  and  without 
eyelids  ;  high  and  prominent 
cheek-bones;  wide  mouth,  with 
ill-deJ5ned  lips ;  a  scanty  beard ; 
and  a  skin  of  a  yellow,  dingy 
hue,  probably  rendered  deeper 
than  nature  has  made  it,  from 
living  in  smoky  cabins,  and  i-  shore  i.aplandeb.  2, 3.  mountain  laplandels. 
neglecting  habits  of  personal 

cleanliness.  Their  dress,  at  least  that  of  the  mountain  Laplander,  is  com- 
posed almost  throughout  of  reindeer-skin.  With  the  hair  turned  outward, 
it  forms  an  upper  coat,  a  kind  of  trousers,  sandals  and  shoes,  gloves,  and 
a  conical  cap.  In  summer,  the  reindeer-skin  is  often  exchanged  for  a 
woollen  coat,  which,  in  the  female,  is  converted  into  a  kind  of  pelisse,  and 
reaches  to  the  ankles.  The  cap  of  the  female  also  is  distinguished  by  its 
loftier  peak,  and  some  attempts  at  ornament ;  and  her  shoulders  are  not 
unfrequently  covered  with  a  small  shawl  or  plaid,  on  occasions  of  display. 

The  Laplanders  are  not  deficient  in  either  intellectual  or  moral  capacity. 
They  are  simple-hearted,  hospitable,  and  apparently  inclined,  as  far  as 
their  knowledge  goes,  to  practise  the  duties  of  Christianity,  which  they  all 
profess,  under  the  form  of  Lutheranism  in  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  that 
of  the  Greek  church  in  Russia.  The  greatest  exception  to  this  practice  is 
an  excessive  fondness  for  ardent  spirits.  A  more  harmless  vice  is  the  ex- 
cessive use  of  tobacco.  The  number  of  Laplanders  in  Russia,  Sweden,  and 
Norway,  is  not  supposed  to  exceed  twenty  thousand  of  all  descriptions. 
Probably  one  third  of  them  are  nomadic. 

Nova  Zembla  (called  by  the  Russians  Novaia  Zemlia)  consists  of  two 
large  islands  in  the  Arctic  ocean,  forming  a  dependency  of  the  government 
of  Archangel,  and  extending  from  latitude  seventy-one  to  seventy-six 
degrees  north,  and  from  fifty-three  to  seventy-seven  degrees  east  longitude. 
They  are  separated  from  each  other  by  the  narrow  strait,  Matotchkin  Shar ; 
from  the  isle  of  Vaigatz  on  the  south  by  the  strait ;  and  from  the  mainland 
on  the  east  by  the  sea  of  Kara.     Their  greatest  length  from  northeast  to 


86  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 

southwest,  as  before  stated,  is  six  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  and  their  breadth 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  The  far  greater  part  of  the  interior  is  unex- 
plored ;  and  even  the  northern  and  eastern  coasts,  where  ice  makes  access 
almost  impossible,  are  very  imperfectly  known.  The  southwestern  and 
western  coasts,  which  have  been  examined,  are  in  the  former  direction 
generally  low  and  flat ;  and,  in  the  latter,  bordered  by  sandstone  cliffs, 
which,  though  not  elevated,  are  very  precipitous.  The  general  slope  of 
both  islands  appears  to  be  toward  Matotchkin  strait,  on  which  the  mouths 
of  at  least  fifteen  small  streams  have  been  counted.  Lakes  also  are  numer- 
ous. The  whole  territory  is  wild  and  desolate  in  the  extreme.  The  coasts 
swarm  with  seals,  various  kinds  of  fish,  and  vast  flights  of  water-fowl.  The 
interior,  which  is  partly  covered  with  stunted  shrubs,  short  grass,  and  moss, 
is  frequented  by  reindeer,  white  bears,  ermines,  and  arctic  foxes.  Nova 
Zembla  has  no  permanent  inhabitants,  but  is  visited  by  Russian  hunters 
and  fishers.      These  islands  were  discovered  by  the  English  in  1583. 

Archangel,  the  capital  of  the  government,  is  the  principal  city  and  poii; 
of  trade  in  the  north  of  Russia.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Dwina,  about  thirty-five  miles  above  where  it  falls  into  the  White  sea,  in 
latitude  sixty-four  degrees  north.  Its  population,  including  that  of  the 
small  dependent  village  of  Solembolsk,  is  about  thirty  thousand.  It  is 
almost  entirely  built  of  wood,  and  has  been  materially  improved  since  the 
fire  of  1793.  The  principal  building  is  the  Gostinoi  divor,  or  bazar,  for 
the  exhibition  and  sale  of  merchandise,  and  its  protection  against  fire.  It 
is  of  stone,  and  of  great  extent.  The  marine  hospital  also  deserves  to  be 
noticed.  Archangel  is  the  residence  of  a  general  and  civil  governor,  and 
of  an  archbishop.  There  is  an  ecclesiastical  seminary  with  nine  professors, 
a  gymnasium,  a  school  of  commerce  and  navigation,  and  some  other  edu- 
cational establishments. 

Notwithstanding  its  high  northern  latitude,  and  the  lengthened  period 
during  which  it  is  annually  inaccessible.  Archangel  has  a  pretty  extensive 
commerce.  It  owes  this  to  its  situation  on  the  Dwina,  one  of  the  most 
important  rivers  of  Russia,  and  which  has  been  united  by  canals  with  the 
Volga  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Neva  on  the  other.  The  greater  part  of 
the  articles  of  export  are  brought  by  this  channel,  mostly  from  a  consider- 
able distance,  and  some  even  from  Siberia.  The  principal  are  grain,  flax, 
hemp,  timber,  iron,  linseed ;  vast  quantities  of  mats,  potash,  tallow,  tar, 
pitch,  train-oil,  canvass  and  coarse  linen,  furs,  cordage,  &c.  The  exports 
vary  materially  in  different  years,  principally  according  to  the  demand  for 
grain  in  foreign  countries.  The  value  of  the  imports,  which  consist  prin- 
cipally of  colonial  produce,  spices,  salt,  woollens,  cottons,  hardware,  &c., 
is  always  much  less  than  that  of  the  exports.  The  harbor  is  at  the  island 
of  Solembolsk,  about  one  mile  below  the  town ;  and  the  ships  are  princi- 
pally loaded  direct  from  the  prams,  rafts,  &c.,  that  bring  the  produce  down 
the  river.  There  is  a  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  with  from  thirteen  to 
fifteen  feet  of  water ;  and  vessels  drawing  more  than  this  must,  of  course, 


GREAT  RUSSIA  —  VOLOGDA.  87 

partly  load  and  unload  by  means  of  lighters  in  the  roads.  There  is  a  gov- 
ernment dockyard,  with  slips  for  building  ships,  about  twelve  miles  below 
the  town,  where  also  are  situated  warehouses  belonging  to  the  merchants 
of  the  city.  A  fishing  company  was  established  here  in  1803.  Exclusive 
of  the  ship  and  boat  building,  and  the  manufacture  of  cordage  and  canvass 
before  referred  to,  there  is  a  sugar-refinery,  several  breweries,  &c. 

The  entrance  to  the  Dwina,  where  Archangel  was  soon  after  built,  was 
discovered  by  the  famous  Richard  Chancellor,  an  English  navigator,  and 
founder  of  the  "  English  Russia  Company,"  who  was  the  companion  of  Sir 
Hugh  Willoughby  in  his  voyage  of  discovery,  in  1554 ;  and  from  that  pe- 
riod down  to  the  foundation  of  St.  Petersburg,  it  was  the  only  port  in  the 
empire  accessible  to  foreigners.  In  returning  from  his  second  voyage  on 
behalf  of  the  same  company,  attended  by  the  Russian  embassador  and  suite, 
Chancellor  perished  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  in  1556. 

Vologda,  the  largest  government  of  European  Russia,  after  that  of  Arch- 
angel, lies  between  the  fifty-eighth  and  sixty-fourth  degrees  of  north  lati- 
tude, and  the  thirty-eighth  and  sixtieth  degrees  of  east  longitude,  having 
on  the  north.  Archangel ;  on  the  west,  Olonetz  and  Novgorod  ;  on  the  south, 
Yaroslav,  Kostroma,  and  Viatka ;  and,  on  the  east,  the  Ural  mountains, 
separating  it  from  Tobolsk.  It  comprises  an  area  of  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  square  miles. 

Excepting  in  the  east,  where  it  is  covered  with  the  Ural  mountains,  the 
surface  of  this  province  is  generally  an  undulating  plain,  comprised  in  the 
basin  of  the  Dwina,  which  is  its  largest  river.  The  general  slope  of  the 
country  is  accordingly  to  the  northwest.  In  the  south  and  southwest,  the 
soil  is  fertile,  but  elsewhere  it  is  sandy  or  thin,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
surface  is  covered  with  marshes,  and  forests  of  pine,  birch,  oak,  &c. 

Though  the  climate  varies  with  the  situation,  it  is,  generally  speaking, 
very  severe  ;  it  is  far,  however,  from  being  unhealthy,  and  instances  of  lon- 
gevity are  frequent.  The  grains  principally  cultivated  are  rye  and  barley  ; 
but  the  produce  of  grain  is  insufficient  for  the  consumption  of  the  inhabit- 
ants. Hemp,  flax,  and  hops,  succeed,  as  do  beans  and  peas.  Cattle  and 
horses  are  numerous  and  good ;  but  a  large  part  of  the  government  being 
unoccupied  and  in  a  state  of  nature,  the  chase  necessarily  occupies  much 
attention  (a  characteristic  representation  of  which,  in  winter,  is  presented 
on  the  following  page).  The  forests,  the  principal  source  of  wealth,  are 
of  great  extent,  those  of  the  crown  alone  covering  eighty  millions  of  acres. 
Granite,  marble,  salt,  flints,  copper,  and  iron,  are  all  obtained  in  Vologda. 
It  has  a  large  number  of  manufacturing  establishments,  principally  for 
woollen  and  linen  fabrics,  soap,  leather,  potash,  glass-wares,  and  paper. 
Distillation  is  also  very  extensively  carried  on.  Furs,  tallow,  pitch,  wooden 
articles,  masts  and  timber,  turpentine,  and  other  raw  products,  are  the 
great  articles  of  export ;  being  sent,  for  the  most  part,  into  the  governments 
of  Archangel  and  Tobolsk. 


88 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 


■'■fVT-fioC 


The  Chase  in  Winter. 


The  population  of  Vologda  is  principally  Russian,  but  includes  some 
Zyrians  or  Surjans  of  Finnish  stock ;  and,  in  the  north,  are  some  wander- 
ing Samoide  tribes.  Public  instruction,  owing  to  the  thinness  of  the  popu-. 
lation,  is  necessarily  very  limited  ;  but  it  has  been  materially  increased  of 
late  years.  This  territory  is  divided  into  ten  districts.  The  chief  towns 
are  Vologda,  the  capital,  and  Velikioustioug. 

The  city  of  Vologda,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated 
near  its  southwestern  extremity.  It  is  built  on  both  sides  of  the  river 
Vologda,  and  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns  in  Russia. 
The  greater  part  of  its  houses  are  still  of  wood,  but  the  buildings  in  stone 
are  increasing,  and  several  of  its  churches  are  of  that  material.  It  has  two 
cathedrals,  one  of  which  was  rebuilt  in  1832.  The  palaces  of  the  arch- 
bishop and  governor,  the  prison,  gymnasium,  hospital,  various  asylums,  and 
an  episcopal  seminary,  are  conspicuous  edifices.  Near  the  town  is  a  famous 
convent,  founded  in  1371. 

Vologda  has  manufactures  of  soap,  potash,  cordage,  bells,  and  tallow- 
candles,  for  which  last  it  is  famous  over  all  the  north  of  Russia.  Its  trade 
is  considerable,  which  is  principally  with  the  Baltic,  Germany,  and  Eng- 
land ;  also  to  Siberia,  even  to  the  boundaries  of  the  Chinese  empire.  Its 
population  is  supposed  to  be  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  thousand. 


The  government  of  Olonetz  lies  between  the  sixtieth  and  sixty-fifth  de- 
grees of  north  latitude,  and  the  thirtieth  and  forty-second  degrees  of  east 
longitude ;  having  on  the  north  and  northeast,  the  government  of  Archan- 
gel ;  on  the  southeast  and  south,  Vologda,  Novgorod,  and  St.  Petersburg; 


GREAT   RUSSIA  —  OLONETZ.  89 

and  6u  the  west,  Lake  Ladoga  and  Finland.  Its  area,  including  Lake 
Onega,  is  about  sixty-seven  thousand  square  miles. 

The  western  part  of  this  government  resembles  Finland,  it  being  alter- 
nately mountainous  and  marshy,  or  covered  with  lakes.  Of  the  latter, 
Onega  is  by  far  the  largest.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Onega  (by  which 
the  lake  Latcha  discharges  itself  into  the  White  sea),  Vodla,  Tvir,  Suna, 
&c.  For  twenty-three  weeks  in  the  year  the  mean  temperature  is  below 
thirty-two  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  mercury  sometimes  freezes.  Bleak 
winds  are  almost  constant ;  but  the  country  is  tolerably  healthy. 

The  soil  is  thin,  stony,  and  not  very  fertile.  Except  in  the  district  of 
Kargopole,  into  which  some  improvements  have  been  introduced,  agricul- 
ture is  very  backward.  The  grain  produced  is  insufficient  for  the  wants 
of  the  population.  The  peasantry  are  supported  chiefly  on  turnips,  car- 
rots, and  other  vegetables,  of  which  their  bread  partly  consists,  and  on  the 
produce  of  the  chase,  fisheries,  &c.  Hemp  and  flax  are  grown  for  expor- 
tation ;  but  the  principal  source  of  wealth  consists  in  the  forests,  which  are 
of  great  extent,  those  belonging  to  the  crown  covering  twenty-five  millions 
of  acres.  Pasturage  is  not  abundant,  and  few  cattle  are  reared.  Marble, 
granite,  serpentine,  alabaster,  &c.,  are  found  ;  and  there  are  mines  of  iron, 
copper,  and  even  silver,  though  they  are  but  little  wrought. 

The  poverty  of  the  country  obliges  many  of  the  inhabitants  to  emigrate 
annually  into  the  adjacent  governments,  to  take  charge  of  cattle,  hew  mill- 
stones, &c. ;  and  in  summer  the  number  of  absentees  is  estimated  at  about 
a  third  part  of  the  entire  population.  These  circumstances  are  hostile  to 
manufacturing  industry ;  and,  exclusive  of  the  imperial  cannon-foundry  at 
Petrozavodsk,  it  has  only  a  few  tanneries  and  iron-forges.  It  exports  raw 
produce  to  St.  Petersburg  and  Archangel ;  from  which  cities  grain,  salt, 
spirits,  and  colonial  and  manufactured  goods,  are  imported. 

The  government  of  Olonetz  is  under  the  same  military  jurisdiction  as 
that  of  Archangel,  and  is  divided  into  seven  districts.  Education  is  under 
the  superintendence  of  the  university  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  is  very  limited. 
There  is  but  one  printing-press  in  the  province,  and  that  is  owned  by  the 
state.  The  inhabitants  are  principally  of  the  Greek  church,  and  subordi- 
nate to  the  archbishop  of  Novgorod. 

Petrozavodsk,  the  capital  of  Olonetz,  is  situated  on  the  Lossolenka, 
where  it  falls  into  Lake  Onega,  two  hundred  miles  northeast  of  St.  Peters- 
burg. It  is  poorly  built,  has  two  wooden  churches,  a  school  and  infirmary, 
an  important  cannon-foundry,  a  gunpowder,  fulling,  and  several  saw  mills, 
and  manufactories  of  iron  and  copper,  which  find  their  market  at  St.  Pe- 
tersburg. It  contains  about  eight  thousand  inhabitants,  many  of  whom  are 
employed  in  the  iron-works  and  imperial  foundries. 

Kargopole,  another  town  in  this  government,  possesses  a  flourishing 
trade,  and  Olonetz  is  not  unworthy  of  notice,  as  it  was  there  that  Peter 
the  Great  first  attempted  to  build  a  ship-of-war,  to  be  employed  on  the  lake 
against  the  Swedes. 


90  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

The  government  of  Novgorod  lies  between  the  fifty-seventh  and  sixty- 
first  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  thirtieth  and  fortieth  degrees  of 
east  longitude ;  having,  on  the  east,  the  government  of  Vologda ;  on  the 
south,  those  of  Yaroslav,  Tver,  and  Pskov ;  on  the  west,  the  latter  and  St. 
Petersburg ;  and,  on  the  north,  the  ftist  named  and  Olonetz.  Its  length, 
from  northeast  to  southwest,  is  about  four  hundred  miles  ;  its  breadth  va- 
ries from  forty  to  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles.  It  contains  an  area  of 
about  fifty-five  thousand  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country,  which  in  the  north  is  low  and  level,  rises 
gradually  toward  the  southwest,  where  the  Valdai  plateau  reaches  an  ele- 
vation of  one  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  government  is 
well  watered :  the  principal  rivers  being  the  Volkhov,  Mesta,  Chexna,  Mo- 
loga,  Lovat,  &c.,  some  of  which  run  toward  the  Volga,  and  others  toward 
the  lake  of  Ladoga.  Among  the  lakes  are  those  of  Bielo-Osero,  Voje,  and 
Ilmen.  The  climate,  especially  in  the  north,  is  more  severe  than  in  the 
government  of  St.  Petersburg,  not  being  tempered  by  the  sea-breezes. 

Except  in  a  few  districts,  the  soil  of  Novgorod  is  not  eminent  for  fer- 
tility, and  night-frosts  often  spoil  the  crops.  Scarcely  any  orchard-trees 
are  met  with,  but  hemp  and  flax  are  grown  for  exportation,  and  rye,  oats, 
and  barley,  are  extensively  cultivated.  Timber  is  an  important  product ; 
a  large  part  of  the  government  is  covered  with  forests,  those  belonging  to 
the  crown  amounting  to  seven  millions  of  acres.  Few  cattle  are  reared. 
Next  to  agriculture,  fishing  is  a  principal  occupation.  The  salt-springs  of 
Staraia-Rous  furnish  an  adequate  supply  of  salt  for  this  government  and 
that  of  Tver.  Manufacturing  industry  is  very  backward  :  there  are  a  few 
copper,  glass,  tile,  leather,  woollen-cloth,  and  other  factories.  The  popu- 
lation have,  however,  a  turn  for  commerce,  and  the  different  fairs  and 
markets  are  well  attended. 

Novgorod  is  divided  into  ten  districts.  Among  its  chief  towns  are  Nov- 
gorod, Tikhvin,  and  Valdai.  Except  some  Lutherans  among  the  Finnish 
inhabitants,  the  population  is  principally  of  the  Greek  church.  Education 
is  very  little  diffused.  The  capital  has  a  gymnasium,  and  there  are  schools 
there  and  in  other  parts  of  the  government.  There  is  not  supposed  to  be 
a  single  printing-press  in  the  province.  This  territory  was  made  a  sepa- 
rate government  in  1776. 

The  city  of  Novgorod  (called  Veliki,  or  "the  Great"),  formerly  the 
most  important  in  the  empire,  and  capital  of  the  government  of  Novgorod, 
lies  on  the  Volkhov,  near  its  escape  from  Lake  Ilmen.  It  is  about  one 
hundred  miles  south-southeast  of  St.  Petersburg.  Its  population,  which, 
at  the  present  time,  does  not  exceed  fifteen  thousand,  was  estimated  to 
have  amounted,  in  the  height  of  its  prosperity,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  to 
four  hundred  thousand,  though  this,  probably,  is  much  beyond  the  mark. 
At  this  period,  Novgorod,  with  London,  Bergen,  and  Bruges,  constituted 
the  four  principal  foreign  depots  of  the  Hanseatic  League ;  but  the  fall  of 
the  League,  and  still  more  the  massacres  perpetrated  by  the  bloodthirsty 


GREAT   RUSSIA  —  NOVGOROD.  91 

barbarian  Ivan  Vassiliovich  IV.,  in  1570,  proved  fatal  to  this  great  empo- 
rium, and  it  soon  after  fell  into  all  but  irremediable  decay.  La  Motraye, 
who  visited  it  early  in  the  last  century,  gives  the  following  description, 
which  will  apply  nearly  as  well  in  the  present  day:  — 

"  Nothing  is  more  deceitful  than  the  view  of  Novgorod  from  a  distance : 
its  extent,  and  the  number  and  height  of  its  towers  and  spires,  seem  to 
announce  one  of  the  finest  cities  in  Europe ;  but,  on  nearing  it,  the  travel- 
ler perceives  that  its  walls  and  houses  are  only  of  wood  ;  and  on  entering, 
he  finds  it  ill  built  and  wretchedly  paved.  Only  the  churches  and  a  very 
few  private  residences  are  of  stone  or  brick.  There  may  be  from  eighty 
to  eighty-five  churches,  including  those  of  the  monasteries  ;  besides  which, 
the  castle,  a  large  fortress  bristling  with  artillery,  is  the  remaining  princi- 
pal edifice." 

The  town,  in  fact,  though  comprising  a  large  space,  consists  principally 
of  scattered  groups  of  miserable  habitations,  separated  by  ruins  or  by  fields, 
which  it  is  evident  had  once  been  covered  with  houses.  It  is  divided  into 
two  parts  by  the  Yolkhov,  here  crossed  by  a  handsome  bridge  of  eleven 
arches,  which  is  almost  the  only  modern  structure  in  the  city.  The  piles, 
&c.,  of  this  bridge  are  of  granite  ;  the  rest  is  chiefly  of  timber.  Its  entire 
length  is  two  hundred  and  seventy  yards,  and  the  breadth  of  its  central 
arch  eighty-five  feet.  In  the  Torgovaia,  or  market  town,  are  the  govern- 
or's residence,  an  ancient  palace  of  the  czars,  and  most  of  the  shops  and 
warehouses.  The  Sofuskaia,  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Yolkhov,  is  about 
one  and  a  half  miles  in  circuit,  and  surrounded  by  an  earth  rampart  and  a 
ditch.  In  it  are  the  Kremlin,  or  citadel,  the  cathedral  of  St.  Sophia,  built 
after  the  model  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  the  archbishop's  palace, 
and  the  various  tribunals.  The  citadel  is  in  many  respects  similar  to  the 
Kremlin  of  Moscow,  having  a  stone  wall,  flanked  with  many  round  and 
square  towers.  The  cathedral,  built  between  1044  and  1051,  and  repaired 
in  1832,  has  some  remarkable  bronze  gates,  with  sculptures  in  alto-relievo, 
representing  passages  in  scripture  history  ;  and  many  of  the  paintings  on 
its  walls  are  curious,  being  said  to  date  from  a  period  previously  to  the 
revival  of  the  arts  in  Italy.  Among  its  buildings,  the  monastery  of  the 
Annunciation,  of  which  we  give  a  view  on  the  following  page,  is  a  remark- 
ably elegant  structure. 

Novgorod  is  the  seat  of  a  military  governor,  whose  authority  extends 
over  the  adjacent  government  of  Tver.  It  has  a  few  manufactures  of  sail- 
cloth, leather,  and  vinegar,  and  some  trade  in  grain.  Though  not  the 
original  capital  of  Rurik,  it  became  the  seat  of  the  Russian  government  in 
864.  In  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  the  inhabitants  obtained 
considerable  privileges,  that  laid  the  foundation  of  their  liberty  and  pros- 
perity ;  and  as  the  city  and  its  contiguous  territory  increased  in  population 
and  wealth,  they  gradually  usurped  an  almost  absolute  independency :  so 
that,  in  efiect',  Novgorod,  in  the  middle  ages,  should  rather  be  considered 
a  republic,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  an  elective  magistrate,  than  a  state 


92 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP  RUSSIA. 


notififfrs.s/i 


Monastery  of  the  Annunciation,  at  Novgorod. 

subject  to  a  regular  line  of  hereditary  monarchs.  During  the  twelfth,  thir- 
teenth, and  fourteenth  centuries,  Novgorod  formed  the  grand  entrepot  be- 
tween the  countries  east  of  Poland  and  the  Hanseatic  cities  ;  and  its  wealth 
and  power  seemed  so  great  and  well  established,  and  the  city  itself  eo 
impregnable,  as  to  give  rise  to  the  proverb  — 

"  Q?/w  contra  Deos  et  mngnam  Novogordiam?" 

"  Who  can   resist  the  Gods  ami  Great  Novgorod  ?"  ♦ 

But  in  1477  it  was  obliged  to  submit  to  Ivan  III.,  great-duke  of  Russia.  So 
great  was  its  riches,  that  in  1480,  Ivan,  after  he  had  conquered  the  re- 
public of  Novrogod,  despatched  from  the  city  to  Moscow  three  hundred 
chariots  laden  with  articles  of  silver  and  gold.  In  1554,  it  was  visited  by 
the  famous  Richard  Chancellor  (to  whom  we  have  referred  in  treating  of 
the  government  of  Archangel),  who  describes  it  as  the  "great  mart  town 
of  all  Moscovie,  and  in  greatnesse  beyond  Moscow."  But  not  long  after, 
it  was  subjected,  as  already  stated,  to  the  scourge  of  the  destroyer,  and 
fell,  never  to  rise  again.  The  foundation  of  St.  Petersburg  took  from  it 
all  hope  of  ever  recovering  any  portion  of  its  ancient  prosperity. 


Pskov  lies  chiefly  between  the  fifty-sixth  and  fifty-eighth  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  and  the  twenty-eighth  and  thirty-second  degrees  of  east 
longitude ;  having,  on  the  north,  St.  Petersburg  and  Novgorod,  of  each  of 
which  governments  it  formerly  made  a  part ;  on  the  east,  Tver  and  Smo- 
lensk ;  on  the  south,  Vitepsk ;  and  on  the  west,  Livonia.  Its  greatest 
length,  from  northwest  to  southeast,  is  two  hundred  and  two  miles,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  one  hundred  and  ten  miles,  comprising  an  area  of  about 
twenty-two  thousand  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  nearly  flat,  with  a  slope  to  the  north,  the 


GREAT  RUSSIA  —  PSKOV.  93 

direction  taken  by  most  of  the  rivers.  None  of  these  are  of  considerable 
size ;  but  the  government  is,  notwithstanding,  well  watered.  At  the  north- 
western extremity  is  the  lake  of  Pskov  (twenty-seven  miles  long  by  fifteen 
broad),  connected  by  a  strait,  three  miles  wide,  with  that  of  Peipus.  The 
whole  government  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Baltic,  the  river  Duna,  which 
drains  the  southeast,  carrying  its  waters  into  the  gulf  of  Riga,  and  the 
Velikaia,  Chelon,  and  Lovat,  with  other  small  tributaries,  carrying  the  rest 
of  the  drainage  into  the  gulf  of  Finland.  Toward  the  southeast  the  coun- 
try is  traversed  by  the  Valdai  hills.  Immense  numbers  of  blocks  of  granite 
lie  scattered  in  all  directions.  Marshes  are  numerous.  The  atmosphere 
is  usually  damp,  though,  on  the  whole,  the  climate  is  far  from  unhealthy. 

The  soil  is  thin,  and  not  very  fertile ;  but,  owing  to  the  fewness  of  the 
inhabitants,  more  grain  is  grown  than  is  required  for  home  consumption. 
The  produce  averages  twenty  millions  of  bushels  a  year,  of  which  upward 
of  five  millions  may  be  exported.  It  consists  chiefly  of  rye,  barley,  and 
oats,  the  proportion  of  wheat  being  small.  A  good  deal  of  hemp  and  flax 
is  raised.  The  forests  are  extensive,  and  abound  with  game.  Cattle  are 
not  of  great  importance,  and  bees  are  less  reared  than  in  most  provinces. 
Manufactures  have  increased  during  the  present  century,  but  they  are  still 
of  no  great  consequence.  The  leather  of  this  government  is  much  esteemed, 
but  its  principal  wealth  consists  in  its  grain  and  natural  produce. 

The  government  is  divided  into  eight  districts ;  the  chief  towns  are 
Pskov,  the  capital,  Torepetz,  and  Velikie-Louki.  Its  population  consists 
mainly  of  Russians,  with  some  Lithuanians  and  Finns.  Public  education 
is  little  extended,  and  until  recently  only  one  printing-press  existed  in  the 
government. 

Pskov  (or  Pleskov'),  the  capital  of  the  government  just  described,  is  sit- 
uated on  the  Velikaia,  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  miles  southwest  of  St. 
Petersburg.  It  contains  about  ten  thousand  inhabitants.  The  city  covers 
a  large  space  of  ground,  and  is  divided  into  three  parts,  the  Kremlin  or 
citadel,  the  Middle  Town,  and  the  Greater  Town,  all  surrounded  with  an 
earthen  mound.  All  the  private  houses,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  public 
edifices,  are  of  wood.  The  finest  buildings  are  in  the  Kremlin.  Among 
others  are  the  cathedral,  of  very  little  architectural  merit,  but  gorgeously 
decorated ;  and  the  palace  of  the  ancient  princes  of  Pskov,  now  occupied 
by  the  archbishop.  The  number  of  churches  amounts  to  thirty,  but  more 
than  a  third  of  them  are  in  disuse.  The  principal  manufacture  is  Russian 
leather ;  and  there  is  a  considerable  trade  in  hemp,  flax,  tallow,  hides,  &c., 
with  Narva,  and  other  seaports,  on  the  gulf  of  Finland.  A  great  annual 
fair  is  held  here  in  February,  at  which  large  quantities  of  woollen,  silk, 
and  cotton  fabrics,  leather  books,  jewellery,  &g.,  are  sold.  Pskov  is  the  see 
of  an  archbishop ;  and  possesses  a  theological  seminary,  a  bible-society, 
and  a  well-managed  hospital.  It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  prin- 
cess Olga,  toward  the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  but  is  mentioned  in  his- 
tory as  early  as  903. 


94  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

Toropetz,  another  important  town  in  this  government,  is  situated  on  the 
Toropa,  two  hundred  and  forty-five  miles  south  of  St.  Petersburg.  The 
population  is  about  ten  thousand.  It  is  entirely  surrounded  by  lakes  and 
rivulets,  and  communicates  by  the  Toropa  with  Riga,  which  renders  it  a 
place  of  some  trade.  It  has  thirteen  churches,  including  a  cathedral,  and 
two  convents.  A  few  of  its  houses  are  of  brick  or  stone,  but  the  major 
part  are  of  wood,  the  streets  also  being  paved  with  planks.  On  an  island 
in  the  Toropa  is  a  dilapidated  fort.  This  town,  under  the  name  of  Kri- 
vitch,  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  introduction  of  Christianity  by  Vladimir, 
about  990.  It  was  the  capital  of  a  republic,  which  lasted  through  the 
whole  of  the  twelfth  century,  but  wliich  in  the  thirteenth  became  subject  to 
hereditary  princes.  Toward  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  it  belonged 
to  the  Poles,  but  it  was  retaken  by  the  Russians  in  1500. 

Velikie-Louki,  the  other  town  previously  mentioned,  contains  about 
seven  thousand  inhabitants,  several  churches,  and  about  thirty  manufacto- 
ries of  leather,  which  is  transported  to  the  St.  Petersburg  markets,  a  dis- 
tance of  three  hundred  miles,  by  water.  This  town  was,  in  1611,  taken 
and  burnt  by  the  adherents  of  the  pretender  Dmitri. 

The  government  of  Tver  extends  from  the  fifty-sixth  to  the  fifty-ninth 
degree  of  north  latitude,  and  from  the  thirty-second  to  the  thirty-eighth 
degree  of  east  longitude ;  having  Novgorod  on  the  north,  Yaroslav  and 
Vladimir  on  the  east,  Moscow  and  Smolensk  on  the  south,  and  Pskov  on 
the  west.     It  has  an  area  of  about  twenty-four  thousand  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  this  government  is  generally  more  elevated  than  that  of 
other  parts  of  European  Russia ;  and  several  large  rivers,  particularly  the 
Volga,  rise  within  its  limits.  In  its  western  part  are  several  lakes.  The 
Volga  has  its  source  in  the  lake  of  Selighur,  and  afterward  traverses  the 
government  in  nearly  its  whole  length  from  west  to  east. 

The  climate  is  severe,  and  the  soil  is  but  indifferently  fertile.  The  har- 
vests are  precarious,  and  scarcely  ever  produce  more  than  sufficient  for 
home  consumption.  A  good  deal  of  hemp  and  flax,  with  beans,  &g.,  are 
grown  ;  but  few  kinds  of  fruit  succeed.  The  forests  are  extensive,  partic- 
ularly in  the  north,  and  about  one  million  of  acres  of  forest-land  belong  to 
the  crown. 

Its  manufactures  are  of  little  consequence,  but  increasing ;  those  of  dye- 
ing-materials and  spirituous  liquors  are  the  principal ;  and  there  are  others 
of  bricks,  glass-ware,  ropes,  leather,  woollen-cloths,  &c.  This  government 
is,  however,  distinguished  for  its  commercial  activity ;  and  the  capital  of 
its  merchants  has  been  estimated  at  seventeen  millions  of  roubles.  The 
trade  centres  mostly  in  Tver,  the  capital,  and  is  facilitated  by  the  Vish- 
ni-Volotchok  canal,  which  establishes  a  water-communication  between  the 
Baltic  and  Caspian  seas.  The  district  of  the  government  traversed  by  this 
canal  is  inhabited  by  a  tribe  of  Carelians,  and  in  the  capital  is  a  German 
colony ;  but  the  population  is  mostly  Russian,  of  the  Greek  church.     This 


GREAT  RUSSIA  —  TVER  —  SMOLENSK.  95 

government  is  divided  into  twelve  districts ;  the  chief  towns  arc  Tver,  the 
capital,  Torjok,  Rjev,  and  Bejetsk. 

Tver,  the  capital  of  this  government,  is  situated  on  the  Volga,  which  is 
here  crossed  by  a  wooden  bridge  five  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  length,  and 
on  the  high  road  between  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg,  ninety  miles  north- 
west of  the  former.  Its  population  is  about  twenty-five  thousand.  In  re- 
spect of  the  regularity  of  its  streets  and  buildings,  Tver  ranks  next  to  the 
two  Russian  capitals,  but  wants  their  bustle  and  animation.  It  is  divided 
by  the  several  rivers  into  the  town  proper,  suburbs,  and  citadel.  The  last, 
surrounded  by  a  rampart  of  earth,  comprises  the  governor's  residence,  an 
imperial  palace,  the  cathedral,  and  seminary  ;  and  its  numerous  towers  and 
cupolas  give  it,  at  a  distance,  an  imposing  appearance.  The  cathedral  is 
a  square  edifice,  with  a  lofty  spire,  surmounted  by  a  gilt  copper  dome,  and 
surrounded,  lower  down,  by  four  similar  domes.  The  seminary,  founded 
in  1727,  for  the  instruction  of  seven  hundred  pupils  in  the  sciences  and 
ancient  languages,  is  established  in  a  convent  built  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. There  are  numerous  churches,  government  buildings,  barracks,  inns, 
a  theatre,  &c.,  and  several  public  promenades,  planted  with  trees. 

This  city  owes  its  present  regularity  and  beauty  to  a  fire  which  almost 
totally  destroyed  it  in  1763  ;  after  which  the  empress  Catherine  II.  ordered 
it  to  be  rebuilt  on  a  uniform  plan.  Some  houses  are  of  stone,  but  the 
greater  part  are  of  wood ;  and  the  paving  is  mostly  of  the  same  material. 
An  impost  is  levied  upon  every  horse  that  passes  the  gates,  expressly  to 
pave  the  streets. 

Tver  is  a  place  of  considerable  trade,  a  large  part  of  its  population  being 
merchants,  or  engaged  in  the  navigation  of  the  Volga.  It  is  an  entrepot 
for  grain  from  the  south  destined  for  St.  Petersburg,  and  for  goods  con- 
veyed overland  to  and  from  Riga.  It  is  of  considerable  antiquity,  ha-sang 
been  the  capital  of  a  principality  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  town  has  frequently  suffered  from  the  plague,  and  been 
taken  by  both  the  Tartars  and  Poles  ;  but  it  has  remained,  with  little  inter- 
ruption, attached  to  the  dominion  of  the  Russians  since  1490. 

The  government  of  Smolensk  lies  between  the  fifty-third  and  fifty-seventh 
degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  thirtieth  and  thirty-sixth  degrees  of 
east  longitude,  having  the  governments  of  Pskov  and  Tver  on  the  north, 
Moscow  and  Kalouga  on  the  east,  Vitepsk  and  Moghilev  on  the  west,  and 
Orel  and  Tchernigov  on  the  south.  It  comprises  an  area  of  about  twenty- 
one  thousand  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  this  government  is  mostly  an  undulating  plain,  in  some 
parts  marshy ;  in  the  north  is  a  more  elevated  plateau,  in  which  the  Dnie- 
per and  several  other  rivers  have  their  source.  The  soil  is  generally  fer- 
tile, and  more  grain  (principally  rye)  is  grown  than  is  required  for  home 
consumption.  Hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  and  hops,  are  cultivated.  Cattle- 
breeding  is  less  attended  to  ;  but  a  good  many  hogs  are  reared. 


96  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

The  forests  are  very  extensive,  and  are,  in  fact,  the  chief  sources  of 
wealth.  Game  is  very  plentiful ;  and  bees  are  reared  almost  everywhere. 
Iron,  copper,  and  salt,  are  found.  Its  manufactures  are  few,  being  nearly 
confined  to  leather,  glass-wares,  pitch,  &c. ;  with  sawing-works,  distilleries, 
and  a  few  carpet-factories,  in  the  capital.  The  raw  produce  of  the  govern- 
ment is  exported,  in  large  quantities,  to  Riga,  Wilna,  and  Moscow. 

Smolensk,  the  capital  of  the  government,  is  situated  on  the  Dnieper,  two 
hundred  and  thirty  miles  west  by  south  from  Moscow.  This  city  is  of 
considerable  antiquity.  It  was,  in  the  ninth  century,  in  a  flourishing  state, 
and  independent  until  the  year  881,  when  it  submitted  to  Novgorod.  Its 
population  at  the  present  time  is  about  thirteen  thousand.  It  lies  on  both 
sides  of  the  river,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  massive  wall,  flanked  with  tow- 
ers. It  appears  to  advantage  at  a  distance,  but  is  in  reality  a  poor  town, 
the  houses  being  mostly  of  only  one  story,  and  built  of  wood  ;  though  since 
it  was  burnt  by  the  Russians,  previous  to  their  evacuation  of  it  in  1812,  it 
has  been  partially  rebuilt  of  stone  and  brick.  The  fortifications,  however, 
remain  pretty  much  in  the  same  state  as  when  Napoleon  left  them.  Large 
apertures  made  in  the  walls  have  never  been  repaired,  and  the  inhabitants 
seem  poor  and  miserable.  Here  the  French  army,  retreating  from  Mos- 
cow, had  expected  to  rejoin  the  divisions  left  on  the  Dnieper  and  the  Duna, 
and  find  their  stores ;  but  on  their  arrival  they  learned  that  Napoleon  had 
altered  his  plans,  that  the  ninth  corps  had  not  even  halted  in  Smolensk, 
and  that  the  provisions  were  all  consumed.  "  A  thunderbolt,"  writes  La- 
baume,  "  falling  at  our  feet,  would  have  confounded  us  less  than  did  this 
news  ;  the  little  that  remained  in  the  magazines  was,  in  spite  of  the  guard, 
pillaged  by  the  famished  soldiers,  who  would  not  wait  for  the  regular  dis- 
tribution of  their  rations.  This  pillage  led  for  the  moment  to  abundance. 
At  the  unexpected  view,  our  hearts  once  more  expanded.  One  laughed 
with  joy  as  he  kneaded  his  bread,  another  sang  as  he  cooked  his  meat ; 
but  most  of  our  party,  eagerly  seizing  the  brandy,  quickly  caused  the  wild- 
est gayety  to  succeed  to  the  most  distressing  sadness."  On  the  14th  of 
November,  1812,  Napoleon  held  here  his  first  council  of  war.  An  iron 
pyramid  has  been  erected  in  the  city  to  commemorate  the  resistance  made 
by  the  place  to  the  French  on  the  occasion  above  referred  to.  The  city 
has  three  cathedrals,  in  one  of  which  is  a  bell  weighing  forty  thousand 
pounds ;  twenty  Greek  churches,  three  convents,  a  Lutheran  and  a  Roman 
catholic  church,  a  seminary,  gymnasium,  a  military  school  for  nobles,  sev- 
eral hospitals,  and  carpet,  hat,  soap,  and  leather  factories. 

A  singular  incident  in  Polish  history  is  associated  with  this  city.  In 
the  frequent  wars  between  Poland  and  Russia  during  the  middle  ages, 
Smolensk  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  former,  whose  victorious  legions,  forget- 
ting their  own  country  and  kindred,  held  the  city  captive  several  years, 
abandoning  themselves  to  riot  and  debauchery  with  the  Russians.  Being 
thus  deserted  by  their  husbands,  great  numbers  of  the  Polish  women  mar- 
ried the  serfs  on  their  estates,  and  armed  them  for  defence.     The  intelli- 


GREAT   RUSSIA MOSCOW.  97 

gence  of  these  acts  soon  reached  Smolensk,  and  the  infuriated  Poles  com- 
menced tlieir  homeward  march,  breathing  vengeance.  A  great  battle  was 
fought  near  Warsaw,  in  which  the  serfs,  encouraged  by  the  women,  were 
the  victors,  and  the  differences  in  question  were  settled  by  a  compromise. 

The  government  of  Moscow  (Slavonic,  Moskva)  lies  between  the  fifty- 
fifth  and  fifty-seventh  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  thirty-fifth  and 
thirty-ninth  degrees  of  east  longitude,  having  the  government  of  Tver  on 
the  north  and  northwest,  Smolensk  on  the  west,  Kalouga  and  Toula  on  the 
south,  and  Vladimir  and  Riazan  on  the  east.  It  is  of  a  very  compact  and 
somewhat  circular  form  ;  its  greatest  length  from  northwest  to  southeast 
is  one  hundred  and  forty  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  one  hundred  and 
ten  miles.  It  comprises  an  area  of  about  eleven  thousand  five  hundred 
square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  generally  low,  but  undulating.  No  mount- 
ain occurs,  and  scarcely  anything  deserving  the  name  of  hill.  The  princi- 
pal heights  are  the  river-banks,  many  of  which  rise  considerably  above  the 
channel,  and  occasionally  form  very  pleasing  and  picturesque  scenery. 
The  whole  government  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Volga,  which,  however, 
drains  only  a  small  portion  of  the  north  directly,  the  rest  of  the  drainage 
being  conducted  into  it  by  the  Oka,  and  its  tributaries  the  Ivliasma  and 
Moskwa.  The  tributaries  of  these  streams,  within  the  government,  though 
small,  are  numerous.  The  only  navigable  streams  are  the  Oka,  Moskwa, 
and  Kliasma. 

The  climate  is  said  to  be  temperate ;  but  the  range  of  the  thermometer 
far  exceeds  that  of  the  same  latitude  in  western  Europe,  and  the  winter 
cold  is  extreme.  The  soil  is  only  moderately  fertile,  and  does  not  pro- 
duce more  grain  than  supplies  two  thirds  of  the  consumption.  More  than 
one  half  of  the  whole  surface  is  occupied  by  wood,  and  the  wants  of  the 
capital  cause  no  inconsiderable  portion  of  ground  to  be  occupied  with  gar- 
dens and  orchards.  The  pastures  also  are  extensive,  and  great  care  and 
skill  are  displayed  in  the  rearing  of  both  cattle  and  horses.  No  metals 
are  wrought;  but  freestone,  limestone,  gypsum,  and  potter's  clay,  are  ob- 
tained. Large  masses  of  granite,  not  forming  part  of  the  strata,  but  in 
the  form  of  boulders,  are  scattered  over  the  surface,  and  are  turned  to 
good  account. 

All  kinds  of  textile  manufactures  are  carried  on  to  a  great  extent  in  this 
government,  and  give  employment  to  a  population  at  once  more  dense  and 
more  industrious  than  exists  within  the  same  space  in  any  other  part  of 
Russia.  Not  only  in  towns,  but  in  hamlets,  and  in  almost  every  cottage, 
the  sound  of  industrial  employment  may  be  heard.  Almost  all  the  inhab- 
itants belong  to  the  Greek  church.  For  administrative  purposes,  Moscow 
is  divided  into  thirteen  districts. 

The  city  of  Moscow,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  empire,  and  the  present 
capital  of  the  government,  will  be  found  fully  described  on  future  pages. 

7 


98  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

The  government  of  Yaroslav  (Slavonic,  Jaroslavl)  lies  chiefly  between 
the  fifty-seventh  and  fifty-ninth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  thirty- 
seventh  and  forty-first  degrees  of  east  longitude,  having  the  governments 
of  Novgorod  and  Vologda  on  the  north,  Kostroma  on  the  east,  Vladimir 
on  the  south,  and  Tver  on  the  west.  Its  length  from  north  to  south  is 
about  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  is  nearly  the 
same.     It  has  an  area  of  about  seventeen  thousand  square  miles. 

Tlie  surface  of  the  country  is  almost  wholly  flat,  being  only  occasionally 
broken  by  the  high  banks  of  its  streams,  or  by  low  ridges ;  in  some  parts 
it  is  marshy.  It  wholly  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Volga,  which  traverses 
the  government  in  its  centre  ;  the  other  chief  rivers  are  its  tributaries  the 
Mologa,  Sheksna,  &c.,  all  of  which  have,  more  or  less,  an  easterly  direction. 
The  lake  of  Rostov,  in  the  south,  is  eight  miles  long  by  six  broad,  and 
there  are  nearly  forty  other  lakes  of  less  size. 

The  air  is  pure,  and  the  climate  healthy,  though  the  winter  is  severe, 
and  the  summer  comparatively  short.  The  soil  is  only  moderately  fertile. 
Rye,  barley,  wheat,  oats,  peas,  &c.,  are  grown;  and  Schnitzler  estimates 
the  annual  produce  of  grain  at  about  three  millions  of  chetwerts :  *  a  quan- 
tity insufficient  for  the  inhabitants,  who  are  partly  supplied  from  the  adja- 
cent provinces  by  means  of  the  Volga.  Its  liemp  and  flax  are  excellent, 
and  cherry  and  apple  orchards  are  numerous.  The  gardeners  of  Yaroslav 
and  Rostov  are  famed  throughout  Russia,  and  many  are  met  with  at  St. 
Petersburg.  Timber  is  rather  scarce.  The  rearing  of  live-stock,  except- 
ing horses,  is  little  pursued  ;  but  the  fisheries  in  the  Volga  are  important. 

This  government  is,  however,  more  noted  for  its  manufacturing  than  its 
rural  industry.  Linen,  cotton,  and  woollen  stuffs,  leather,  silk,  hardware, 
and  tobacco,  are  the  principal  manufactures :  but,  independently  of  these, 
the  peasants  are  almost  everywhere  partially  occupied  with  weaving  stock- 
ings and  other  fabrics,  and  making  gloves,  hats,  harness,  wooden  shoes, 
and  various  rural  implements.  Commerce  is  facilitated  by  several  naviga- 
ble rivers  and  good  roads. 

Yaroslav  is  subdivided  into  ten  districts ;  the  chief  towns  are  Yaroslav, 
Rostov,  and  Ouglitch.  Its  population  is  Russian  ;  and  the  women  are  pro- 
verbial (among  Russians)  for  their  beauty.  Only  about  one  seventeenth 
part  of  the  inhabitants  reside  in  towns.  In  respect  of  education,  the  gov- 
ernment is  comprised  under  the  division  of  Moscow,  and  has  numerous 
public  schools  and  several  ecclesiastical  seminaries. 

The  city  of  Yaroslav,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated 
on  the  Volga,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kotorosth,  two  hundred  and  twelve  miles 
northeast  of  Moscow.  It  is  well  built,  though  mostly  of  wood  ;  and  is  de- 
fended by  a  fort  at  the  confluence  of  the  two  rivers.  In  its  broad  main 
street,  which  is  ornamented  with  trees,  are  many  handsome  stone  houses ; 
and  three  convents  and  numerous  churches  contribute  to  give  Yaroslav  an 

*  A  Russian  "  chetwert"  is  equal  to  5.362  Winchester  bushels.  Its  capacity,  however,  varies 
somewhat  in  difForent  lociilities. 


GREAT   RUSSIA  —  YAROSLAV — KOSTROMA.  99 

imposing  appearance.  The  Demidoff  Ij'ceum  in  this  city,  founded  in  1803, 
has  a  good  library,  a  cabinet  of  natural  history,  a  chemical  laboratory,  and 
printing-press,  and  ranks  immediately  after  the  Russian  universities.  It 
was  originally  endowed  with  lands,  to  which  thirty-five  hundred  and  sev- 
enty-eight serfs  were  attached,  and  with  a  capital  of  one  hundred  thousand 
silver  roubles ;  since  which  it  has  received  other  valuable  benefactions. 
The  same  educational  course  is  pursued  as  in  the  universities,  and  lasts 
three  years.  The  establishment  is  placed  under  a  lay-director  and  an 
ecclesiastic,  and  has  eight  professors,  two  readers,  and  forty  professionary 
students.  Yaroslav  has  also  an  ecclesiastical  seminary,  with  five  hundred 
students.  A  large  stone  exchange  {Gostinoi  dvor'),  a  hospital,  foundling- 
asylum,  house  of  correction,  and  two  workhouses,  are  tlie  other  chief  public 
edifices. 

This  city  is  the  residence  of  a  governor,  and  the  see  of  an  archbishop. 
It  has  about  forty  different  factories,  including  three  of  cotton,  four  of 
linen,  and  two  of  silk  fabrics,  eight  tanneries,  and  several  tobacco,  hard- 
ware, and  paper-making  establishments.  Its  leather  and  table-linen  are 
much  esteemed.  The  position  of  Yaroslav  on  the  Volga  contributes  to 
promote  its  commerce,  which  is  very  considerable.  Its  manufactures  are 
sent  to  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg,  and  a  great  many  are  sold  at  the  fair 
of  Makariev,  in  the  government  of  Kostroma.  Two  annual  fairs  are  held 
in  Yaroslav. 

This  is  a  city  of  considerable  antiquity,  being  founded  in  1025,  by  the 
famous  Yaroslav,  son  of  Vladimir  the  Great,  who  annexed  it  to  the  princi- 
pality of  Rostov.  It  fell  under  the  dukes  of  Moscow  in  1426.  Peter  the 
Great  was  the  first  to  give  it  commercial  importance,  by  establishing  its 
linen  manufactures,  since  which  its  prosperity  has  been  progressive.  The 
population  of  the  city  is  about  thirty  thousand. 

The  government  of  Kostroma  is  situated  principally  between  the  fifty- 
seventh  and  fifty-ninth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  fortieth  and  forty- 
eighth  degrees  of  east  longitude,  having  the  government  of  Vologda  on  the 
north,  Yaroslav  on  the  west,  Vladimir  and  Nijnei-Novgorod  on  the  south, 
and  Viatka  on  the  east  and  southeast.  Its  greatest  length  is  two  hundred 
and  seventy  miles,  and  its  breadth  one  liundred  and  seventy  miles.  It  lias 
an  area  of  about  tliirty-eight  thousand  square  miles. 

The  country  consists  of  wide,  level  plains,  varied  only  by  gentle  acclivi- 
ties and  elevated  river-banks.  The  northern  part  is  cold,  humid,  and 
swampy.  Many  of  the  swamps  are  covered  with  wood,  and  some  of  them 
contain  bog-iron  ore.  What  is  arable  is  cold,  and  of  indifferent  fertility. 
Occasionally  there  are  considerable  extents  of  healthy  ground,  partly  cov- 
ered mth.  wood.  The  southern  part,  near  the  Volga,  has  an  opener  and 
drier  soil,  consisting  mostly  of  clay,  loam,  and  sand,  but  still  only  of  mod- 
crate  fertility. 

The  climate  is  severe :  the  winter  is  long,  and  the  weather  stormy ;  the 


100 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 


summer  is  short,  and  is  frequently  misty.  The  chief  river  is  the  Volga, 
which,  shortly  after  entering  the  government  in  the  southwest,  is  joined 
by  the  Kostroma  from  the  north ;  then,  after  a  short  turn  to  the  south- 
southeast,  proceeds  almost  due  east,  when  it  receives  its  important  tribu- 
tary the  Unga,  and  soon  after,  by  a  southerly  course,  quits  the  government. 
There  are  numerous  lakes.  Of  these,  the  Galitz  is  ten  miles  long  by  five 
and  a  half  broad,  and  the  Tchuchloma  is  above  five  miles  in  diameter. 
Many  of  the  houses  in  this  government,  and  itideed  through  all  the  south 
and  east  of  Russia,  are  constructed  of  timber,  and  have  very  peculiar  forms. 
An  interesting  example  of  such  structures  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
engraving. 


PoST-HoUSE   ON   THE    RoUTE   FKOM   KoSTROMA  TO    YaBOSLAV. 

Large  quantities  of  hemp  and  flax  are  raised  in  this  province.  These 
two  crops  form  an  important  element  in  providing  employment  for  the 
inhabitants.  Indeed,  the  governments  of  Yaroslav  and  Kostroma  may  be 
considered  as  the  chief  seats  of  manufacturing  industry,  from  which  eastern 
Europe  derives  its  supplies.  Damask  and  linen  weaving,  with  the  numer- 
ous processes  connected  with  them,  give  employment  to  a  large  population, 
in  both  the  towns  and  throughout  the  district.  Russia  leather,  also,  botli 
red  and  black  (the  former  of  cow,  the  latter  of  horse  hide),  is  made  in 
large  quantities,  and  of  first-rate  quality.  The  bog-iron  raised  is  usually 
smelted  by  the  inhabitants  themselves  in  small  furnaces,  and  formed  into 
the  various  implements  required  for  their  own  use.  The  forests,  scattered 
over  the  district,  employ  many  hands  in  felling  trees,  cutting  them  for 
timber,  firewood,  or  charcoal.  Even  the  bark  of  the  lime-tree  is  turned  to 
profitable  account,  being  largely  employed  in  making  mats,  for  which  the 
district  has  long  been  celebrated.  The  fishing,  also,  is  very  productive. 
Many  of  the  peasants  are  masons,  carpenters,  &c.,  who  seek  for  employ- 
ment in  the  summer  season  in  the  contiguous  governments,  returning  home 
hi  the  autumn. 


GREAT   RUSSIA  —  NT.JNEI-NOVGOROD.  101 

Tlfe  city  of  Kostroma,  the  capital  of  the  aljove  government,  is  located 
on  the  Volga,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Kostroma  with  that  river,  two  hun- 
dred miles  northeast  of  Moscow.  The  population  of  the  city  is  rising 
twelve  thousand.  It  is  of  great  antiquity,  having  been  built  in  the  twelfth 
century,  and,  as  is  usual  with  old  Russian  towns,  is  surrounded  by  a  ram- 
part of  earth,  of  which  advantage  has  been  taken  to  form  a  promenade. 
Its  situation  is  elevated  and  agreeable,  and,  being  the  seat  of  both  the  civil 
and  militarv  government  of  the  district,  it  contains  a  great  number  of  pub- 
lic buildings,  which,  together  with  most  of  the  dwellings,  are  constructed 
of  stone.  It  has  fifty  churches,  a  monastery,  an  ecclesiastical  college,  a 
gymnasium,  and  a  large  stone  building,  or  bazar,  for  the  security,  exhibi- 
tion, and  sale  of  merchandise.  Its  manufactures,  among  which  that  of 
Russia  leather  has  long  been  famous  (and  including  also  those  of  linen, 
Prussian  blue,  soap,  and  tallow,  a  bell-foundry,  &c.),  make  Kostroma  one 
of  tlie  most  important  towns  on  the  Volga.  Several  fairs  are  held  here, 
which  are  numerously  attended  by  the  merchants  and  country-people. 

NiJNEi-NovGOROD,  or  LowER  NOVGOROD  (vulgarly,  Nijegorod),  is  situ- 
ated in  tlie  central  part  of  European  Russia,  on  both  sides  of  the  Volga, 
between  the  fifty-fourth  and  fifty-seventli  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the 
forty-first  and  forty-seventh  degrees  of  east  longitude.  On  the  north  is 
the  government  of  Kostroma ;  on  the  east,  Kazan  and  Simbirsk ;  on  the 
soutli,  Penza  and  Tambov ;  and  on  the  west,  Vladimir.  Its  length  from 
north  to. south  is  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth 
one  hundred  and  thirty-six  miles,  comprising  an  area  of  about  twenty  thou- 
sand square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  flat,  or  gently  undulating.  The  soil,  which 
consists  principally  of  sand  and  black  friable  mould,  is  exceedingly  fertile  ; 
and  being  (for  Russia)  well  cultivated,  this  is  one  of  the  most  productive 
provinces  of  the  empire.  Exclusive  of  the  Volga,  several  of  its  afl&uents, 
including  the  Oka,  Betlouga,  Plana,  &c.,  traverse  different  parts  of  the 
government,  which  is  well  watered,  at  the  same  time  that  it  is  not  marshy. 
There  are  some  very  large  forests,  those  of  the  crown  amounting  to  about 
thirteen  or  fourteen  millions  of  acres.  The  produce  of  the  grain-crops  con- 
siderably exceeds  the  consumption.  Hemp  and  flax  are  very  extensively 
cultivated.  Great  numbers  of  cattle  and  liorses  are  bred,  and  the  imperial 
government  is  taking  the  most  effectual  measures  to  improve  the  latter. 

This  is  a  considerable  manufacturing  as  well  as  a  rich  agricultural  dis- 
trict. Coarse  linen,  canvass,  and  cordage,  are  the  principal  manufactured 
products ;  there  are  also  some  iron-works,  with  numerous  distilleries  and 
tanneries,  soap-works,  glass-works,  &c.  Its  commerce  is  extensive  and 
growing.  The  exports  consist  of  grain  and  flour,  cattle,  horses,  leather, 
and  tallow ;  the  manufactured  articles  specified  above,  with  iron,  timber, 
potash,  mats,  glass,  &c.  In  carrying  on  this  trade,  vast  advantages  are 
given  by  the  central  position  of  the  government,  and  its  rivers  and  canals. 


102 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OP    RUSSIA. 


Nijnei-Novgorod  (^JVijeg-orod,  or  Nijnii),  the  capital  of  the  above  gov- 
ernment, is  situated  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Oka  with 
the  Volga.  Its  stationary  population  is  about  forty  thousand.  It  stands 
partly  on  a  steep  hill,  about  four  hundred  feet  in  height,  the  summit  of 
which  is  occupied  by  the  Kremlin  or  citadel,  and  partly  on  the  low  ground 
along  the  sides  of  the  rivers.  The  citadel,  from  the  ramparts  of  which 
there  is  a  noble  view  of  tlie  Volga,  Oka,  and  surrounding  country,  contains 
the  government-offices,  two  cathedrals,  built  after  the  model  of  that  of 
Moscow ;  an  obelisk,  seventy-five  feet  in  height,  erected  in  honor  of  the 
deliverers  of  their  country,  the  patriotic  citizen  Minin  and  Prince  Pojarski ; 
and  otlier  public  buildings. 

The  upper  part  of  the  town  has  several  good  streets  ;  and  being  orna- 
mented by  numerous  churches,  placed  in  conspicuous  situations,  has  an 
imposing  appearance.  The  lower  town  consists  principally  of  a  very  long 
street,  bordering  on  the  Volga.  With  the  exception  of  tlie  principal  pub- 
lic buildings  (including  the  elegant  church  of  the  Holy  Women,  shown  in 
our  engraving),  and  a  few  private  houses,  the  rest  of  the  city  is  constructed 


"  RuBEEtS.SO 

Church  of  the  Holy  Womkn,  at  Nijnei-Novgohod. 


of  wood.  Among  the  establishments  are  three  convents,  a  bazar,  a  gym- 
nasium, and  four  primary  schools,  an  ecclesiastical  seminary,  and  a  large 
military  school.  The  town  is  ancient,  having  been  founded  in  1222.  The 
Kremlin  was  surrounded  by  strong  walls  and  towers  in  1508. 

A  bridge  of  pontoons  leads  across  tlie  Oka  to  the  splendid  new  bazars 
erected  on  the  left  bank  of  that  river  for  the  exhibition  and  sale  of  mer- 
chandise brought  to  the  fair.  These,  which  are  divided  into  parallel  rows, 
or  streets,  are  constructed  of  stone,  roofed  with  iron,  having  covered  gal- 
leries in  front,  supported  by  eight  thousand  iron  pillars.  They  are  built 
on  piles,  and,  to  guard  against  the  danger  of  inundation,  the  ground  on 
which  they  stand  was  raised  about  twenty  feet.     Being  enclosed  on  three 


GREAT  RUSSIA  —  NIJNEI-NOVGOROD.  103 

sides  By  canals,  and  on  the  fourth  by  a  navigable  inlet  of  the  Oka,  there 
is  every  facility  for  the  delivery  and  shipment  of  merchandise.  The  estab- 
lishment is  of  very  great  extent,  comprising  above  twenty-five  hundred 
booths ;  and  is  admitted  on  all  hands  to  be  at  once  the  largest  and  most 
perfect  of  its  kind  that  is  anywhere  to  be  met  with.  Including  the  church, 
dedicated  to  St.  Macarius,  the  patron-saint  of  the  fair,  it  is  said  to  have 
cost  in  all  about  eleven  millions  of  roubles. 

Nijnei-Novgorod  has  various  manufactures,  but  it  owes  its  great  impor- 
tance almost  entirely  to  its  commerce.  It  is  the  grand  entrepot  for  the 
trade  of  the  interior  of  the  empire,  and  has,  in  fact,  a  greater  command  of 
iuteruavigation  than  any  other  city  of  the  Old  World.  Besides  the  grain, 
cattle,  and  other  products  of  the  surrounding  country,  the  Kama,  the  prin- 
cipal affluent  of  the  Volga,  conveys  to  Nijnei  the  salt  of  Perm ;  the  gold, 
silver,  copper,  and  other  metallic  treasures,  of  the  Ural  mountains ;  the 
furs,  &c.,  of  Siberia  ;  and  even  the  teas  of  China.  The  silks,  shawls,  and 
otlier  merchandise  of  central  Asia,  and  the  fish,  caviar,  &c.,  of  southern 
Russia,  come  up  the  river  from  Astrakhan ;  while  the  manufactured  goods 
of  England  and  western  Europe,  the  wines  of  France,  the  cotton  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  sugar  of  Brazil,  are  conveyed  to  her  from  St.  Pe- 
tersburg and  Archangel,  with  both  of  which,  as  well  as  with  Moscow,  she 
is  connected  by  navigable  rivers  and  canals.  These  advantages,  joined  to 
her  situation  in  a  fertile  country  in  the  centre  of  the  monarchy,  were  so 
highly  appreciated  by  Peter  the  Great,  that  it  is  said  he  at  one  time  in- 
tended to  have  made  Nijnei  the  capital  of  his  empire ;  and  it  is,  perhaps, 
to  be  regretted  that  he  did  not  carry  this  project  into  eflect. 

Latterly  the  commercial  importance  of  Nijnei-Novgorod  has  been  vastly 
increased.  Previously  to  1817,  the  great  fair,  now  held  here,  was  held  in 
a  less  convenient  situation  at  Makarev,  in  the  same  government,  lower 
down  on  the  Volga  (which  must  not  be  confounded  with  Mokariev,  in  the 
government  of  Kostroma,  where  fairs  are  also  held).  But  the  buildings 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  merchants  at  Makarev  having  been  accident- 
ally burnt  down  in  1816,  government  took  advantage  of  the  circumstance, 
to  remove  the  fair  to  Nijnei.  It  begins  on  the  first  of  July,  and  continues 
for  a  month  or  six  weeks,  and  is  well  known,  not  only  over  all  Russia,  but 
over  most  other  countries  of  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  carried  on  within  the 
bazars  already  noticed,  which  were  constructed  by  government  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  the  traders,  to  whom  tliey  are  let  at  moderate  rents.  The 
produce  disposed  of  is  classified  as  follows,  viz. :  first,  Russian  produce, 
raw  and  manufactured  ;  second,  merchandise  from  the  rest  of  Europe,  con- 
sisting principally  of  manufactured  and  colonial  products  ;  and,  third,  prod- 
ucts of  China,  Bokhara,  the  Kirghizes,  and  other  Asiatic  nations. 

The  concourse  of  strangers  during  the  fair  is  quite  immense ;  so  much 
so,  that  the  population  is  then  increased,  according  to  the  lowest  estimates, 
by  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  thousand  individuals.  Here 
are  seen  dealers  from  India,  China,  Tartary,  Bokhara,  Persia,  Circassia, 


104  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 

Armenia,  and  Turkey  ;  and  from  Italy,  Poland,  Germany,  France,  England, 
and  even  the  United  States.  Theatrical  representations,  shows  of  wild 
beasts,  and  other  diversions,  are  got  up  to  entertain  the  multitude,  but  the 
engrossing  spirit  of  trade  overrides  all  considerations  of  mere  amusement. 

Laurence  Oliphant,  who  was  present  at  the  fair  in  1852,  thus  graphically 
describes  its  appearance,  in  his  late  work  on  Russia:  — 

"To  us,  as  strangers,  the  earnest,  business-like  appearance  of  the  people 
was  especially  striking.  There  was  evidently  no  time  to  be  lost  in  merry- 
go-rounds  or  penny  shows.  Here  fortunes  were  to  be  lost  or  won  in  a  few 
short  weeks.  The  rich  merchant  had  brought  valuable  wares  from  distant 
lands  at  an  enormous  expense  ;  the  poor  peddler  had  trudged  many  a  weary 
mile  with  his  heavy  pack :  both  had  staked  their  all  on  the  results  of  their 
transactions  in  the  allotted  time,  and  were  in  no  humor  to  trifle  with  it. 
It  had  evidently  never  struck  them  that  Nijnei  fair  was  a  place  to  which 
people  would  resort  for  either  pleasure  or  instruction,  or  for  anything  but 
gold ;  and  certainly,  interesting  though  it  was,  some  such  motive  as  the 
last  would  be  required  to  induce  a  second  visit. 

"  The  fair  is  held  on  a  low,  sandy  spot  of  land,  formed  by  the  junction 
of  the  Oka  and  the  Volga,  and  which  is  subject  to  constant  inundation  in 
winter.  The  substantial  part  of  it,  inhabited  by  the  wealthy  merchants, 
is  arranged  in  twelve  parallel  streets,  composed  of  neat  two-storied  brick 
houses,  the  lower  part  forming  the  shops  and  warehouses,  which  are  pro- 
tected by  covered  verandahs.  Each  street  terminates  at  one  end  in  a 
pagoda,  indicating  the  Chinese  quarter"  (a  representation  of  which  is  given 
on  the  opposite  page)  ;  "  while  at  the  other  it  is  connected  with  a  square, 
where  the  governor's  house  and  public  offices  are  situated. 

"  This  respectable  nucleus  is  encompassed  by  a  deep  border  of  tempo- 
rary wooden  huts,  inhabited  by  an  indescribable  swarm  of  ragged  Tartars, 
Tchouvasses,  Kirghiz,  and  Calmucks,  besides  the  peasantry  of  the  neigh- 
borhood, who  frequent  the  fair  with  provisions,  fruit,  and  all  sorts  of  farm 
and  country  produce.  A  long  bridge  of  boats  across  the  Oka  connects  this 
busy  peninsula  with  the  hill  on  which  is  situated  the  town  of  Nijnei,  com- 
manding an  extensive  view  of  the  whole  scene.  Both  rivers  are  covered 
with  every  conceivable  shape  and  description  of  boat  and  barge ;  some 
from  the  distant  Caspian,  laden  with  raw  or  spun  cotton,  Persian  shawls, 
Georgian  carpets,  and  Bokharian  skins,  or  dried  fruits :  these  vessels,  of 
square,  unwieldy  construction,  are  elaborately  painted  and  ornamented, 
and  on  their  decks  are  erected  curious  wooden  habitations,  from  the  peaked 
roofs  of  which  flutter  gaudy  flags,  while  out  of  the  carved  windows  peej) 
eastern  maidens.  Others,  rude  and  strongly  built,  have  come  down  the 
Kama  with  Siberian  iron  or  tea ;  while  the  more  civilized  appearance  of  a 
few  denotes  their  western  origin,  and  these  have  threaded  their  way  from 
the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  laden  with  the  manufactured  goods  of  Europe. 
On  board  this  singular  mixture  of  craft  is  found  as  singular  a  mixture  of 
inhabitants,  whole  families  coming  from  their  distant  homes  to  take  some 


GREAT   RUSSIA  —  NIJNEI-NOVGOROD. 


105 


Chinese  Quarteh  of  the  Gueat  Fair  at  Nijnei-Novgokod. 


share  in  what — now  that  the  London  Exliibition  exists  no  longer  in  that 
capacity — may  resume  its  old  title  of  '  the  World's  Fair.' 

"  Our  abode  was  situated  in  a  suburb,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river, 
so  that  it  was  necessary  to  cross  the  bridge  of  boats  every  time  we  wished 
to  visit  the  fair ;  and  here  the  confusion  was  always  the  greatest.  We 
were  obliged  to  struggle  our  way,  if  on  foot,  amid  sheepskins,  greasy 
enough  to  scent  us  for  the  rest  of  our  lives,  thereby  adding  to  the  store  of 
fleas  with  which  we  had  started  from  our  lodging.  Women,  with  waists 
immediately  under  their  throats,  and  petticoats  tucked  up  to  their  knees, 
tramped  it  gallantly  through  the  mud,  and  made  better  progress  than  we 
could.  A  Cossack  on  horseback  rode  up  and  down  the  bridge  for  the  pur- 
pose of  keeping  order  amid  the  droskies,  which,  heedless  of  the  rules  of  the 
road,  dashed  in  every  direction,  apparently  bent  upon  splashing  those  they 
did  not  run  over.  Drunken  men  continually  stumbled  against  us ;  and 
when  at  last  we  reached  the  slough  on  the  opposite  side,  the  confusion  and 
hubbub  were  greater  than  ever.  The  mud  in  the  shallowest  parts  was  at 
least  two  feet  in  depth,  and  nearly  everybody  waded  about  in  it  witli  Rus- 
sian leather  jack-boots.  Numbers  of  small  shops  surrounded  the  bespat- 
tered populace,  while  a  few  miserable  attempts  at  shows  only  proved  how 
little  they  were  appreciated. 

"At  the  corners  of  the  streets  running  into  this  delectable  hole  were  sta- 
tioned Cossacks,  who  showered  blows  upon  oftending  Mvjiks  (or  peasants) 
with  their  heavy-lashed  whips,  without  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  oflence 
or  the  size  of  the  victim.  Turning  up  one  of  these  streets,  and  penetrating 
farther  into  the  fair,  other  scenes  and  pleasanter  forms  meet  the  eye.     The 


106 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 


Summary  Punishment  of  a  Mujik  by  a  Cossack,  at  Nijnki. 


gay  dress  of  the  Georgian  forms  a  pleasing  contrast  to  the  everlasting 
sheepskin ;  and,  as  we  enter  the  shop  of  the  Teflis  merchant,  beautifully- 

embuidered  slippers,  rich  ta- 
ble-covers, and  the  finest  silks, 
are  spread  out  temptingly  be- 
fore us In  the  next  shop 

are  handsome  furs  and  skins 
piled  in  every  available  corner, 
and  the  owner  of  the  valuable 
collection  stands  at  the  door, 


t:_ 


his  flowing  robe  and  dignified 
demeanor  betokening  his  east- 
ern origin.  Aaron  was,  in  fact, 
a  Bokharian  Jcav,  who  delight- 
ed to  show  us  his  costly  wares, 
even  though  there  was  no  chance 
of  our  becoming  purchasers;  and,  finally,  regaled  us  with  almonds,  split- 
peas,  and  raisins  —  flattered,  perhaps,  by  tlio  admiration  we  expressed  at 
the  belt  he  wore,  the  buckle  of  which,  composed  of  solid  silver,  was  set 
with  turquoises.  But  it  would  be  hopeless  to  attempt  a  description  of  the 
costumes  of  the  different  merchants  and  shopkeepers,  or  to  enumerate  the 
variety  of  articles  exposed  for  sale. 

"  The  Bokharians,  Persians,  and  Georgians,  inhabit  one  quarter,  which 
is  likely  to  prove  the  most  interesting  to  the  stranger ;  and  I  recognised, 
in  the  countenances  of  many  of  the  representatives  of  these  nations,  a  strong 
resemblance  to  some  old  Aifghan  and  Persian  horse-dealing  friends.  It  is 
a  convenient  arrangement,  no  less  for  the  sight-seer  than  the  merchant, 
that  the  fair  is  divided  into  quarters,  devoted  to  the  sale  of  different  mer- 
chandise. The  Ketaiski  Red,  or  Chinese  division,  is  at  once  distinguish- 
able by  the  rows  of  square  leather  boxes  which  contain  the  tea.  No  Chi- 
naman, however,  showed  his  pigtail  in  the  crowd,  much  to  our  disappoint- 
ment—  the  transfer  being  made  at  Kiahta,  whence  the  tea  comes  overland 
to  the  Kama,  down  which  river  it  is  conveyed  to  the  Volga,  In  the  cut- 
lers' quarter  I  was  surprised  to  find  so  great  a  preponderance  of  Russian 
ware  ;  still  Shefiield  maintains  its  own,  and  the  prices  are  much  lower  than 
in  St.  Petersburg:  indeed,  this  is  the  case  with  all  English  or  foreign 
goods,  which,  though  subject  to  a  most  exorbitant  duty  on  entering  Russia, 
may  be  procured  more  cheaply  here,  on  account  of  the  comparative  facility 
with  which  they  can  be  exposed  for  sale.  The  guild  dues  at  St.  Peters- 
burg are  so  high,  that  the  merchant,  after  paying  two  thousand  roubles 
(assignation,^  for  his  position  in  the  first  guild,  and  two  or  three  thousand 
roubles  more  for  his  shop  on  the  Nevskoi  Prospekt,  has  but  little  margin 
left  for  his  profits. 

"  The  whole  system  seems  most  elaborately  devised  to  destroy  all  enter- 
prise, and  to  depress  as  much  as  possible  the  spirit  of  trade,  in  a  country 


GREAT  RUSSIA  —  VLADIMIR.  107 

\vliicli  naturally  possesses  it  in  but  a  very  limited  degree ;  and  it  must  be 
long  ere  the  resources  of  the  country  can  be  properly  developed  while  the 
government  seeks  its  own  aggrandizement  regardless  of  the  prosperity  of 
the  community  —  since  the  protection  it  affords  to  home  manufactures,  by 
the  duty  on  foreign  goods,  is  effectually  neutralized  by  the  expenses  attend- 
ant upon  the  sale  and  nianufacture  of  the  home  produce  itself.  At  Nijnei, 
however,  these  difficulties  do  not  exist :  the  only  expense  is  house-rent ; 
and  thus  it  happens  that  foreign  goods  are  to  be  procured  more  cheaply 
here  than  they  can  be  at  a  seaport  seven  hundred  miles  nearer  the  country 
wlience  they  come ;  and,  in  some  instances,  the  manufactured  articles  of  a 
Russian  town  some  hundreds  of  miles  distant,  are  to  be  found  here  exposed 
for  sale  at  lower  prices  than  in  the  very  town  where  they  have  been  pro- 
duced—  an  anomaly  which  is  quite  in  accordance  with  the  political  econ- 
omy of  the  country.  The  palpable  result  of  all  this  is,  that  the  variety  of 
goods  brought  to  Nijnei  for  sale  far  exceeds  what  it  would  be  were  there 
not  so  many  attendant  advantages  to  counterbalance  the  expense  of  trans- 
port ;  and  the  traveller  has  only  to  wander  along  the  narrow,  insignificant- 
looking  streets  of  the  fair,  to  find  articles  which  he  would  be  unable  to 
obtain  in  the  handsomest  shops  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow." 

The  government  of  Vladimir  lies  between  the  fifty-fifth  and  fifty-seventh 
degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  thirty-eighth  and  forty-third  degrees  of 
cast  longitude,  having  the  governments  of  Yaroslav  and  Kostroma  on  the 
north,  Nijnei-Novgorod  on  the  east,  Moscow  and  Tver  on  the  west,  and  Ria- 
zan  and  Tambov  on  the  south.  It  comprises  an  area  of  about  seventeeii 
thousand  five  hundred  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  almost  a  level  plain,  watered  by  numerous 
rivers,  the  principal  being  the  Oka  in  the  southeast  and  tlie  Kliasma,  a  trib- 
utary of  the  Oka,  running  through  the  centre ;  both  of  which  have,  more 
or  less,  a  northeasterly  course.  The  soil  is  not  generally  fertile,  and  a 
large  part  of  the  government  is  covered  with  forests,  marshes,  pools,  and 
heaths.  Rye,  barley,  oats,  summer  and  winter  wheat,  millet,  peas,  hemp, 
and  flax,  are  grown ;  but  the  crops  of  grain  are  insufficient  for  the  home 
consumption.  The  gardens  and  orchards  are  pretty  numerous,  and  well 
attended  to  ;  and  Vladimir  is  famous  for  its  cherries  and  apples.  A  good 
many  cucuml)ers  and  some  hops  are  raised.  Cattle-rearing  is  a  secondary 
l)usiness,  and  is  far  behind.  The  forests  are  of  vast  extent,  those  belong- 
ing to  the  crown  alone  covering  about  one  ninth  part  of  the  entire  surface. 
Extensive  and  valuable  beds  of  iron-ore  have  been  found  in  the  forest  of 
Mourom ;  and  at  Vixa,  on  the  Oka,  are  some  of  the  most  extensive  iron- 
works in  Russia. 

The  poverty  of  tlie  soil,  and  other  concurring  circumstances,  have  turned 
the  attention  of  the  inhabitants  toward  manufactures,  which  appear  to  have 
succeeded  better  in  tliis  than  in  most  other  Russian  governments.  The 
cotton  manufacture,  which  is  by  far  th:  most  extensive,  is  principally  car- 


108  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

ried  on  at  Chouia  and  Ivanova,  where,  in  connection  with  other  branches 
of  industry,  it  employs  about  one  hundred  thousand  work-people.  The 
manufacture  of  woollen  and  linen  is  of  less  importance ;  but  about  five  or 
six  thousand  hands  are  employed  in  iron-foundries ;  and  about  fifteen  hun- 
dred in  glass  and  crystal  works,  exclusive  of  those  employed  in  the  pro- 
duction of  leather,  earthenware,  &c. 

The  various  products  of  the  government  are  sent  down  the  Kliasma  and 
Oka,  or  else  to  Moscow,  by  means  of  land-carriages.  Grain,  cotton-twist, 
and  flax,  from  the  neighboring  governments  of  Kostroma,  Yaroslav,  and 
Nijnei-Novgorod,  are  the  chief  articles  of  import.  Vladimir  is  divided 
into  thirteen  districts.  The  chief  towns  are  Vladimir,  the  capital,  Chouia, 
and  Mourom. 

Vladimir,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  located  near  the  Kli- 
asma, and  on  one  of  its  small  tributaries,  one  hundred  and  ten  miles  nortli- 
east  of  Moscow.  Its  population  is  supposed  to  be  about  ten  thousand. 
Vladimir  occupies  a  site  rather  more  elevated  than  tlie  rest  of  its  govern- 
ment. It  is  surrounded  by  a  ditch  and  earth  rampart,  and,  like  almost  all 
the  ancient  towns  of  Russia,  is  divided  into  three  portions.  Its  principal 
street  is  long,  wide,  and  lined  vsdth  houses  of  wood  and  stone  intermixed. 
The  cross-streets  are  mostly  mean.  The  principal  structure  is  the  cathe- 
dral of  the  Assumption,  a  square  edifice,  surmounted  by  five  domes,  and 
richly  ornamented  inside,  though  much  less  magnificent  than  formerly. 
There  are  about  a  dozen  other  churches.  The  former  palace  of  the  arch- 
bishop now  serves  for  a  seminary.  The  governor's  house,  courthouse,  gym- 
nasim,  a  nunnery,  &c.,  are  brick  edifices. 

Vladimir  is  not  considered  a  wealthy  town,  or  a  principal  emporium, 
owing  partly  to  its  distance  from  any  large  navigable  river,  and  partly  to 
the  proximity  to  Moscow.  Being,  however,  on  the  great  road  to  the  fairs 
of  Nijnei-Novgorod  and  Irbit,  and  on  the  grand  line  of  communication  be- 
tween European  Russia  and  Siberia,  it  often  presents  a  busy  and  cheerful 
aspect.  Some  of  its  inhabitants  are  occupied  in  making  linen-cloths  and 
leather ;  and  many  others  in  the  cultivation  of  fruit,  particularly  cherries, 
which  are  grown  in  great  quantities  in  the  neighborhood.  The  era  of  its 
foundation  is  uncertain :  some  authors  place  it  in  the  tenth,  and  others  i)i 
the  twelfth  century.  Vladimir  was,  however,  the  capital  of  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Russia  from  1157  till  1328,  when  that  distinction  was  transferred 
to  Moscow. 

The  government  of  Riazan  lies  between  the  fifty-third  and  fifty-sixth 
degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  thirty-eighth  and  forty-first  degrees  of 
east  longitude,  having  the  government  of  Vladimir  on  the  north,  Tambov 
on  the  east  and  south,  and  Toula  and  Moscow  on  the  west.  It  has  an  area 
of  about  fourteen  thousand  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  generally  flat.  The  Oka,  running  from 
west  to  east,  divides  the  government  into  two  unequal  portions  of  very 


GREAT   RUSSIA  —  RIAZAN.  109 

different  aspect.  Tlio  country  sontli  of  that  river  is  the  more  elevated ; 
the  air  is  wholesome,  and  the  soil  fertile :  in  the  north,  on  the  contrary, 
the  country  is  generally  low,  marshy,  and  covered  with  woods,  or  destitute 
of  culture.  More  grain  is  grown  than  is  required  for  home  consumption, 
the  average  produce  being  between  twenty-five  and  thirty  millions  of  bush- 
(>l3  a  year.  The  forests,  which  are  very  extensive,  cover  above  a  third 
i;art  of  the  surface  :  those  belonging  to  the  crown  comprise  about  four  hun- 
dred and  twenty-eight  thousand  deciatines,  or  twelve  hundred  and  eighty- 
r)ar  thousand  acres.  Hops,  tobacco,  and  garden- vegetables  are,  in  some 
liistricts,  raised  in  large  quantities.  The  proprietors  of  the  pasture-lands 
!.)t  them  to  graziers  belonging  to  the  Ukraine,  who  bring  thither  large 
herds.  The  breed  of  horses  is  good  :  the  imperial  government  has  a  depot 
iPetalons  at  Skopin.  Bees  are  supposed  to  produce  about  two  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  roubles  a  year.  There  are  a  few  iron-mines  and  stone- 
i|uarries. 

The  manufactures  of  this  government  have  made  some  progress.  Those 
of  glass  and  hardware  occupy  the  first  rank  ;  and  there  are  others  of  wool- 
len, cotton,  and  linen  fabrics,  cordage,  potash,  soap,  &c.,  with  dyeing- 
establishments,  tanneries,  and  distilleries.  A  portion  of  the  manufactured 
.!j;oods  is  sent  to  Moscow,  and,  by  way  of  the  Oka,  down  the  Volga ;  but 
l!ie  principal  exports  are  the  raw  products  of  the  government,  consisting 
of  grain,  cattle,  honey,  lard,  iron,  timber,  and  wooden  articles. 

The  population  of  Riazan  is  principally  Russian,  but  partly  of  the  Tartar 
stock.  The  government  is  subdivided  into  twelve  districts.  The  chief 
towns  are  Riazan,  the  capital,  Zaraisk,  and  Kasimov.  Education  is  very 
backward,  the  pupils  at  schools  and  other  seminaries  amounting  to  only 
; I  bout  one  in  a  thousand  of  the  population. 

The  city  of  Riazan,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated  on 
the  Troubege,  a  tributary  of  the  Oka,  one  hundred  and  ten  miles  south- 
cast  of  Moscow.  Its  population  is  about  ten  thousand.  It  consists  of  two 
distinct  portions:  an  irregular  fortress,  with  an  earthern  rampart,  enclo- 
sing numerous  churches,  the  episcopal  palace,  formerly  the  residence  of 
the  princes  of  Riazan,  the  consistory,  &c. ;  and  the  town  proper,  in  which 
are  also  numerous  churches,  with  a  fine  edifice  for  the  government-offices, 
several  convents,  a  seminary  and  public  library,  hospital,  &c.  The  town 
has  greatly  increased  in  size  and  importance  within  the  last  fifty  years ; 
!)ut  most  of  the  houses  are  still  of  wood,  and  planks  occupy  the  place  of 
pavements  in  the  streets. 

Riazan  is  the  seat  of  a  military  governor,  with  authority  over  the  gov- 
<u'nments  of  Riazan  and  Tambov,  and  of  the  chief  judicial  courts  of  each 
^jjovernment.  It  has  a  gymnasium,  to  which  a  society  of  arts  was  attached 
in  1820  ;  a  school  of  drawing  and  architecture,  founded  in  1824  ;  schools 
for  the  children  of  official  persons,  &c. ;  and  several  of  the  principal  manu- 
factures in  the  government.  The  old  town  of  Riazan,  destroyed  by  the 
Tartars  in  1568,  is  distant  about  thirty-three  miles  southeast. 


110  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

The  government  of  Tambov  is  situated  principally  between  tlie  fifty-sec- 
ond and  fifty-fifth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  fortieth  and  forty-third 
degrees  of  east  longitude,  having  the  governments  of  Vladimir  and  Nijnei- 
Novgorod  on  the  north,  Penza  and  Saratov  on  tlie  east,  Voronej  on  the 
south,  and  chiefly  the  latter  and  Riazan  on  tlie  west.  lis  length  from 
north  to  south  is  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  its  breadth  varying 
from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  It  contains  an  area  of 
about  twenty-four  thousand  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  flat,  except  in  a  few  parts,  where  it  is 
slightly  undulating.  Its  principal  rivers  are  the  Tsna  and  Mocksha,  tribu- 
taries of  the  Oka,  flowing  north ;  and  tlie  Vorona,  a  tributary  of  the  Don, 
flowing  south.  In  the  north  the  soil  is  sandy  and  marshy  ;  a  large. propor- 
tion of  the  country,  principally  the  marshes,  being  covered  with  forests : 
in  the  east,  or  steppe  —  so  called  from  its  being  bare  of  wood  —  the  soil 
consists  principally  of  a  black  mould,  and  is  comparatively  fertile.  Grain 
is  the  principal  product ;  but,  according  to  the  official  accounts,  the  crops 
are  extremely  variable,  and  scarcities  frequently  occur.  The  crop  of  1802, 
for  example,  was  estimated  at  fifty  millions  of  bushels,  and  that  of  1821  at 
only  thirty  millions  of  bushels.  In  1832,  an  abundant  year,  about  four 
and  a  half  millions  of  bushels  were  exported  to  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg. 
Hemp  is  extensively  grown  ;  the  value  of  the  quantity  exported  amounting, 
according  to  Schnitzler,  to  one  million  of  roubles  a  year. 

The  forests  along  the  Mocksha  supply  a  good  deal  of  timber  for  ship 
and  boat  building ;  and  the  inhabitants  are  there  principally  wood-cutters, 
carpenters,  coopers,  or  pitch  and  tar  makers.  The  peasantry  are  well 
treated,  and  in  good  circumstances.  Cattle  (principally  brought  from  the 
steppes  of  the  Don,  the  Volga,  and  the  Caucasus)  are  numerous,  and  arc 
extensively  fattened  for  the  neighboring  governments,  and  for  Moscow  and 
St.  Petersburg.  The  horses  belonging  to  the  gentry  are  good,  and  have 
been  much  improved  by  the  stud  kept  by  the  Orloff  family ;  but  the  horses 
of  the  peasantry  are  wretched. 

The  manufacture  of  woollen  cloth  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  this  province.  Peter  the  Great  established  an  extensive  cloth-manufac- 
tory, for  the  service  of  government,  at  the  village  of  Boudari.  This,  how- 
ever, was  burnt  down  in  1836  ;  but,  having  been  since  rebuilt  on  a  great 
scale,  it  now  gives  employment  to  about  two  thousand  males,  and  twelve 
hundred  females  :  the  consumption  of  wool  is  stated  at  fifty  thousand  poods 
a  year  ;  and  besides  furnishing  four  hundred  and  forty  thousand  arschines* 
of  cloth  annually  for  the  army,  it  produces  other  goods  worth  one  and  a 
half  millions  of  roubles.  The  province  also  possesses  numerous  forges, 
distilleries,  tallow-factories,  mills  (of  which  a  very  fine  one  belongs  to 
Count  Koutaisoif),  &c.  The  principal  towns  are  Tambov,  the  capital, 
Morchansk,  Chatsk,  Elatma,  Lipetsk,  &c. 

The  city  of  Tambov,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated  at 

*  A  Russian  arschine  is  about  three  fouitlis  of  an  English  yard. 


GREAT   RUSSIA  —  TAMBOV  —  TOULA.  Ill 

about  the  centre  of  the  province,  on  the  Tsna,  three  hundred  and  eighty- 
live  miles  southeast  of  Moscow.  Its  population  is  twenty-five  or  thirty 
thousand.  The  town,  Avhich  is  al)out  two  miles  in  length,  by  one  mile  in 
breadth,  was  originally  founded  and  fortified  in  1636,  as  a  defence  against 
the  incursions  of  the  Nogai  Tartars.  The  houses  are  principally  of  wood  ; 
l)ut  there  are  various  stone  churches,  a  large  monastery,  gymnasium,  civil 
hospital,  a  military  orplian  asylum,  &c.  In  the  school  of  cadets  at  Tam- 
bov, about  one  hundred  pupils,  sons  of  nobles,  are  instructed  in  French, 
German,  military  exercises,  <fcc. ;  and  the  most  intelligent  are  afterward 
sent  to  the  corps  de  cadets  at  St.  Petersburg.  A  higli  school  for  young 
ladies  was  founded  in  1834,  and  there  are  various  other  schools.  j\Ianu- 
factures  of  woollen  cloths,  alum,  vitriol,  &c.,  are  established  ;  and  the  town 
has  an  active  general  trade. 

TouLA,  one  of  the  most  populous  of  the  Russian  governments,  lies  prin- 
cipally between  the  fifty-third  and  fifty-fifth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and 
the  tliirty-sixth  and  thirty-ninth  degrees  of  east  longitude,  having  the  gov- 
ernment of  Moscow  on  the  north,  that  of  Riazan  on  the  east,  Orel  on  the 
south,  and  Kalouga  on  the  west.  Its  length  is  about  one  hundred  and 
thirty  miles,  and  its  breath  is  about  eighty-five  miles,  comprising  an  area 
of  about  twelve  thousand  square  miles. 

The  country  slopes  generally  to  the  north  and  east,  in  which  direction 
the  Oka  flows,  forming  its  northwestern  and  northern  boundary.  The  Don 
rises  in  this  government.  The  surface  is  an  undulating  plain,  and,  thougli 
not  very  fertile,  it  produces  a  good  deal  of  grain,  with  beans,  turnips,  mus- 
tard, flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  potatoes,  and  other  vegetables.  The  peasants, 
almost  everywhere,  have  gardens  in  which  they  grow  fruit,  &c.  ;  the  cli- 
mate being  tolerably  mild  and  healthy.  The  rearing  of  cattle,  horses,  and 
sheep,  is  extensively  carried  on.  Iron  is  abundant,  and  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  capital,  iron-mines  extend  over  an  area  of  ten  square  miles ; 
but  the  metal  is  of  inferior  quality,  and  iron  is  one  of  the  chief  imports  into 
the  government.  A  bad  sort  of  coal  has  also  been  met  with  ;  but  wood 
and  charcoal  continue  to  be  the  principal  fuel  used  in  the  forges  and  other 
factories.  Forests  cover  about  one  sixth  part  of  the  surface.  Dr.  Lyall 
says  that,  south  of  Toula,  there  is  not  so  profuse  a  waste  of  timber  in  the 
construction  of  peasants'  houses  as  nearer  St.  Petersburg.  Indeed,  some 
of  the  houses  are  not  built  in  the  usual  way,  with  trunks  of  trees  mortised 
together  at  the  corners,  but  consist  of  wattled  wicker-work.  The  dwellings, 
or  rather  the  huts,  of  the  peasants,  which  range  along  both  sides  of  the 
road,  are  more  paltry  in  their  appearance  and  more  simple  in  their  struc- 
ture than  those  between  the  capitals.  Indeed,  they  gradually  become  more 
miserable  as  we  proceed  south,  till  we  come  to  regions  where  stone  abounds. 

Except  in  the  capital,  there  are  hardly  any  manufacturing  establishments 
other  than  tanneries,  breweries,  and  distilleries,  the  last  two  being  on  a 
very  extensive  scale.     The  exports  consist  principally  of  grain,  hemp,  and 


112  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

flax,  with  cutleryj'ewellery,  &c.,from  Toula  ;  the  latter,  with  Bielev,  being 
the  chief  seat  of  commerce.  In  tliis  government  is  the  canal  of  Ivanov, 
uniting  the  Oka  with  the  Don,  excavated  by  the  Swedish  prisoners  in  Rus- 
sia early  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

Toula  has  been  a  separate  government  since  1796 :  it  is  divided  into 
twelve  districts.  The  chief  towns  are  Toula,  the  capital,  Bielev,  Vienev, 
Odoiev.  Its  inhabitants  are  nearly  all  Russians,  with  some  German  colo- 
nists. In  respect  of  public  instruction,  Toula  is  subordinate  to  the  univer- 
sity of  Moscow. 

The  city  of  Toula,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated  on 
both  sides  of  the  Upa,  one  hundred  and  ten  miles  south  of  Moscow.  The 
population,  including  the  government  workmen,  but  exclusive  of  troops,,  is 
probably  between  forty  and  fifty  thousand.  This  town,  the  "  Sheffield  and 
Birmingham"  of  Russia,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  in  the  empire.  Seen 
from  a  distance,  it  has  an  imposing  appearance.  A  very  handsome  church, 
with  white  columns,  appears  above  the  town,  which  occupies  an  extensive 
vale,  and  is  filled  with  S])ires  and  domes.  The  entrances  on  both  tlie  north 
and  south  sides  are  through  triumphal  arches,  made  of  wood  painted  to 
imitate  marble.  It  is  divided  into  several  quarters,  the  communication 
between  them  being  kept  up  by  a  number  of  wooden  and  stone  bridges ; 
and  there  are  several  suburbs. 

There  are  two  convents  and  twenty-six  churches  in  Toula,  all  of  stone ; 
but  the  edifices  which  chiefly  attract  the  stranger's  attention  are  the  gun- 
manufactory  ;  the  gymnasium  for  the  government ;  Alexander's  scliool, 
opened  in  1802,  for  the  education  of  youth,  at  the  expense  of  the  nobility ; 
the  foundling-hospital,  a  branch  of  that  of  Moscow ;  the  house  of  correc- 
tion, prison,  arsenal,  theatre,  gostinoi  dvor,  or  building  for  the  preserva- 
tion and  sale  of  merchandise,  &c.  The  shops  in  the  latter  present  more 
activity  and  industry  than  are  usually  met  with  in  Russian  towns,  and  some 
of  the  merchants  are  reputed  rich.  There  is  a  continual  mixture  of  wood 
and  stone  houses ;  but  some  streets  are  lined  on  both  sides  witli  stone 
edifices,  many  of  which  are  massive  and  in  good  taste. 

The  musket-manufactory,  though  commenced  at  an  earlier  period,  is 
indebted  for  its  original  importance  to  Peter  the  Great.  It  was  remod- 
elled and  improved  by  Catherine  II.  in  1785  ;  but  its  present  excellence 
is  mainly  owing  to  Mr.  Jones,  an  English  mechanic  from  Birmingham,  who 
was  invited  into  Russia  in  1817.  About  eight  thousand  men  and  ten  thou- 
sand women  are  employed  in  this  factory,  besides  four  or  five  thousand 
hands  in  subsidiary  occupations.  About  seventy-five  thousand  muskets 
and  fifty  or  sixty  thousand  swords  are  annually  made  here,  exclusive  of 
great  numbers  of  carbines,  pistols,  bayonets,  pikes,  &c.  The  metal  em- 
ployed comes  wholly  from  Siberia,  and  is  of  excellent  quality.  The  work- 
men in  the  gun-factory  enjoy  peculiar  immunities  and  privileges  ;  they  form 
a  separate  body,  and  have  their  judges  selected  from  among  themselves. 
They  are  divided  into  five  trades — barrel-makers,  lock-makers,  stock- 


GREAT   RUSSIA  —  KALOUGA.  113 

makers,  fiirnishing-makers,  and  makers  of  small-arms.  The  arms  made  at 
this  factory  have  been  ridiculously  depreciated  by  some  travellers,  and  as 
extravagantly  extolled  by  others.  The  exploits  of  the  Russian  armies 
speedily  showed  the  entire  worthlessness  of  the  statements  made  by  the 
English  traveller  Clarke  as  to  the  badness  of  the  Toula  muskets  ;  and,  in 
point  of  fact,  though  tlicy  want  the  neatness  and  finish  of  the  muskets  of 
Birmingham,  they  are  of  very  good  quality.  Some  also  of  the  firearms 
and  swords  made  here  are  very  highly  finished,  but  these  are  comparatively 
high  priced. 

Among  the  other  fabrics  of  Toula  are  mathematical  and  physical  instru- 
ments, jewelry,  and  platina-wares,  with  silk  and  hat  fabrics,  tanneries,  <fec. 
The  town  is  the  residence  of  a  military  governor,  with  authority  extending 
over  the  governments  of  Toula  and  Tambov,  Riazan,  Orel,  Voronej,  and 
sometimes  Kalouga. 

Ancient  Toula,  which  existed  in  the  twelfth  century,  did  not  occupy  the 
site  of  the  modern  town,  though  it  was  on  the  Upa,  at  no  great  distance. 
The  present  city  was  founded  in  1509,  by  Vassili-Ivanovich,  who  fortified 
it  with  a  stone  and  brick  wall,  &c.  Its  defences,  however,  were  insuffi- 
cient to  prevent  its  being  frequently  plundered  by  the  Tartars,  it  being  on 
the  high  road  to  Moscow  from  the  Crimea.  It  has  often  suffered  severely 
from  fire,  the  last  visitation  being  in  1834. 

The  government  of  Kalouga  lies  between  the  fifty-third  and  fifty-sixth 
degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  thirty-third  and  thirty-seventh  degrees 
of  east  longitude,  having  the  government  of  Smolensk  on  the  west,  the  lat- 
ter and  Moscow  on  the  north,  Toula  on  the  east,  and  Orel  on  the  south. 
It  has  an  area  of  about  ten  thousand  five  hundred  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  an  almost  uninterrupted  plain,  watered  by 
numerous  rivers,  of  which  the  Oka  and  its  tributaries  are  the  principal. 
There  are  also  several  small  lakes,  and  occasional  morasses.  The  climate 
is  one  of  the  most  temperate  in  Russia,  being  tolerably  mild  for  the  lati- 
tude. Winter  sets  in  about  the  end  of  November,  and  disappears  in  March. 
The  soil  is  mostly  either  sandy  or  hard  clay,  and  not  fertile.  The  forests 
occupy  more  than  half  the  surface  of  the  province,  and  the  arable  lands 
rather  more  than  two  fifths  ;  but  a  good  deal  of  manure  is  required  to  ren- 
der the  latter  even  moderately  productive,  and  the  agricultural  produce  is 
not  adequate  to  the  consumption  of  the  inhabitants.  Rye  is  principally 
grown  ;  but  barley  is  a  favorite  crop,  and  other  cereals — wheat,  oats,  mil- 
let, and  also  buckwheat  and  beans  —  are  likewise  cultivated.  Hemp  and 
flax  are  grown  to  a  large  extent ;  and,  though  much  of  it  is  worked  up  in 
the  district,  a  considerable  surplus  remains  for  export,  along  with  oil  and 
oil-cake.  Cattle  are  not  numerous,  and  but  little  valued  ;  but  there  are  in 
the  government  two  extensive  studs  for  the  breeding  of  superior  horses. 
The  fisheries  are  insignificant,  and  but  little  game  is  met  with.  Bog-iron 
is  found,  but  in  no  great  quantity,  and  a  good  deal  has  to  be  imported  to 

8 


114  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

supply  the  various  iron-works,  which  are  numerous,  owing  to  the  abun- 
ance  of  fuel :  a  large  quantity  of  iron,  both  pig  and  malleable,  is  produced. 

This  government  being  so  little  suitable  for  agriculture,  the  attention  of 
its  inhabitants  has  been  naturally  turned  toward  manufacturing  industry  : 
in  this  respect,  Kalouga  ranks  immediately  after  the  governments  of  Mos- 
cow and  Vladimir.  A  large  number  of  workmen  are  employed  in  distille- 
ries and  manufactures  of  sailcloth,  linen  and  cotton  goods,  leather,  soap, 
candles,  and  hardware.  The  manufacture  of  beet-root  sugar  has  been  for 
some  years  introduced.  Nearly  all  the  peasants'  families  employ  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  their  time  in  weaving.  Many  of  the  merchants  in  this 
government  are  opulent,  and  some  have  commercial  transactions  with  for- 
eign governments,  through  Archangel.  The  chief  exports  are  oils,  spirits, 
potash,  honey,  linen,  sailcloth,  and  other  manufactured  goods.  The  prin- 
cipal commercial  towns  are  Kalouga  and  Borofsk. 

The  government  is  divided  into  eleven  districts,  and  is  under  the  same 
military  governor  with  Toula.  Its  scholastic  institutions  are  under  the 
university  of  Moscow,  but  they  are  extremely  deficient ;  and  until  recently 
it  had  but  one  printing-press,  which  was  the  property  of  the  crown !  The 
inhabitants  are  nearly  all  of  the  Russian  stock. 

The  city  of  Kalouga,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated  on 
the  Oka,  near  where  it  suddenly  turns  eastward,  one  hundred  and  five 
miles  southwest  of  Moscow.  Its  population  is  about  forty  thousand.  Al- 
though comprising  no  more  than  about  four  thousand  houses,  it  is  said  to 
occupy  a  space  of  ten  versts*  or  a  little  short  of  seven  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, and  is  divided  into  tliree  quarters  by  the  Oka  and  its  tributary  the 
Kaloujeka.  It  is  an  ill-built  town,  with  narrow,  crooked,  and  badly-paved 
streets,  and  wooden  houses.  There  are,  however,  some  good  public  edi- 
fices, as  the  high  church,  government-house,  town-hall,  and  theatre.  Of 
the  twenty-four  churches,  twenty-three  are  of  stone  ;  a  convent,  also  a  stone 
building,  gymnasium,  seminary  for  poor  children  of  noble  birth,  foundling- 
asylum,  several  workhouses  and  hospitals,  and  a  house  of  correction,  are 
the  other  chief  public  establishments. 

Kalouga  is  one  of  the  most  important  manufacturing  and  commercial 
towns  in  the  empire.  It  has  five  sailcloth-factories,  employing  four  hun- 
dred weavers  and  one  thousand  spinners ;  between  thirty  and  forty  oil- 
factories,  numerous  tan-yards,  some  sugar-refineries,  and  manufactures  of 
woollen  cloth,  cotton  fabrics,  hats,  paper-hangings,  earthenware,  soap,  vit- 
riol, &c.  Besides  carrying  on  an  extensive  internal  trade,  its  merchants 
make  large  exports  of  lambskins,  Russia  leather,  and  wax,  to  Dantzic, 
Breslau,  Berlin,  and  Leipsic 

The  government  of  Orel,  or  Orlov,  lies  between  the  fifty-second  and 
fifty-fourth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  thirty-third  and  thirty-ninth 

*  A  verst  is  tliree  thousand  five  hundred  feet,  three  versts  being  thus  about  equal  to  two  E;ig!isb 
mileg,  or  ten  versts  to  seven  miles,  as  above  stated. 


GREAT  RUSSIA  —  OREL.  115 

degrees  of  east  longitude,  having  the  governments  of  Kalouga  and  Toula 
on  the  north,  Smolensk  on  the  northwest,  Tchernigov  on  the  southwest, 
Koursk  on  the  south,  and  Yoronej  and  Tambov  on  the  east.  Its  greatest 
length  from  north-northwest  to  south-southeast  is  two  hundred  and  sixty- 
two  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  one  hundred  and  twelve  miles,  compri- 
sing an  area  of  about  seventeen  thousand  square  miles. 

This  province,  though  generally  flat,  lies  high,  and  is  intersected  by  sev- 
eral ridges  of  limestone,  between  which  deep,  romantic  valleys  occasionally 
occur.  The  river-banks  also  are  usually  high,  though  sparingly  wooded. 
The  western  and  larger  portion  of  tlie  government  is  watered  by  the  Desna, 
and  several  tributaries,  and  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Dnieper ;  the  cen- 
tral and  northern  portion,  watered  by  the  Oka,  which  here  has  its  source, 
belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Volga ;  the  whole  of  the  eastern  portion  is 
drained  by  the  Sosua  and  its  tributaries,  and  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the 
Don.  The  soil,  though  somewhat  light,  yields  all  kinds  of  grain,  far  be- 
yond what  is  required  for  home  consumption,  together  with  large  quanti- 
ties of  excellent  hemp,  a  little  flax,  and  some  good  hops  and  tobacco. 
Cattle  are  numerous  ;  and  considerable  attention  is  paid  to  the  rearing  of 
stock,  and  improving  the  breed,  particularly  of  horses. 

Manufactures  have  made  very  little  progress  in  this  government,  and 
are  almost  entirely  confined  to  articles  of  primary  necessity  ;  but  the  trade 
is  considerable,  and  includes  large  exports  of  grain,  flour,  flax,  hemp,  honey, 
iron,  steel,  and  iron-ware.  Education,  nominally  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  university  of  Moscow,  is  in  a  very  neglected  state.  There  is  only 
one  printing-press  within  the  government,  and  it  belongs  to  the  crown. 
The  inhabitants  are  very  industrious,  and  generally  in  good  circumstances  ; 
but  they  have  little  enterprise. 

Orel  (or  Orlov} ,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated  on  the 
Oka,  two  hundred  miles  south-southwest  of  Moscow.  It  is  defended  by  an 
old  fortress,  and  is  divided  into  three  quarters.  The  streets  are  narrow, 
either  not  paved  at  all,  or  paved  badly,  and  the  houses  are  generally  of 
wood.  The  town  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  fire  in  1848,  when  up- 
ward of  twelve  hundred  houses  (fifty  of  them  of  stone),  four  bridges,  and 
immense  quantities  of  grain,  and  other  merchandise,  were  destroyed.  Pre- 
vious to  the  fire,  there  were  twenty  churches,  eighteen  of  them  of  stone, 
but  several  even  of  them  suffered  greatly.  It  has  manufactures  of  linen, 
tanneries,  ropewalks,  worsted-mills,  &c. ;  but  it  depends  chiefly  on  trade, 
for  which  it  possesses  admirable  facilities,  standing  on  a  navigable  river, 
in  the  centre  of  a  fertile  country,  and  possessing  direct  communication,  by 
water,  with  the  Baltic,  Black,  and  Caspian  seas.  It  hence  forms  a  great 
central  entrepot  for  the  trade  which  is  carried  on  with  all  these  quarters 
of  the  empire ;  and,  in  particular,  is  a  principal  purveyor  of  grain,  cattle, 
and  other  provisions,  for  both  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow.  Orel  is  the 
see  of  a  bishop ;  possesses  an  ecclesistical  seminary,  and  a  gymnasium ; 
and  has  several  important  fairs.     Its  population  is  about  forty  thousand. 


116  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

The  government  of  Koursk  is  situated  in  the  southern  part  of  Great 
Russia,  between  the  fiftieth  and  fifty-third  degrees  of  nortli  latitude,  and 
the  thirty-fourth  and  thirty-ninth  degrees  of  east  longitude,  having  the  gov- 
ernment of  Orel  on  the  north,  Tchernigov  on  the  west,  Poltava  and  Khar- 
kov on  the  south,  and  Voronej  on  the  east.  Its  greatest  length  from  east 
to  west  is  one  hundred  and  seventy  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from 
north  to  south  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  Its  superficial  area  is  about 
sixteen  thousand  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  this  government  is  undulating,  with  numerous  little  hills 
and  gentle  acclivities ;  consisting  of  a  rich,  fruitful  soil,  and  is  studded 
over  with  towns  and  villages.  The  acclivities  consist  of  shell-marl,  lime- 
stone, and  sandstone ;  and  on  the  banks  of  almost  all  the  streams,  layers 
of  chalk  appear.  The  chief  river  is  the  Sem,  which,  rising  on  the  eastern 
confines  of  the  district,  traverses  it  from  east  to  west,  on  its  way  to  join 
the  Dnieper.  The  Donet  also  has  its  source  here,  and  waters  part  of  the 
south.  The  climate  is  mild  and  dry  ;  and  the  rich  soil  produces  abundant 
crops,  at  comparatively  little  trouble  and  expense.  Grain  is  kept  in  caves 
(^silos')  sometimes  for  six  or  ten  years  together,  and  there  is  always  a  large 
surplus  for  exportation.  Apples,  plums,  and  cherries,  abound.  Agricul- 
ture, and  its  usual  attendant,  the  rearing  of  cattle,  for  which  the  pastures, 
which  are  excellent,  aiford  ample  provision,  employ  the  greater  part  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  leave  only  a  small  surplus  for  other  occupations.  These 
are  chiefly  manufactures  of  army-clothing,  and  other  coarse  stuffs  for  the 
use  of  the  peasantry ;  also  leather,  soap,  saltpetre,  spirits,  earthenware, 
&c.  The  exports  are  grain,  cattle,  leather,  wax,  and  honey.  There  are 
in  this  government  upward  of  three  hundred  thousand  free  peasants.  Pub- 
lic instruction  has  made  no  considerable  progress,  there  being  only  about 
one  pupil  to  every  four  hundred  inliabitants. 

Koursk,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  lies  on  the  Tuskar  river, 
near  its  junction  with  the  Sem,  two  hundred  and  eighty  miles  south  by  west 
from  Moscow.  It  has  a  population  of  about  thirty-four  thousand.  It  had 
a  citadel  and  ramparts,  but  the  former  is  in  ruins,  and  the  latter  have  been 
converted  into  public  walks.  The  situation  of  the  town  is  elevated ;  the 
houses  are  principally  of  wood,  but  many  are  of  stone  ;  the  streets  are  nar- 
row, crooked,  and  ill  paved.  There  are  two  convents,  numerous  churches, 
with  a  gymnasium,  a  normal  school,  a  hospital,  a  foundling-hospital,  &c. 
It  is  a  thriving,  industrious  town,  having  numerous  tanneries,  tile  and 
earthenware  works,  wax  and  tallow  factories,  &c.  It  carries  on  an  exten- 
sive commerce  with  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  and  Odessa,  sending  to  them 
cattle  and  horses,  tallow,  leather,  wax  and  honey,  hemp,  and  furs.  The 
environs  contain  numerous  gardens  and  orchards. 

Korennaia  Poustyri,  a  convent  in  the  vicinity  of  Koursk,  is  celebrated 
for  a  miraculous  image  of  the  Virgin,  and  for  a  great  fair  held  annually  on 
the  ninth  Friday  after  Easter,  resorted  to  equally  by  merchants  and  pil- 
grims.    Tlie  value  of  the  horses,  cattle,  and  other  articles  exposed  to  sale 


GREAT  RUSSIA  —  VORONEJ.  117 

at  this  fair  has  sometimes  amounted,  according  to  the  official  accounts,  to 
about  thirty  millions  of  roubles ;  but  this  undoubtedly  is  greatly  above  the 
average  of  the  sales. 

The  government  of  Yoronej  (sometimes  Wbronetz^  is  situated  between 
the  forty  eighth  and  fifty-third  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  thirty- 
eighth  and  forty-second  degrees  of  east  longitude ;  having,  on  the  north,  the 
governments  of  Tambov  and  Riazan  ;  on  the  east,  Saratov  and  the  territory 
of  the  Don  Cossacks  ;  on  the  south,  the  latter  and  the  government  of  Ekath- 
erinoslav ;  and  on  the  west,  Kharkov,  Koursk,  and  Orel.  It  contains  an 
area  of  about  thirty  thousand  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  undulating,  and  the  soil  in  general  good ; 
this  being,  in  fact,  one  of  the  most  productive  governments  in  the  empire. 
Its  principal  rivers  are  the  Don,  and  some  of  its  tributaries.  The  climate 
is  comparatively  mild,  the  rivers  being  covered  with  ice  for  only  two  or 
three  months  of  the  year,  and  the  government  producing  most  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  temperate  climates.  In  good  years  a  surplus  is  raised  of  about 
seven  and  a  half  millions  of  bushels  of  grain  beyond  the  home  consumption. 
Besides  wheat,  peas,  and  beans,  poppies,  tobacco,  hemp,  and  flax,  are 
grown ;  and,  in  the  gardens,  melons,  cucumbers,  onions,  &c.,  in  large  quan- 
tities. Watermelons,  indeed,  are  cultivated  for  the  markets  of  Moscow 
and  St.  Petersburg,  being  planted  in  open  fields  covering  whole  acres  of 
land.  In  some  parts  of  the  province,  canes  and  reeds  are  used  for  fuel, 
but  in  general  the  forests  furnish  a  sufficient  supply  of  firewood.  Oaks 
are  numerous  and  luxuriant ;  pine-woods  are  few.  Cattle,  horses,  and 
sheep,  are  extensively  bred.  Honey  is  an  important  product.  Iron,  lime- 
stone, and  saltpetre,  are  among  the  minerals.  Manufactures  of  coarse 
woollens  and  other  fabrics  are  rapidly  increasing,  while  the  number  of  dis- 
tilleries has  latterly  decreased ;  but  we  are  not  aware  whether  the  produc- 
tion of  spirits  undergoes  any  corresponding  decrease.  The  exports  from 
the  government  consist  principally  of  corn,  cattle,  skins,  honey  and  wax, 
fruits,  &c. 

This  government  is  divided  into  twelve  districts :  the  chief  town  is  Voro- 
nej,  the  capital.  Except  a  colony  of  Germans  near  Ostrogojesk,  and  some 
gipsies,  the  population  consists,  in  the  south,  of  Cossacks  and  White  Rus- 
sians ;  and  in  the  north,  of  Great  Russians.  Voronej  is  under  the  same 
governor-general  with  Riazan,  Orel,  Tambov,  and  Saratov. 

The  city  of  Voronej,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated  on 
the  river  of  the  same  name,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Don,  and  two  hun- 
dred and  ninety  miles  south-southeast  of  Moscow.  Its  population  is  about 
twenty-five  thousand.  The  town  stands  on  a  steep  height,  and  might  easily 
be  rendered  a  fortress  of  some  strength,  as  it  is  not  commanded  by  any 
other  hill,  and  is  partly  surrounded  by  a  marsh  for  several  months  of  the 
year.  It  consists  of  three  portions,  the  upper  town,  lower  town,  and  the 
suburbs.     It  has  some  spacious  streets,  but  a  great  many  which  are  very 


118 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 


mean ;  the  suburbs  are  as  black  and  gloomy  as  a  country  village.  The 
principal  street  has  a  noble  appearance,  its  sides  being  lined  with  massy 
and  handsome  edifices,  many  of  them  the  property  of  the  crown,  as  the 
governor's  and  vice-governor's  houses,  the  tribunals,  postoffice,  commissa- 
riat, academy,  &c.  The  Moscow  (^Moskovkaya)  street  is  also  very  fine, 
and  in  it  are  the  archbishop's  palace,  with  an  adjoining  cathedral.  The 
shops,  or  bazars,  are  very  respectable. 

Voronej  has  some  twenty  stone  churches,  two  convents,  an  exchange 
(or  gostinoi  dvor),  for  the  warehousing,  exhibition,  and  sale  of  merchan- 
dise, an  episcopal  seminary,  schools  for  the  children  of  the  clergy,  military, 
civil  employes,  and  citizens,  a  hospital  capable  of  accommodating  three 
hundred  sick  persons,  military  orphan  asylum,  &c. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  in  the  south  of  Russia ;  and  its 
merchants  have  long  carried  on  a  lucrative  trade  with  the  Black  sea  and  the 
Crimea,  and  travel  annually  to  Tobolsk  to  buy  furs,  which  they  afterward 
take  to  the  great  German  fairs.  The  town  has  also  some  soap,  tallow, 
leather,  and  woollen-cloth  factories.  It  is  supposed  to  be  among  the  oldest 
Russian  towns,  and  is  spoken  of  as  existing  in  the  twelfth  century.  Here 
Peter  the  Great  built  a  palace,  and  established  a  dockyard,  arsenal,  &c. ; 
but  the  latter  establishments  were  afterward  removed  successively  to  Ustea, 
Tavrov,  and  Rostov :  and  nearly  all  traces  of  the  palace  and  magazines 
have  been  obliterated  by  the  frequent  fires  from  which  the  town  has  since 
suffered. 


LiriLE   RUSSIA  —  TCHERNIGOV.  j.l9 


CHAPTER   IV. 

LITTLE    AND    WESTERN    RUSSIA. 

LITTLE  RUSSIA  comprises  the  four  governments  of  Tchernigov, 
Kharkov,  Poltava,  and  Kiev.  The  remaining  governments  de- 
scribed in  this  chapter  constitute  what  is  now  denominated  Western 
Russia  ;  but  most  of  the  territory  covered  by  these  provinces  is  that  an- 
ciently known  as  Lithuania  (called  by  the  Poles,  Litwa;  by  the  Germans, 
Littauen,  or  Lithauen;  and  by  the  French,  Lithuanie).  This  territory, 
which,  in  the  eleventh  century,  was  tributary  to  Russia,  threw  off  the  yoke 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  became  a  grand-duchy  under  Ringold.  One 
of  his  successors,  named  Gedemin,  subdued  part  of  Russia ;  and  another, 
called  Jagellon,  by  marrying  the  Polish  princess  Hedwig,  toward  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  became  king  of  Poland,  and  thus  united  the 
grand-duchy  to  that  kingdom.  The  courage  and  military  skill  which  the 
Lithuanians  had  gained  during  their  wars  with  the  Teutonic  knights,  they 
turned  against  their  neighbors  subsequently  with  great  effect.  Their  ar- 
mies penetrated  to  the  Dnieper,  and  the  shores  of  the  Black  sea ;  and  by 
their  union  with  the  Polish  crown,  all  the  Lithuanian  races  were  for  two 
hundred  years  united  under  one  head,  constituting  one  of  the  most  warlike 
and  powerful  monarchies  in  Europe  at  that  period. 

On  the  first  partition  of  Poland,  in  1773,  a  considerable  portion  of  Lithu- 
ania was  appropriated  by  Russia,  and  formed  into  the  governments  of  Mog- 
hilev  and  Vitepsk ;  the  remainder,  still  united  to  the  Polish  monarchy, 
constituted  six  wohvods,  or  provinces — Wilna,  Troki,  Polozk  or  Vitepsk, 
Novogrodek,  Brzesc,  and  Minsk  —  the  first  two  forming  Lithuania  proper, 
and  the  other  four  Russian  Lithuania.  By  the  subsequent  partitions  of 
Poland,  in  1793  and  1795,  Russia  obtained  as  much  of  Lithuania  as  formed 
the  governments  of  Wilna,  Grodno,  and  Minsk ;  while  Prussia  obtained  a 
portion  which  is  now  included  in  the  government  of  Gumbinnen,  in  the 
province  of  East  Prussia. 

The  original  inhabitants  of  this  region,  including  the  Baltic  provinces, 
as  remarked  in  a  previous  chapter,  were  two  tribes,  Lithuanians  and  Lettes, 
which  probal)ly  migrated  from  the  confines  of  India  at  a  very  early  period. 
The  difference  between  these  two  branches  of  the  same  race  is  evidently  of 
very  long  standing,  and  dates  back  perhaps  to  a  period  antecedent  to  their 
settlement  in  Europe.     The  descendants  of  both  nations  manifest  but  little 


120  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

energy,  strength,  and  resolution ;  their  manners  and  customs  are  similar, 
but  they  exhibit  many  distinctions  of  character.  The  Lettes  have  never 
shown  the  greatness  and  strength,  nor  shared  the  glory  of  the  Lithuanians, 
in  their  palmy  days.  They  are  of  a  softer,  gentler,  and  more  timid  nature, 
than  the  latter,  and  have  never  been  able  to  defend  themselves  in  war. 

The  government  of  Tchernigov,  or  Czernigov,  is  situated  chiefly  be- 
tween the  fiftieth  and  fifty-third  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  thirtieth 
and  thirty-fifth  degrees  of  east  longitude.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  government  of  Smolensk  ;  on  the  northeast,  by  Orel ;  on  the  east,  by 
Koursk  ;  on  the  south,  by  Poltava ;  on  the  west,  by  Kiev  and  Minsk  ;  and 
on  the  northwest,  by  Moghilev.  Its  greatest  length  from  northeast  to 
southwest  is  two  hundred  and  forty  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from 
east  to  west  is  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles,  comprising  an  area  of  about 
twenty-three  thousand  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country,  with  the  exception  of  a  hilly  district  along 
the  Dnieper,  is  a  continuous  flat,  and  the  soil  is  almost  unusually  fertile. 
It  is  watered  by  numerous  streams,  the  Dnieper  flowing  along  at  its  west- 
ern frontier,  and  the  Desna,  with  its  chief  affluents,  passing  nearly  through 
its  centre.  It  has  also  numerous  lakes,  though  none  are  of  great  extent. 
All  kinds  of  grain  grow  in  abundance,  but  the  crops  often  suffer  greatly 
from  hosts  of  locusts.  Hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  and  the  opium-poppy,  grow 
well,  and  the  gardens,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  vegetables,  produce  hops, 
melons,  &c. 

There  is  no  deficiency  of  wood  for  either  timber  or  fuel.  The  horses  of 
tlie  government  are  of  the  Ukraine  breed,  small,  but  active,  and  capable 
of  enduring  any  fatigue.  Great  numbers  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  are 
reared.  The  oxen,  in  particular,  are  of  a.  large  size,  and  become  remark- 
ably fat.  Hunting  and  fishing  yield  but  little  produce ;  but  much  honey 
and  wax  are  obtained  from  bees. 

The  chief  mineral  produce  is  saltpetre,  porcelain-earth,  chalk,  and  a  little 
iron.  Manufactures  were  long  insignificant,  but  have  made  considerable 
progress  during  the  last  thirty  years.  The  distilling  of  brandy  is  carried 
on  to  a  very  great  extent,  and  the  inhabitants,  unfortunately,  are  too  much 
disposed  to  drink  it.  The  interior  trade  of  the  province  is  almost  wholly 
confined  to  the  four  annual  fairs,  which  are  held  at  Nejin.  The  principal 
exports  are  cattle,  grain,  brandy,  honey,  wax,  and  potash.  The  population 
almost  all  belong  to  the  Greek  church.  The  most  important  towns  are 
Tchernigov,  the  capital,  Nejin,  Mglin,  Staradoub,  Novgorod-Sieversk,  &c. 

The  city  of  Tchernigov,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Desna,  eighty  miles  north-northeast  of  Kiev.  It 
is  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and  contains  numerous  buildings  of  antiqua- 
rian interest.  Its  ramparts  have  been  converted  into  pleasing  promenades. 
It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  has  eight  churches — one  of  them,  St. 
Sophia,  supposed  to  have  been  founded  in  1024 — three  monasteries,  a  gym- 


LITTLE  RUSSIA  —  KHARKOY.  121 

nasiiim,  and  an  orphan-hospital.     Tlircc  important  annual  fairs  are  held 
here.     The  population  is  about  eight  thousand. 

The  government  of  Kharkov,  or  Charkov  (Slavonic,  Slobodisch  Ukraine') 
is  situated  between  the  forty-ninth  and  fifty-first  degrees  of  north  latitude, 
and  the  thirty-fourth  and  thirty-eighth  degrees  of  east  longitude,  having  the 
government  of  Koursk  on  the  north,  Voronej  on  the  east,  Ekatherinoslav 
on  the  south,  and  Poltava  on  the  west,  and  comprises  a  superficial  area  of 
about  twenty-one  thousand  square  miles. 

This,  like  the  other  governments  of  Little  Russia,  has  a  flat,  monotonous 
surface,  and  a  very  fertile  soil.  It  is  divided  into  two  basins,  the  larger 
occupied  by  the  Donet,  and  Oskol,  a  considerable  stream  which  joins  it 
from  the  north ;  the  less  by  tributaries  of  the  Dnieper :  none  of  its  rivers 
are  navigable,  at  least  for  any  considerable  distance.  It  has  nearly  two 
thousand  square  miles  of  forests,  though,  the  country  is  for  the  most  part 
open.  The  climate  is  very  mild,  though  the  winter  is  rather  severer  than 
is  usual  in  the  same  latitude,  in  consequence  of  there  being  no  shelter  from 
the  north  wind.  The  rivers  freeze  about  the  beginning  of  December,  and 
break  up  in  March.     The  summer  is  often  very  hot. 

Agriculture  is  the  principal  employment.  All  sorts  of  grain  are  raised, 
the  produce  in  ordinary  years  amounting  to  above  twenty-five  millions  of 
bushels,  of  which  five  millions  are  exported.  Flax  and  hemp,  tobacco, 
hops,  &c.,  are  also  raised,  and  the  potato  is  extensively  grown.  The  cat- 
tle are  excellent :  there  are  few  peasants  without  bees.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  distilleries,  which  are  numerous,  and  some  tanneries,  and  establish- 
ments for  the  preparation  of  tallow  and  saltpetre,  manufacturing  industry 
can  hardly  be  said  to  exist.  The  population  consists  of  Little  Russians, 
Great  Russians,  and  Cossacks.  Some  regiments  of  cavalry  are  colonized 
in  this  government. 

Kharkov,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated  at  the  conflu- 
ence' of  the  Kharkov  and  Lopan,  four  hundred  miles  south-southwest  of 
Moscow.  It  is  built  of  wood,  and  has  narrow,  crooked,  and  dirty  streets, 
which  are  without  pavements ;  but  the  houses,  being  whitewashed,  present 
a  gay  and  cleanly  appearance.  The  ramparts,  by  which  the  town  was  for- 
merly surrounded,  have  been  converted  into  gardens  and  public  walks.  It 
is  the  residence  of  the  provincial  authorities,  and  has  a  cathedral,  a  gym- 
nasium, an  ecclesiastical  seminary,  a  museum,  botanical  garden,  &c. 

Kharkov  is  the  seat  of  a  university,  founded  in  1804,  and  having  upward 
of  fifty  professors.  It  possesses  a  library  of  twenty-one  thousand  volumes, 
and  a  valuable  collection  of  medals.  This  town  is  the  seat  of  a  considera- 
ble commerce.  Four  fairs  are  held  here  each  year,  of  which  that  called 
Krechtchenski  (which  continues  from  the  third  to  the  fifteenth  of  January), 
and  the  Trinity,  are  the  most  extensive :  one  of  the  fairs  is  exclusively  or 
principally  for  wool.  The  population  is  about  thirty-five  thousand.  The 
other  important  towns  of  the  government  are  Akhtyrka,  Bogodoukov,  &c. 


122 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 


The  government  of  Poltava  (or 
Poltawa)  lies  principally  between  the 
forty-ninth  and  fifty-first  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  and  the  thirtieth  and 
thirty-sixth  degrees  of  east  longitude, 
having  the  government  of  Tchernigov 
on  the  north,  Kharkov  on  the  east, 
Ekatherinoslav  and  Kherson  on  the 
south,  and  Kiev  on  the  west.      Its 
greatest  length  from  north-northwest 
to  south-southeast  is  two  hundred  and 
twelve  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth 
a  hundred  and  forty- 
five  miles.    Its  area 
is  twenty-two  thou- 
sand square  miles. 

The  surface  con- 
sists of  an  extensive 
and  monotonous  flat. 
Its  soil  is  excellent. 
In  some  parts  there 
is  scarcity  of  wood. 
Besides  the  Dnieper 
(which  flows  along 
its  entire  southwest- 
ern boundary),  the 
principal  rivers  are 
its  affluents  the  Pir- 
iol,  the  Vorskla,  and 
the  Sula.  This  and 
the  adjacent  govern- 
ments form  what  is 
termed  the  granary 
of  Russia.  It  is  one 
of  the  best-cultivated  districts  of  the  empire  :  the  return  of  the  grain-crops 
is  said  to  be  as  six  to  one,  the  total  produce  being  about  thirty  millions  of 
bushels,  of  which  about  eiglit  millions  are  exported.  The  grazing- grounds 
are  excellent,  affording  pasturage  for  large  herds  of  the  fine  Ukraine  breed 
of  oxen,  and  for  immense  flocks  of  sheep,  the  breed  of  which  has  latterly 
been  mucli  improved.  Some  of  the  peasants  have  above  one  hundred  bee- 
hives. Manufacturing  industry  has  not  made  much  progress ;  but  there 
are  fabrics  of  cloth  and  linen,  with  numerous  distilleries,  and  establish- 
ments for  the  preparation  of  tallow,  candles,  &c.  Large  quantities  of  grain, 
tallow,  and  other  products,  are  yearly  sent  from  this  government  to  Odessa, 
and  even  to  Moscow,  St.  Petersburg,  &g. 


Obklisk  at  Poltava. 


LITTLE   RUSSIA  —  KIEV.  123 

Poltava,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  lies  on  the  Vorskla,  lour 
hundred  and  forty-live  miles  south-southwest  of  Moscow.  It  stands  on  an 
eminence,  and  is  built  principally  of  wood,  with  broad  and  straight  streets. 
There  is  a  good  square,  Avith  brick  houses,  embellished  with  a  granite  mon- 
ument (presented  on  the  opposite  page),  in  honor  of  its  deliverer,  and  the 
regenerator  of  Russia,  Peter  the  Great.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  rampart, 
and  has  twelve  churches,  of  "which  one  is  a  cathedral,  a  gymnasium,  a  con- 
vent, and  a  school  for  cadets.  The  trade,  chiefly  in  cattle,  grain,  hemp, 
and  wax,  is  considerable  ;  and  the  annual  fairs,  three  in  number,  are  very 
important.     The  population  is  about  ten  or  twelve  thousand. 

Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  having  besieged  this  town  in  1709,  Peter  the 
Great  marched  to  its  relief;  and  in  its  vicinity,  on  the  27th  of  June  of  the 
same  year,  was  fought  the  famous  battle  of  Poltava.  The  Russians  gained 
a  complete  victory.  The  Swedish  army  was  entirely  destroyed :  it  lost 
above  nine  thousand  men  left  dead  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  from  two  to 
three  thousand  made  prisoners  in  the  pursuit ;  while  the  residue,  consisting 
of  about  fourteen  thousand  men,  under  General  Lewenhaupt,  after  escaping 
from  the  battle,  were  compelled  to  lay  down  their  arms  and  surrender  on 
the  12th  of  July.  Charles,  with  only  a  small  escort,  effected  his  retreat 
across  the  Boug,  and  took  refuge  in  Turkey.  This  great  victory  estab- 
lished the  power  of  Peter  on  a  solid  foundation,  and  secured  not  merely 
his  empire,  but  the  success  of  his  vast  projects  and  plans  for  the  civilization 
and  improvement  of  his  people. 

The  government  of  Kiev  (Kieiv,  Kief,  or  Kiow,  by  all  of  which  names 
the  province  is  known)  lies  lengthwise  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Dnieper, 
between  the  forty-eighth  and  fifty-second  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the 
twenty-eighth  and  tliirty-third  of  east  longitude  :  bounded  north  by  the  gov- 
ernment of  Minsk,  west  by  Volhynia  and  Podolia,  soutli  by  Podolia  and 
Kherson,  and  east  by  Tchernigov  and  Poltava,  from  which  last  two  gov- 
ernments it  is  separated  by  the  Dnieper.  It  is  two  hundred  and  ten  miles 
long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  one  hundred  and  seventy,  containing  an 
area  of  about  twenty  thousand  five  hundred  square  miles. 

The  surface  is  in  general  flat  and  monotonous,  but  undulating  ;  intersect- 
ed occasionally  by  acclivities  and  hills,  of  moderate  elevation,  along  the 
course  of  the  Dnieper  and  other  streams.  The  Dnieper  hills  extend  into 
Podolia,  where  they  merge  into  the  Carpathians,  of  which  they  may  be 
considered  the  last  ramification,  and  throw  off  a  branch,  which,  taking  a 
northwestern  direction,  traverses  the  whole  of  the  southern  district.  North 
of  this  branch  the  soil  is  rich,  consisting  of  a  loam,  in  which  clay  and  sand 
are  so  happily  mixed  with  vegetable  mould  as  to  yield  the  most  abundant 
crops.  South  of  these  hills  the  land  is  poorer,  inclining  to  sand  and  moss, 
but  even  there  rich  tracts  are  not  unfrequent.  The  slope  of  the  country 
is  chiefly  in  two  directions :  the  larger  toward  the  Dnieper,  which  is  the 
chief,  and  indeed  the  only  navigable  stream,  and  runs  along  the  eastern 


124  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

and  northeastern  confines  of  the  district  above  two  hundred  and  twenty 
miles  ;  the  other  in  the  direction  of  the  southwest,  toward  the  basin  of  the 
Boug.  Both  of  these  rivers  have  several  tributaries  in  the  government. 
There  are  no  lakes  of  any  extent,  but  in  the  northern  parts  considerable 
marshes  exist. 

The  climate  of  this  province  is  remarkably  mild  and  dry.  The  rivers 
freeze  in  December,  and  are  again  open  in  February.  In  summer,  the  heat 
is  so  great,  and  the  quantity  of  rain  so  small,  that  the  channels  of  many 
streams  become  dry.  Large  crops  of  all  kinds  of  grain  are  raised,  and  the 
return  is  said  to  be  generally  as  six  to  one.  Cattle  are  numerous,  large, 
and  of  a  fine  breed,  and  much  attention  is  paid  to  the  dairy ;  the  horses 
are  small,  but  hardy.  The  forests  are  not  very  extensive,  but  the  timber 
is  of  excellent  quality.  Manufactures,  exclusive  of  those  carried  on  in  the 
houses  of  the  peasantry,  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist.  The  principal  trade 
of  the  province  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews.  There  is  a  large  export  of 
grain,  cattle,  honey,  wax,  and  tobacco. 

The  city  of  Kiev,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  six  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  south  of  St.  Petersburg.  It  stands  picturesquely,  crowning 
several  heights  of  undulating  ground,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dnieper, 
here  crossed  by  a  magnificent  suspension-bridge,  and  properly  consists  of 
three  towns,  each  of  which  has  its  separate  fortifications  and  suburbs.  The 
first  is  Petchersk,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  New  Fort,  which  crowns  a  rugged 
steep  to  the  south,  and  is  a  place  of  strength,  having  a  rampart  with  nine 
bastions,  and  regular  outworks.  Besides  the  barracks,  magazines,  and 
official  residences  connected  with  the  garrison,  it  contains  several  churches, 
of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  that  of  St.  Nicholas  Thaumaturgus,  which 
is  built  of  wood,  and  stands  near  the  tomb  of  Oskold,  a  celebrated  prince 
and  saint,  who  is  said  to  have  been  converted  to  Christianity  in  Greece. 

In  the  same  neighborhood  stands  the  famous  monastery  of  Petscherskoij 
surrounded  by  a  wall  eleven  hundred  yards  long ;  so  called  from  the  Rus- 
sian word  pestchera  (a  cavern),  in  which  the  monks  are  said  to  have  dwelt 
before  the  monastery  was  built.  This  cavern,  said  to  have  been  hollowed 
out  by  St.  Anthony,  contains  a  number  of  catacombs,  forming  a  kind  of 
labyrinth,  filled  with  the  bodies  of  saints  and  martyrs.  His  remains  are 
therein  preserved  at  the  extremity  of  the  labyrinth.  This  passage  is  about 
six  feet  high,  but  extremely  narrow,  and  blackened  by  the  torches  of  the 
numerous  visiters.  About  eighty  bodies  are  here  preserved,  ranged  in 
niches  on  both  sides  of  the  passage,  in  open  coffins,  enveloped  in  wrappers 
of  cloth  and  silk,  ornamented  with  gold  and  silver.  The  stiffened  hands 
are  so  placed  as  to  receive  the  devotional  kisses  of  the  pilgrims ;  and  on 
their  breasts  are  written  their  names,  and  sometimes  a  short  record  of 
their  virtuous  deeds.  These  saints  had  died  a  natural  death  ;  but  the  most 
distressing  part  of  the  scene  is  a  row  of  small  windows,  behind  which  the 
deluded  martyrs  had  built  themselves  into  a  stone  wall,  leaving  only  those 
apertures  at  which  to  receive  their  food :  these  little  windows  close  at  onco 


LITTLE   RUSSL\ KIEV.  125 

their  dwelling  and  their  tomb.  The  catacombs  of  Theodosius  are  to  the 
south  of  those  of  St.  Anthony,  and  are  on  a  much  smaller  scale  and  simpler 
plan.  They  contain  but  forty-five  bodies,  and  these  remains  are  not  so 
highly  venerated  as  those  in  the  other  catacomb. 

The  pilgrims  to  this  monastery  and  catacombs  amount  annually  to  as 
many  as  fifty  thousand,  or  more  ;  some  from  one  part  of  the  widely-extended 
Russian  empire,  some  from  another.  A  few  will  toil  even  all  the  weary 
way  from  Kamtschatka,  collecting  on  the  road  the  offerings  of  those  who 
are  not  able  or  not  sufiiciently  devout  to  undertake  the  journey  themselves. 

A  short  distance  from  the  road  which  leads  from  Petchersk  to  the  Podol, 
stands  a  handsome  monument,  that  marks  the  fountain  in  which  the  chil- 
dren of  Vladimir  the  Great  were  baptized.  It  is  a  stone  obelisk,  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  high ;  and  close  to  its  base  is  a  wooden  crucifix,  bear- 
ing, in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin,  the  words — '•^  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  the 
King-  of  the  Jeivs"  The  administration  of  the  baptismal  rite  to  the  Rus- 
sian people,  at  the  period  of  the  conversion  of  their  renowned  grand-duke, 
took  place  very  near  the  spot  on  which  this  monument  stands. 

The  second  town  is  Kiev  proper,  and  occupies  a  height  toward  the  north, 
lower  than  that  on  wliich  Petchersk  stands,  and  less  regularly  fortified. 
It  contains  the  venerable  cathedral  of  St.  Sophia,  founded,  in  1037,  by  the 
grand-duke  Yaroslav-Vladimirovich,  to  commemorate  a  victory.  The  chief 
object  of  interest  in  it  is  a  marble  tomb  of  its  founder,  the  only  one  of  the 
kind  known  in  Russia,  and  said  to  give  a  good  idea  of  the  arts  there  in  the 
eleventh  century.  Most  of  the  houses  in  Kiev  proper  belong  to  this  cathe- 
dral and  the  convent  of  St.  Michael. 

The  site  of  the  Old  Town  (as  Kiev  proper  is  called),  in  remote  ages, 
was  the  Slavonian  Pantheon.  There  the  worshippers  of  Perune,  Horsa, 
Lado,  and  other  idolatrous  deities,  rendered  homage  to  their  savage  gods ; 
and  there  the  rouo-h  Christian  Vladimir  erected  the  church  of  St.  Basil 
(still  standing),  on  the  spot  long  desecrated  by  the  temple  of  Perune,  the 
Russian  Jupiter. 

The  third  town,  called  Podol,  occupies  the  lower  ground,  and  is  inhab- 
ited chiefly  by  the  middle  and  lower  classes.  It  is  regularly  laid  out,  in- 
terspersed with  trees  and  gardens,  and  presents  a  strong  contrast  to  the 
old  parts  of  the  city,  where  at  almost  every  turn  the  picturesque  presents 
itself  in  great  variety.  Kiev  has  (in  all  its  different  quarters)  some  thirty 
churches ;  its  streets  are  generally  broad,  and  it  contains  an  archbishop's 
palace,  prison,  town  and  military  hospital ;  a  university,  founded  in  1833, 
attended  by  about  fifteen  hundred  students ;  an  academy,  a  gymnasium, 
and  a  printing-press  for  the  Scriptures  and  ritual-books  of  the  Greek 
church.  It  has  some  manufactories  of  leather  and  pottery,  and  a  bell- 
foundry,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  confectionery.  Its  trade  has  become 
extensive,  particularly  since  Odessa  was  built ;  and  it  has  a  large  annual 
fair  in  January,  which  lasts  three  weeks. 

Kiev  possesses  considerable  historical  interest,  as  the  spot  on  which 


126  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

Christianity  was  first  planted  among  the  barbarous  hordes  of  the  steppes 
of  Russia,  and  as  having  been,  for  a  considerable  time,  the  recognised 
capital  of  the  empire.  But  it  subsequently  underwent  many  vicissitudes  ; 
being  sometimes  subject  to  the  Lithuanians,  the  Tartars,  and  the  Poles. 
In  1686,  however,  it  was  finally  ceded  to  Russia,  and  has  ever  since  con- 
tinued in  her  possession.     It  has  a  population  of  about  sixty  thousand. 

The  government  of  Podolia,  or  Podolsk,  lies  between  the  forty-seventh 
and  fiftieth  degrees  of  north  latitude',  and  the  twenty-eighth  and  thirty- 
first  degrees  of  east  longitude  ;  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Volhynia, 
on  the  northeast  by  Kiev,  on  the  east  and  south  by  Kherson,  on  the  south- 
west by  Bessarabia,  and  on  the  west  by  Austrian  Galicia.  Its  greatest 
length  from  northwest  to  southeast  is  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  eighty  miles,  comprising  an  area  of  about  fifteen  thousand 
square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country,  though  on  the  whole  level,  is  considerably 
diversified,  being  traversed  from  northwest  to  southeast  by  a  Ioav  branch 
of  the  Carpathians,  which  gradually  descends  toward  the  east,  and  is  finally 
lost  in  a  kind  of  steppe.  None  of  the  hills  of  this  branch  have  a  height 
exceeding  five  hundred  feet.  They  form  the  water-shed  of  the  govern- 
ment, sending  its  waters  on  the  northeast  side  to  the  Boug,  and  on  the 
southwest  to  the  Dniester,  and  ultimately  through  both  to  the  Black  sea. 
Tlicre  are  no  lakes  of  any  consequence.  The  climate  is  temperate,  bring- 
ing both  the  vine  and  the  mulberry  to  maturity ;  and  the  air  is  generally 
salubrious,  though  in  some  quarters  endemical  diseases  occasionally  prevail. 

The  soil  is  very  much  encumbered  with  stones,  but  is,  notwithstanding, 
of  remarkable  fertility,  producing  an  amount  of  grain  which,  after  satisfy- 
ing the  home  consumption,  leaves  about  one  third  of  the  whole  for  export. 
The  principal  crops,  after  the  different  grains,  are  hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  and 
hops,  together  with  beans  and  various  fruits.  The  culture  of  the  vine  is 
on  the  increase,  though  not  yet  of  much  importance  ;  and  orchard  and  gar- 
den husbandry  is  conducted  in  a  negligent  manner,  notwithstanding  which 
large  quantities  of  fine  melons,  gourds,  cherries,  &c.,  are  raised.  The 
meadows  and  pastures  are  extensive,  and  of  great  luxuriance,  rearing  im- 
mense herds  of  cattle,  which  are  of  an  excellent  breed,  and  much  prized  in 
Germany,  to  which  they  are  extensively  exported.  The  sheep  yield  but 
indifferent  wool.  A  good  many  hogs  are  raised,  as  well  as  poultry  and 
bees.  The  forests  are  estimated  to  cover  nearly  three  millions  of  acres, 
only  a  small  proportion  of  which  belongs  to  the  crown  ;  they  furnish  excel- 
lent ship-timber.  Game  is  scarce,  but  the  fisheries  are  highly  productive. 
Saltpetre,  lime,  and  alabaster,  are  the  principal  mineral  products.  Taken 
as  a  whole,  this  province  ranked  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  Poland,  as 
it  now  does  of  the  Russian  empire. 

Manufactures  have  made  but  little  progress ;  except  distilleries,  there 
arc  only  a  few  woollen-cloth,  leather,  potash,  and  saltpetre  factories.     The 


WEvSTERN   RUSSIA  —  PODOLIA.  127 

» 

trade,  in  addition  to  the  export  of  grain  to  Odessa,  and  cattle  to  Galicia 
and  Germany,  embraces  a  considerable  number  of  small  articles,  and  is 
almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews. 

Podolia  is  divided  into  twelve  districts.  It  is  one  of  the  ten  govern- 
ments privileged  with  respect  to  its  judicial  administration  and  the  distil- 
lation of  spirits.  Education  is  under  the  supei'intendence  of  the  university 
of  Kiev,  and  is  in  a  miserably-neglected  state.  There  is  only  a  single 
printing-press.  The  province  is  under  the  military  governor  of  Kiev.  The 
inhabitants  are  principally  Poles,  but  include  some  Russians,  and  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  Jews.  Most  of  the  Poles  and  Russians 
belong  to  the  Greek  church. 

Kaminietz  (Polish,  Kaminiec  Podolski'),  the  capital  of  Podolia,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Smotryez,  about  twelve  miles  from  its  junction  with  the  Dniester, 
two  hundred  and  fifteen  miles  southeast  of  Kiev,  and  three  hundred  north- 
west of  Odessa.  It  is  irregularly  laid  out,  with  narrow  streets,  and  Avooden 
houses.  It  has,  however,  some  conspicuous  edifices  of  stone  and  other 
solid  materials ;  including  the  cathedral,  dedicated  to  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul,  a  Gothic  building  containing  fifteen  altars  and  a  nave,  supported  by 
one  hundred  and  fifty  columns.  Near  it  is  a  column  supporting  a  statue 
of  the  Savior.  The  church  of  the  Dominicans,  originally  constructed  of 
wood,  in  1360,  was  rebuilt  in  stone  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Turks  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  There  are  in  all  five  Roman  catholic  and  four  Greek 
churches,  and  one  Armenian  church,  a  fine  edifice,  completed  in  1767.  The 
Roman  catholics  have  several  convents.  The  other  chief  public  buildings 
are  the  government  library,  circle  school,  and  new  gymnasium.  The  pop- 
ulation is  about  fifteen  thousand. 

The  town  was  formerly  walled,  but  its  works  were  levelled,  by  order  of 
the  Russian  government,  in  1812,  though  Balbi  says  they  have  been  since 
restored.  It  is,  moreover,  defended  by  a  citadel  and  another  fortress  :  the 
former,  situated  on  a  steep,  isolated  rock,  overlooking  the  town,  might  be 
made  impregnable,  but  it  is  commanded  by  some  more  lofty  adjacent  heights. 
Kaminietz  was,  however,  for  a  lengthened  period,  the  principal  bulwark  of 
Poland  on  the  side  of  Turkey.  It  was  founded  by  the  sons  of  Olgherd,  in 
1331,  after  that  prince  had  wrested  Podolia  from  the  Tartars.  It  was 
soon  after  fortified,  and  in  1374  attained  the  rank  of  a  city.  It  remained 
attached  to  Poland  till  its  final  capture  by  the  Russians  in  1793,  except 
from  1672  to  1699,  during  which  it  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Turks. 

Among  the  chief  towns  of  the  province,  after  Kaminietz,  is  Balta,  situ- 
ated on  the  Kadynia,  near  the  southern  boundary,  and  capital  of  a  circle 
of  Podolia.  Before  the  annexation  of  this  part  of  Poland  to  Russia,  one 
half  of  the  town  belonged  to  the  palatinate  of  Breslau,  and  the  other  to  the 
khan  of  Tartary.  Some  excesses  committed  by  a  party  of  Cossacks  here 
in  1767,  were  one  of  the  ostensible  causes  of  the  war  which  broke  out  soon 
after  between  the  Russians  and  the  Turks,  during  which  the  town  of  Balta 
was  laid  in  ashes  by  the  former. 


128  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OP  RUSSIA. 

The  government  of  Volhynia,  formerly  belonging  to  Poland,  lies  princi- 
pally between  the  fiftieth  and  fifty-second  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and 
the  twenty-fourth  and  twenty-ninth  degrees  of  east  longitude,  having  on 
the  northeast  and  north  the  governments  of  Grodno  and  Minsk  ;  on  the 
east  and  southeast,  Kiev ;  on  the  south,  Podolia ;  on  the  southwest,  Aus- 
trian Poland ;  and  on  the  west,  the  palatinate  of  Lublin.  It  has  an  area 
of  about  twenty-nine  thousand  square  miles. 

The  surface  is  in  general  an  undulating  plain ;  and  the  hills,  which  are 
the  last  ramifications  of  the  Carpathians,  though  they  nowhere  rise  to  three 
hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  give  an  agreeable  variety  to  the 
scenery.  The  Boug  rises  in  this  province :  the  other  principal  rivers  are 
the  Styr,  Goryne,  &c.,  tributaries  of  the  Pripet.  Along  some  of  these  are 
extensive  marshes  and  beds  of  turf;  but  in  general  the  land  is  very  fertile, 
producing  at  an  average  a  considerable  surplus  of  grain  above  the  con- 
sumption. A  good  deal  of  flax  and  hemp  is  also  grown.  Agriculture  is, 
however,  not  more  advanced  than  in  the  Lithuanian  provinces ;  and  the 
gardens  and  orchards,  particularly  the  former,  are  much  neglected.  The 
climate,  though  comparatively  mild,  is  not  warm  enough  for  the  vine.  The 
forests  comprise  oak,  beech,  lindens,  firs,  pines,  &c.,  and  are  very  exten- 
sive, though  only  about  two  hundred  square  miles  of  forest-land  belong  to 
the  crown.  The  pastures  are  excellent,  and  well  adapted  for  the  fattening 
of  cattle  ;  a  good  many  sheep,  hogs,  and  poultry,  are  kept.  Volhynia  has 
a  breed  of  horses  smaller  than  the  generality  of  those  of  Poland.  Fishing 
is  an  occupation  of  some  importance ;  bog-iron,  millstones,  potter's  clay, 
nitre,  and  flint,  are  among  the  mineral  products. 

Though  agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants,  the  manu- 
facturing industry  of  Volhynia  is  greater  than  that  of  most  other  parts  of 
Western  Russia.  The  women,  almost  everywhere,  spin  and  weave  differ- 
ent fabrics ;  and  leather,  glass,  and  earthenware,  paper,  potash,  tar,  char- 
coal, &c.,  are  generally  made.  The  principal  exports  are,  however,  grain, 
cattle,  hides,  flour,  wool,  wax,  honey,  and  other  rural  produce.  The  trade 
is  principally  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  of  whom  there  are  about  forty  thou- 
sand in  the  government.  The  rest  of  the  population  consists  of  Rusniaks, 
with  Poles  in  the  towns,  and  some  Great  Russians,  gipsies,  Tartars,  Mol- 
davians, and  Germans.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  of  the  Greek  or  united 
church. 

Volhynia  is  divided  into  twelve  districts.  The  principal  towns  are  Jito- 
mir,  the  capital,  Berditschev,  Storo-Konstantov,  Ostrog,  and  Kremenets. 
Public  education  appears  to  be  less  backward  in  this  than  in  most  of  the 
Russian  governments.  Volhynia,  like  Podolia,  is  subordinate  to  the  mili- 
tary governor  of  Kiev,  but  is  one  of  the  Polish  provinces  which  preserves, 
in  some  degree,  its  ancient  constitution  and  laws. 

Jitomir  (Polish,  Zi/tomir,  or  Zytomiers^,  the  capital  of  the  above  gov- 
ernment, is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Teterew,  six  hundred  and 
seventy  miles  south-southwest  from  St.  Petersburg.     It  is  the  see  of  both 


WESTERN   RUSSIA — VOLHYNIA  —  MINSK. 


129 


VOLHYNIAN   PeASANtGiUL    ENGAGED   IN    SPINNING. 

a  Greek  and  a  Roman  catholic  bishop ;  has  manufactures  of  leather  and 
hats,  and  an  active  trade  in  linen,  silk,  and  woollen  goods,  wax,  honey, 
Hungarian  wines,  salt,  and  tallow.  It  also  has  four  important  annual  fairs. 
Its  population  is  rising  thirty  thousand. 

Berditschev  (Polish,  Berdyczeiv)^  another  town  in  the  government  of 
Volhynia,  twenty-five  miles  south  of  Jitomir,  is  an  ill-built  place,  but  con- 
tains several  churches,  and  a  large  Carmelite  convent,  in  the  church  of 
which  is  an  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  the  object  of  pilgrimages.  It  car- 
ries on  a  considerable  trade  in  grain,  wine,  cattle,  honey,  wax,  and  leather, 
and  is  celebrated  for  its  quarterly  fairs.  At  these,  goods  to  the  value  of 
three  millions  of  dollars  are  disposed  of,  and  much  business  is  done,  espe- 
cially with  Austrian  dealers.  An  almanac  of  great  repute  is  printed  here. 
Its  population  is  about  twenty  thousand,  comprising  many  Jews. 


The  government  of  Minsk  lies  between  the  fifty-first  and  fifty-sixth  de- 
grees of  north  latitude,  and  the  twenty-fifth  and  thirty-first  degrees  of  east 
longitude,  bounded  north  and  northeast  by  the  government  of  Vitepsk,  east 
by  Moghilev  and  Tchernigov,  south  by  Kiev  and  Volhynia,  and  west  by 
Grodno  and  Wilna.  In  shape  it  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to  an 
isosceles  triangle,  with  its  vertex  in  the  north,  and  its  base  resting  on  the 

9 


130  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

south :  its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  is  two  hundred  and  ninety 
miles,  and  its  average  breadth  one  hundred  and  fifty,  comprising  an  area 
of  about  thirty-seven  thousand  square  miles. 

This  government,  though  generally  flat,  is  traversed  in  the  north  by  part 
of  the  great  dorsal  ridge  which  forms  the  water-shed  between  the  basins 
of  the  Baltic  and  the  Black  sea.  To  the  former  basin  the  northern  portion 
sends  its  waters  by  the  Duna  (which,  besides  forming  the  northern  bound- 
ary of  the  government,  receives  the  Desna  from  within  it),  and  by  the  Nie- 
men  or  Memel,  which,  together  with  its  affluent  the  Vilia,  rises  in  the  gov- 
ernment. To  the  latter  basin  the  southern  portion  sends  its  waters  by  the 
Dnieper,  which,  besides  bounding  the  government  on  the  southeast,  receives 
from  it  the  Berezina  and  the  Pripet,  each  augmented  by  numerous  tributa- 
ries. In  this  southern  portion  large  marshy  tracts  extend  on  both  banks 
of  the  Pripet,  and  in  spring  are  generally  under  water,  giving  the  whole 
country  the  appearance  of  one  vast  lake.  In  such  circumstances,  anything 
like  a  regular  system  of  agriculture  is  altogether  impracticable.  Where 
tlie  surface  is  more  elevated,  and  less  exposed  to  inundation,  it  is  to  a  great 
extent  covered  with  sand,  or  with  a  poor,  sandy  soil,  it  being  only  in  par^ 
ticular  patches  that  a  fertile  loam  occurs.  Barley  and  oats  are  grown  in 
far  greater  quantity  than  might  be  expected  in  the  circumstances,  and  fully 
equal  to  the  consumption.  Hemp  and  flax  are  also  raised  in  considerable 
quantities,  and  hops  and  tobacco  occasionally. 

The  chief  wealth  of  the  country  is  in  its  forests,  which  occupy  a  large 
part  of  the  surface,  and,  where  the  ground  is  dry,  yield  excellent  timber. 
A  great  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  are  employed  in  felling  it,  and  pre- 
paring it  for  market.  Neither  manufactures  nor  trade  have  made  much 
progress.  The  former  are  in  a  great  measure  confined  to  linen-weaving ; 
the  latter  consists  chiefly  of  wood,  mats,  potash,  meal,  hemp,  flax,  honey, 
wax,  and  some  horses  and  horned  cattle. 

The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Rusniaks,  of  the  orthodox  or  united  Greek 
church,  but  Roman  Catholicism  is  generally  professed  by  the  higher  classes. 
The  women  are  handsome,  and  appear  on  the  sabbath  decked  out  in  all 
their  finery.  The  Jews  in  this  province  number  about  one  hundred  thou- 
sand. For  administrative  purposes,  Minsk  is  divided  into  ten  districts  op 
circles  —  Minsk,  the  capital,  Wilnika,  Desna,  Borisov,  Igumen,  Bobrowisk, 
Slutsk,  Pinsk,  Mozyr,  and  Retschitza. 

Minsk,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated  on  the  Svislotsch, 
four  hundred  and  thirty  miles  southwest  of  St.  Petersburg.  It  is  irregu- 
larly built,  with  narrow  and  dirty  streets.  The  houses  are  generally  mean, 
and  of  wood,  but  some  fine  edifices  occur  among  the  palaces  of  the  nobility. 
It  is  the  see  of  a  Greek  archbishop  and  of  a  Roman  catholic  bishop,  and 
contains  two  castles,  several  Greek  and  catholic  churches,  a  Greek  monas- 
tery, a  synagogue,  and  a  gymnasium.  It  has  manufactures  of  woollen  cloth, 
hats,  and  leather,  and  considerable  trade.  Its  population  is  fifteen  thousand. 
Under  the  Poles,  Minsk  was  the  capital  of  the  palatinate  of  the  same  name. 


WESTERN  RUSSIA  —  MOGHILEV.  131 

The  government  of  Moghilev,  or  Mohilef  (Polish,  Mu/nloiv},  lies  mostly 
between  the  fifty-second  and  fifty-fifth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the 
twenty-ninth  and  thirty-second  degrees  of  east  longitude.  It  is  bounded 
north  by  the  government  of  Vitepsk,  east  by  Smolensk,  southeast  and 
south  by  Tchernigov,  and  west  by  Minsk.  Its  greatest  length  from  north 
to  south  is  two  hundred  and  ten  miles,  and  its  central  breadth  one  hundred 
and  twelve,  containing  an  area  of  about  nineteen  thousand  square  miles. 

Though  containing  part  of  the  water-shed  which  divides  Europe  into  two 
great  basins,  the  surface  of  this  province  is  generally  flat,  consisting  of  a 
very  extensive  southern  and  a  much  smaller  northern  plain.  The  former 
belongs  to  the  Duna,  and  sends  its  waters  to  it  by  two  small  tributaries ; 
tlie  latter  to  the  Dnieper,  which,  besides  traversing  a  great  part  of  it  cen- 
trally, and  forming  part  of  its  southwestern  boundary,  is  also  augmented 
within  it  by  the  Drutz  on  the  right,  and  the  Soj,  with  its  tributaries  Ostr 
and  Besed,  on  the  left.  Besides  these  rivers,  the  government  lias  several 
small  lakes,  and  numerous  large  swamps.  The  climate  is  comparatively 
mild  for  the  latitude. 

Much  of  the  soil  is  fertile,  and,  though  under  very  imperfect  culture, 
produces  good  crops  of  rye,  barley,  oats,  hemp,  and  flax ;  in  other  parts, 
the  soil  consists  either  of  a  cold,  damp,  hungry  clay,  or  of  a  loose  and 
almost  sterile  sand.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  surface  is  well  wooded 
with  oak  and  fir,  and  furnishes  excellent  ship-timber,  particularly  masts, 
which  are  floated  down  the  rivers  to  the  Black  sea,  and  supply  the  dock- 
yards of  Odessa,  Sevastopol,  &c.  All  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers  are 
rich  meadows,  on  which  large  numbers  of  fine  cattle  are  fed.  Sheep  also 
are  numerous,  and  have  been  very  much  improved  by  crossing  with  the 
breed  of  Saxony.  The  rivers  abound  with  fish,  and  the  forests  with  game. 
Bog-iron  ore  occurs  in  extensive  beds,  and  is  worked  to  a  very  limited 
extent. 

The  manufactures  and  trade  are  almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews, 
and  very  insignificant.  The  former  include  a  few  coarse  woollen,  linen, 
and  cotton  tissues,  candles,  soap,  glass,  and  leather ;  the  latter  is  chiefly 
in  timber,  floated  north  by  the  Duna  to  the  Baltic,  or  south  by  the  Dnieper 
and  its  tributaries  to  the  Black  sea.  There  is  also  a  small  export  of  hemp, 
flax,  tallow,  and  potash. 

For  administrative  purposes,  the  government  is  divided  into  twelve  dis- 
tricts ;  its  chief  towns  are  Moghilev  and  Mstislaw.  The  inhabitants  are 
mostly  Russians  and  Jews,  with  some  Poles,  Lithuanians,  Moldavians,  and 
Wallachs ;  and  their  circumstances  are,  for  the  most  part,  far  from  com- 
fortable. Their  religion  is  partly  that  of  the  Greek  and  partly  of  the 
jRoman  catholic  church. 

Moghilev,  the  capital  of  the  government,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Dnieper,  two  hundred  and  twelve  miles  west-southwest  of  Moscow. 
It  consists  of  four  quarters,  two  of  which  are  surrounded  by  a  rampart, 
and  form  the  town,  properly  so  called ;  the  third,  built  on  a  height,  forms 


132  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

the  Kremlin,  or  citadel ;  the  fourth  is  •  a  suburb.  The  town  is  tolerably 
well  built,  partly  of  stone  and  partly  of  wood,  and  the  streets  are  wide  and 
paved.  Near  the  centre  is  a  large  octagonal  square,  surrounded  by  hand- 
some stone  buildings  ;  among  others,  the  bazar,  and  the  palace  of  the  Greek 
archbishop.  The  number  of  churches  is  twenty,  of  which  the  Roman  cath- 
olics have  five,  and  the  Lutherans  one.  Tlie  Jews,  who  are  numerous,  have 
two  synagogues.  There  are  also  four  convents,  two  ecclesiastical  semina- 
ries, a  gymnasium,  high  school,  hospital,  several  poorhouses,  and  a  prison. 
The  staple  manufacture  is  tobacco ;  and  an  extensive  trade  is  carried  on 
with  Riga,  Memel,  Dantzic,  and  Odessa,  in  leather,  wax,  honey,  potash, 
oil,  and  grain. 

Moghilev,  besides  being  the  residence  of  the  principal  authorities  of  the 
government,  is  the  headquarters  of  the  Russian  "  army  of  the  west ;"  and 
is  the  see  of  both  a  Greek  and  a  Roman  catholic  archbishop,  the  latter  hav- 
ing authority  over  all  the  Roman  catholics  of  Poland  and  Russia.  Many 
of  the  Russian  nobility  reside  here ;  and  a  great  part  of  the  ground  in  the 
vicinity  is  occupied  by  gardens.  Its  fairs  are  well  attended.  The  epoch 
of  its  foundation  is  unknown.  After  several  times  changing  masters,  it 
was  finally  annexed  to  Russia  in  1772.  It  has  a  population  of  about  six- 
teen or  eighteen  thousand. 

The  government  of  Vitepsk  (  Vitebsk,  or  Witepsk')  lies  principally  be- 
tween the  fifty-fifth  and  fifty-seventh  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the 
twenty-sixth  and  thirty-second  degrees  of  east  longitude ;  having  the  gov- 
ernment of  Pskov  on  the  northeast,  Smolensk  and  Moghilev  on  the  south- 
east, Minsk  and  Courland  on  the  southwest,  and  Livonia  on  the  northwest. 
Its  area  is  about  sixteen  thousand  eight  hundred  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  generally  level,  though  on  the  banks  of  the 
rivers  there  are  occasionally  some  low  hills.  The  rivers  and  small  lakes 
are  numerous :  of  the  former,  which  all  flow  toward  the  Baltic,  the  Duna 
is  the  principal.  Notwithstanding  the  soil  is  but  of  medium  fertility,  and 
agriculture  is  in  a  very  backward  state,  more  grain  is  produced  than  is 
required  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants.  Hemp  and  flax  are  grown 
on  a  large  scale,  with  peas,  beans,  hops,  fruits,  <fec.,  in  the  smaller  enclo- 
sures. The  forests  are  very  extensive,  two  hundred  and  seventy  thousand 
acres  of  forest-land  belonging  to  the  crown.  The  grass-lands  are  also  ex- 
tensive, and  a  good  many  horses  and  cattle  are  reared,  though  of  inferior 
breeds.  The  sheep  yield  only  coarse  wool ;  and  honey  is  also  of  inferior 
quality.  The  mineral  products  and  manufactures  are  insignificant ;  the 
last  being,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  cloth-factories,  almost  wholly  re- 
stricted to  distilleries  and  tanneries. 

The  trade  of  the  government  is  facilitated  by  the  Duna  and  the  canal  of 
Berezina :  it  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  merchants  of  the  principal  towns, 
many  of  whom  are  Jews.  This  government  is  divided  into  twelve  circles. 
The  chief  towns  are  Vitepsk,  Wieliz,  Dunuburg,  Polotzk,  and  Rejitsa. 


WESTERN  RUSSIA  —  VITEPSK  —  WILNA.  133 

Yitepsk,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated  on  both  banks 
of  the  Duna,  where  it  receives  the  Viteba,  three  hundred  and  thirty  miles 
south  by  west  of  St.  Petersburg.  Its  population  is  about  eighteen  thou- 
sand. It  is  irregularly  built,  and  is  surrounded  by  old  walls  :  it  has  nu- 
merous Greek  and  some  Roman  catholic  churches,  convents,  and  Jewish 
synagogues.  Though  by  far  the  greater  number  of  its  houses  are  of  wood, 
it  has  some  dwellings  of  stone,  a  higli  school,  a  bazar,  an  old  castle,  sev- 
eral hospitals,  &c. ;  with  manufactures  of  woollen  cloths,  and  tanneries. 
The  grand-duke  Constantine,  brother  to  the  present  emperor  of  Russia,  and 
viceroy  of  Poland,  died  at  Yitepsk  on  the  27th  of  June,  1832. 

The  government  of  Wilna,  or  Vilna,  lies  principally  between  the  fifty- 
fourth  and  fifty-sixth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  twenty-first  and 
twenty-seventh  degrees  of  east  longitude,  having  the  government  of  Cour- 
land  on  the  north,  that  of  Minsk  on  the  east,  Grodno  on  the  south,  and 
Poland  and  Prussia  on  the  southwest.  It  has  an  area  of  about  twenty- 
four  thousand  four  hundred  square  miles. 

This  province  is  a  vast  plain ;  there  being  only,  in  difi'erent  parts,  a  few 
sandhills,  reaching  sometimes  to  the  height  of  two  hundred  feet,  and 
abounding  with  fossil,  shells,  &c.  Its  principal  rivers  are  the  Wilna,  a 
tributary  of  the  Niemen,  and  the  Niemen,  which  forms  its  southwestern 
boundary.  Lakes  are  numerous,  particularly  in  the  east  and  northeast. 
The  soil  is  partly  sandy  and  partly  marshy ;  but  in  many  places  it  consists 
of  a  fertile  alluvial  deposite.  The  climate,  though  severe,  is  not  so  cold 
as  in  some  of  the  adjacent  governments :  the  mean  temperature  of  the  year 
is  about  forty-five  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Agriculture  is  almost  the  sole  occupation  of  the  inhabitants,  and  rather 
more  grain  is  grown  than  is  required  for  home  consumption.  Rye  is  the 
grain  principally  cultivated.  Hemp  and  flax  are  rarely  grown ;  and  hops 
and  pulse  are  raised  in  gardens :  fruits  are  neglected.  The  forests  are 
very  extensive,  a  large  proportion  of  forest-land  belonging  to  the  crown : 
and  there  is  a  considerable  trade  in  deals,  timber,  tar,  potash,  and  other 
woodland  products.  Lime-trees  are  very  abundant ;  and  to  this  cause  is 
attributed  the  excellence  of  the  honey,  for  which  this  government  is  famous. 
The  breeding  of  stock  is  neglected ;  the  horses  are,  however,  strong  and 
active,  though  of  small  size.  Game  is  very  plentiful :  elks,  wild  boars, 
bears,  wolves,  &c.,  are  numerous ;  occasionally  the  urus,  or  wild  bull,  is 
met  with  ;  and  fox,  martin,  and  squirrel  skins,  are  articles  of  trade.  The 
mineral  products  are  unimportant.  Manufactures  have  increased  a  little 
of  late  ;  but  they  are  still  quite  inconsiderable. 

Dr.  Granville  says  of  Chavli,  a  town  of  some  two  thousand  inhabitants, 
in  this  government :  "  It  consists  of  a  long  street  of  low,  gable-roofed  huts 
of  wood,  and  presenting  a  general  appearance  of  the  most  squalid  misery. 
This  may  be  considered  as  a  fair  specimen  of  the  second-rate  towns  in  the 
government  of  Wilna,  and  indeed  all  over  Russia  and  Poland."     The 


134 


ILLUSTEATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 


Russian  Village— Party  of  HuNTEns. 


accompanying  engraving  shows  one  of  these  villages,  where  a  party  have 
just  arrived  from  the  chase. 

The  trade  of  this  government,  which  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
tlie  Jews,  is  principally  in  timber  and  agricultural  produce,  sent  down  the 
Duna  to  Riga,  or  by  land  into  Prussia.  Wilna  is  divided  into  eleven  dis- 
tricts ;  the  chief  towns  are  Wilna,  the  capital,  and  Kowno.  It  is  not  sub- 
ject to  the  government  monopoly  of  ardent  spirits  ;  and  preserves  several 
of  its  old  forms  of  administration.  As  respects  education,  it  is,  though  far 
behind,  in  advance  of  many  of  the  other  governments. 

Wilna,  the  capital  of  the  above  government,  and  formerly  the  capital  of 
Lithuania,  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Wilenka  and  Wilna,  ninety 
miles  northeast  of  Grodno.  It  is  surrounded  by  undulating  hills,  and  en- 
closed by  a  wall.  Its  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked,  and  its  houses 
mostly  of  timber,  though  it  has  several  hundred  dwellings  built  of  brick 
or  stone.  Formerly  a  royal  castle  of  the  Jagellons  existed  here,  but  noth- 
ing is  left  of  it  except  its  ruins.  The  cathedral,  founded  in  1387,  has  some 
good  paintings,  and  many  chapels,  one  of  which,  appropriated  to  St.  Casimir, 
and  built  wholly  of  marble,  is  very  handsome.  The  body  of  the  saint  is 
preserved  here  in  a  silver  coffin,  made  by  order  of  Sigismund  III.,  king  of 
Poland,  and  weighing,  it  is  said,  three  thousand  pounds ! 

The  church  of  St.  John  is  surrounded  by  the  buildings  of  the  university, 
founded  in  1578,  and  suppressed  by  the  Russian  government  in  1832. 
Here  are  in  all  about  forty  churches,  numerous  convents,  a  mosque,  and 
four  synagogues,  a  magnificent  town-liall,  an  arsenal,  exchange,  theatre, 
two  hospitals,  barracks,  magazines,  &c.  The  governor's  palace,  and  some 
residences  of  the  nobility,  are  tine  buildings. 


WESTERN  RUSSIA  —  GRODNO.  135 

Previously  to  its  dissolution,  the  university  of  Wilna  was  in  a  flourishing 
state,  and  possessed  an  observatory,  collections  in  minei-alogy  and  anatomy, 
and  a  library  of  fifty-two  thousand  volumes.  A  medico-chirurgical  school, 
to  whicli  are  attached  the  botanic  garden  and  some  of  the  university  col- 
lections, an  ecclesiastical  seminary,  and  two  gymnasia,  are  the  principal 
public  schools :  the  greater  part  of  the  university  establishment  has  been 
removed  to  Kiev.  The  city  also  possesses  deaf  and  dumb  and  foundling 
asylums,  various  other  cliaritable  institutions,  a  few  manufactures,  and  a 
considerable  trade. 

Wilna  was  founded  in  1322,  and  is  reported  to  have  had,  in  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  one  hundred  thousand  inhabitants,  though  this,  no 
doubt,  is  a  gross  exaggeration.  Its  present  population  is  about  forty  thou- 
sand. It  has  undergone  many  vicissitudes,  and  often  suffered  severely  from 
fire.     It  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in  1794. 

The  government  of  Grodno  is  situated  between  the  fifty-first  and  fifty- 
fourth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  twenty-fourth  and  twenty-eighth 
degrees  of  east  longitude,  extending  two  hundred  and  seventy  miles  from 
north  to  south,  and  two  hundred  and  thirty  from  east  to  west  at  the  broad- 
est part,  comprising  an  area  of  about  fifteen  thousand  square  miles  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  government  of  Wilna,  on  tlie  east  by  Minsk, 
on  the  south  by  Volhynia,  and  on  the  west  by  Russian  Poland  and  the 
province  of  Bialystok. 

The  surface  of  the  country,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  chalk-hills,  is 
nearly  an  entire  level,  and  a  great  portion  of  it  covered  with  forests  of 
pine  and  swamps,  the  former  belonging  chiefly  to  the  crown.  There  are, 
however,  extensive  tracts  of  fertile  land,  which  produce  heavy  crops  of 
rye  and  barley,  exceeding  the  home  consumption.  Hops,  hemp,  and  flax, 
are  likewise  raised  in  considerable  quantities.  Fruits  and  vegetables  are 
grown,  but  do  not  abound.  The  cultivation  of  bees  occupies  much  atten- 
tion, and  large  quantities  of  excellent  honey  and  wax  are  obtained.  The 
forests  abound  with  wild  boars,  wolves,  and  bears ;  elks  and  roebucks  are 
also  met  with.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Niemen,  Boug,  and  Narew. 
The  climate  is  extremely  rigorous  in  winter,  and  the  air  is  often  damp  and 
misty.  Horned  cattle  and  sheep  are  raised  in  considerable  numbers.  The 
minerals,  of  which  there  are  few,  consist  of  iron,  limestone,  building-stone, 
clay,  and  saltpetre.  The  manufactures,  not  very  extensive,  consist  chiefly 
of  woollen-stuffs,  hats,  and  leather.  The  principal  articles  of  exportation 
are  grain,  cattle,  wool,  leather,  hops,  honey,  and  wax,  sent  chiefly  to  Riga, 
Memel,  and  Konigsburg. 

The  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  are  Rusniaks,  except  in  the  north, 
where  Lithuanians  prevail.  The  nobles  are  principally  Poles,  and  com- 
prise about  one  twenty-fourth  part  of  the  whole  population !  The  Jews 
number  about  seventy  thousand.  There  are  some  Tartars  and  colonies  of 
German  artisans.     The  prevailing  religions  are  tlie  Roman  catholic  and 


136  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

united  Greek  church.     The  government  is  divided  into  eight  districts.     Its 
cliief  towns  are  Grodno,  Novogrodek,  Slonim,  and  Volkovitohk. 

Grodno,  capital  of  the  above  government,  is  situated  partly  on  an  emi- 
nence, and  partly  in  a  valley,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Niemen,  two  hun- 
dred and  ten  miles  northeast  of  Warsaw.  It  is  irregularly  built,  and  con- 
sists of  stone  and  wooden  houses  intermingled.  Two  or  three  of  the  streets 
are  well  paved  and  tolerably  well  kept,  but  the  others  are  in  great  disor- 
der, and  excessively  dirty.  It  contains  three  handsome  palaces,  one  of 
which  was  erected  by  Augustus  IIL,  king  of  Poland.  The  market-place  is 
spacious  and  convenient.  There  are  nine  Roman  catholic  churches,  two 
Greek,  one  Lutheran,  and  a  synagogue  ;  a  gymnasium ;  a  medical  school, 
with  a  library,  founded  by  King  Stanislaus  Augustus ;  a  cabinet,  contain- 
ing objects  of  natural  history  ;  a  botanic  garden  ;  and  some  fine  residences 
of  the  nobility.  Woollens,  silk  stufis,  linen,  hats,  cards,  firearms,  &c.,  are 
manufactured,  and  there  are  three  annual  fairs.  There  is  also  a  consider- 
able trade  on  the  Niemen.  Grodno  is  as  old  as  the  twelfth  century,  and 
was  formerly  considered  the  second  town  of  Lithuania,  and  even  disputed 
the  superiority  of  Wilna.     Its  population  is  about  sixteen  thousand. 

BiALYSTOK  is  a  province  which  formerly  belonged  to  Poland,  but  was 
ceded  to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  in  1807,  between  Napoleon  and  Al- 
exander. It  has  the  government  of  Grodno  on  the  east,  and  is  surrounded 
on  all  other  sides  by  Russian  Poland.  It  is  divided  into  four  districts  — 
Bialystok,  Sokolka,  Bielsk,  and  Drohiczya — comprising  an  area  of  three 
thousand  four  hundred  square  miles. 

The  surface  is  flat,  with  some  slight  undulations ;  the  soil  is  generally 
sandy,  but  not  infertile.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  western  Boug, 
a  navigable  affluent  of  the  Vistula,  which  is  its  principal  channel  of  com- 
munication. The  forests  are  extensive  and  valuable  (two  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  acres  belonging  to  the  crown),  abounding  with  game,  bears,  wolves, 
&c.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  employment,  and  considerable  quantities  of 
grain  (especially  rye  and  wheat),  with  linseed,  hops,  and  timber,  are  sent 
to  Dantzic  and  Elbing.  The  nobles  are  numerous,  being  estimated  at  nine 
thousand  families,  or  fifty  thousand  individuals  ;  but  the  great  bulk  of  thera 
are  steeped  in  poverty,  many  being  compelled  to  cultivate  their  little  patches 
of  land  with  their  own  hands,  or  hire  themselves  to  others.  Manufacturing 
industry  is  all  but  unknown,  and  only  the  most  common  and  indispensable 
trades  are  carried  on. 

Bialystok,  the  capital  of  the  above  province,  is  a  handsome  town  of  about 
eight  thousand  inhabitants.  Its  houses  are  constructed  generally  of  brick, 
with  the  gables  to  the  streets,  which  are  straight  and  well  paved.  It  has 
a  criminal  court,  gymnasium,  &c.  The  castle  and  fine  domain  formerly 
possessed  by  the  counts  of  Braniski  (who  held  the  office  of  grand  hetman 
of  the  Polish  crown),  called  the  "  Versailles  of  Poland,"  is  the  distinguish- 
ing feature  of  the  town. 


RUSSIAN   POLAND.  137 


CHAPTER   y. 

RUSSIAN    POLAND. 

POLAND  (called  by  the  Latins,  Sarmatia;  by  the  Poles,  Polska,  signi- 
fying "Flat  Land,"  or  "Plain  Country;"  by  the  Germans,  Polen; 
and  by  the  French,  Pologne)  was  formerly  the  name  of  an  indepen- 
dent and  extensive  country  of  central  Europe,  comprising  the  territories 
between  the  forty-eighth  and  fifty-eighth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the 
fifteenth  and  thirty-third  degrees  of  east  longitude  ;  including,  with  Poland 
proper,  Lithuania,  Samogitia,  Courland,  the  Ukraine,  Podolia,  and  other 
provinces,  now  belonging  to  Russia,  with  Galicia,  belonging  to  Austria,  the 
province  of  Posen,  and  some  other  districts  in  Prussia.  In  its  greatest 
prosperity  it  had  about  eleven  millions  of  inhabitants,  and  an  area  of  two 
hundred  and  eighty-four  thousand  square  miles  (being  about  equal  in  extent 
to  France,  England,  and  Scotland).  Stretching,  as  will  be  seen,  from  the 
frontiers  of  Hungary  and  Turkey  to  the  Baltic,  and  from  Germany  far  east 
into  ancient  Muscovy,  the  territory  thus  bounded  formed  one  vast  and  re- 
markably compact  kingdom,  divided  into  Great  and  Little  Poland  in  the 
west ;  Masovia  and  Podlachia  in  the  centre ;  Yolhynia,  Podolia,  and  the 
Ukraine,  in  the  east ;  and  Litliuania  in  the  northeast :  the  principal  subdi- 
vision was  into  thirty-one  palatinates  and  starostijs  (or  districts). 

The  existing  kingdom  of  Poland,  however,  constituted  by  the  congress 
of  Vienna  in  1815,  which  is  now  united  to  the  Russian  empire,  and  com- 
monly denominated  Russian  Poland,  is  of  comparatively  limited  dimen- 
sions, extending  only  between  the  fiftieth  and  fifty-fifth  degrees  of  north 
latitude,  and  the  eighteenth  and  twenty-fourth  degrees  of  east  longitude ; 
having  on  the  north,  Prussia  proper  and  the  government  of  Wilna ;  on  the 
east,  tlie  governments  of  Wilna,  Grodno  (with  the  province  of  Bialystok), 
and  Volhynia ;  on  the  south,  Austrian  Poland  ;  and  on  the  west,  Prussian 
Poland  (the  grand-duchy  of  Posen)  and  Silesia.  Its  greatest  length  from 
east  to  west  is  about  three  hundred  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from 
north  to  south  two  hundred  and  fifty,  comprising  an  area  of  forty-seven 
thousand  six  hundred  square  miles,  being  a  little  larger  than  the  state  of 
New  York. 

Of  the  population,  about  three  fourths  consist  of  Poles,  one  tenth  of 
Jews,  and  the  remainder  principally  of  Russians,  Germans,  Tartars,  and 
gipsies,  the  whole  amounting  to  about  five  millions  of  souls. 


138  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

The  whole  country,  except  iu  the  south,  where  are  some  scattered  offsets 
from  the  Carpathian  mountains,  is  an  extended  plain,  with  a  general  slope 
toward  the  Baltic,  in  which  its  principal  rivers  have  their  embouchure. 
These  are  the  Vistula  (with  its  tributaries  the  Wieprz,  Bug,  Narew,  Pilica, 
&c.),  the  Niemen,  and  the  Warta.  The  Vistula,  after  bounding  the  king- 
dom for  a  lengthened  distance  on  the  south,  traverses  its  centre,  leaving  it 
near  Thorn,  The  Niemen,  Bobr,  and  Bug,  bound  nearly  all  the  eastern, 
and  the  Prosna,  a  tributary  of  the  Warta,  a  considerable  part  of  the  west- 
ern frontier.  These  rivers  are  all  more  or  less  navigable.  There  are 
innumerable  smaller  streams,  Poland  being  an  extremely  well-watered  coun- 
try ;  and,  in  the  north,  east,  and  west,  are  a  great  number  of  lakes  and 
many  very  extensive  marshes. 

The  surface,  though  flat,  is  abundantly  diversified,  presenting  alternately 
fertile  grain-lands,  savage  steppes,  rich  pastures,  sandy  wastes,  dense  for- 
ests, and  dreary  swamps.  The  climate  is  rigorous :  the  cold  of  winter  is 
often  as  great  as  in  Sweden,  in  a  latitude  ten  degrees  higher ;  and  in  1799 
the  thermometer  descended  to  twenty-nine  degrees  below  zero  (Fahrenheit). 
In  summer,  however,  the  heat  sometimes  rises  to  one  hundred  and  twenty 
degrees  (Fahr.)  !  The  mean  temperature  of  the  year  at  Warsaw  is  about 
forty-six  degrees  Fahr.  The  atmosphere  is  humid,  rainy  and  cloudy  days 
occupying  half  the  year. 

Between  the  Vistula  and  the  Prussian  frontier  the  soil  is  generally  fer- 
tile, the  most  productive  districts  being  in  the  governments  of  Kalisch  and 
Sandomir,  and  the  neighborhood  of  Warsaw.  In  the  northeast  are  also 
some  very  fertile  tracts ;  but  even  there,  and  in  the  governments  of  Plogk, 
Lublin,  &c.,  the  surface  is  in  great  part  waste. 

"  The  traveller  in  Poland,"  says  Burnett,  "  sometimes  finds  himself  in 
an  expanse  of  surface  almost  without  a  house,  a  tree,  or  any  single  object 
large  enough  to  attract  his  notice.  Soon,  however,  are  descried  the  skirts 
of  some  vast  forest  fringing  the  distant  horizon ;  and,  on  entering  it,  we 
proceed  for  eight  or  ten  miles,  more  or  less,  winding  with  the  road,  through 
lofty  pines,  &c.,  precluded  from  the  sight  of  all  objects  but  trees  and  shrubs. 
Sometimes,  in  the  midst  of  a  forest,  we  meet  with  a  small  spot  of  ground 
(for  example,  of  ten  or  twenty  acres)  cleared  and  cultivated ;  its  sides 
prettily  fenced  by  the  green,  surrounding  woods.  Sometimes  a  small  lake 
is  found  thus  situated,  its  borders  ornamented  in  a  similar  manner :  and 
these,  generally  speaking,  are  the  prettiest  scenes  which  Poland  furnishes. 
These  forests,  in  some  places,  are  fifteen  and  even  twenty  miles  in  all 
directions.  Indeed,  if  we  exclude  morasses  and  the  level  pasture-lands, 
perhaps  not  more  than  half  the  country,  speaking  generally,  is  cleared. 
At  distant  intervals  are  found  plains  of  some  extent,  affording  rich  pas- 
turage. The  best  are  those  contiguous  to  the  Vistula,  some  of  whicli  are 
periodically  overflowed  by  that  river.  Such  are  those  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Warsaw,  which  supply  that  town  with  good  butchers'  meat." 

This  description  was  written  early  in  the  present  century ;  and,  though 


RUSSIAN   POLAND.  139 

a  considerable  proportion  of  forest-laud  has  been  cleared  in  the  interval, 
it  is  still  substantially  accurate.  Of  seven  hundred  and  forty-one  thousand 
acres  (ivloka)  of  land  comprised  in  the  kingdom,  two  hundred  and  fifty-five 
thousand  are  supposed  to  be  arable ;  two  hundred  and  five  thousand  in 
forest ;  one  hundred  and  seventy-one  thousand  in  natural  pastures,  rivers, 
and  marshes  ;  forty-six  thousand  in  meadows  ;  thirty-eight  thousand  occu- 
pied with  roads  and  buildings,  and  twenty-six  thousand  in  gardens. 

Poland  has,  for  a  lengthened  period,  been  the  granary  of  a  great  part  of 
Europe.  But  Volhynia,  Podolia,  and  Galicia,  formerly  included  in  the 
Polish  dominion,  were  the  principal  grain-growing  provinces ;  and  within 
the  limits  of  Russian  Poland,  except  in  one  or  two  southwestern  provinces, 
the  land,  according  to  Mr.  Jacob,  is  so  poor,  that  it  can  scarcely  be  made 
to  yield  a  medium  crop  of  wheat  more  than  once  in  nine  years.  The  soil 
is  mostly  thin,  sandy,  or  sandy  loam,  resting  chiefly  on  a  bed  of  granite, 
through  which  the  heavy  grains  gradually  percolate.  South  of  the  Pilica, 
however,  the  appearance  of  the  land  and  the  face  of  the  country  improve ; 
and  as  we  proceed  southward  to  the  Vistula,  the  surface  becomes  more 
undulating,  and  the  soil  stronger  and  more  tenacious.  In  this  quarter 
there  are  extensive  tracts  of  clayey  loam,  requiring  three  or  four  horses  to 
plough  it,  and  yielding,  when  tolerably  well  managed,  excellent  crops  of 
wheat  and  oats.  Where,  in  this  district,  anything  like  a  system  of  rota- 
tion is  adopted,  the  crops  are  very  heavy. 

Some  of  the  estates  belonging  to  the  nobility  of  the  highest  rank  are  of 
enormous  extent ;  and,  not  long  since,  those  of  Prince  Czartoryski  and 
Count  Zamoyski,  taken  together,  occupied  a  space  nearly  equal  to  half  the 
extent  of  England,  or  larger  than  the  states  of  New  Hampshire,  Vermont, 
and  Massachusetts !  In  the  times  of  the  republic,  the  former  contributed 
twenty  thousand  and  the  latter  ten  thousand  men  to  the  army.  Owing, 
however,  to  the  practice  of  dividing  the  land  equally  among  the  children, 
unless  a  majorat  be  established  in  favor  of  the  eldest  son,  which  is  some- 
times the  case,  much  of  it  is  possessed  in  smaller  allotments.  These,  how- 
ever, we  should  still  call  large,  for  they  mostly  vary  from  five  or  six  thou- 
sand up  to  thirty  or  forty  thousand  acres  each.  The  rent  and  price  of 
land  are  generally  low,  depending  much  more  on  the  number  of  peasants 
than  the  extent  of  the  farm.  The  crown-lands,  comprising  one  third  part 
of  the  whole  surface,  or  about  ten  millions  of  acres,  include  perhaps  two 
millions  of  acres  of  wood,  the  remainder  being  chiefly  arable  land,  leased 
to  tenants,  who,  in  consequence,  acquire  right  to  the  services  that  may  be 
legally  demanded  from  the  peasantry.  The  tenants  of  the  crown  are  ex- 
empted, as  well  as  their  peasants,  from  some  taxes  to  which  the  other 
occupiers  of  land  are  subject,  and  in  consequence  the  crown-estates  are 
better  stocked  with  peasants.  With  this  freedom  from  taxation,  and  am- 
ple supply  of  laborers,  the  rent  of  eight  millions  of  acres  of  land  is  said  to 
have  amounted  in  a  given  year  to  no  more  than  four  millions  of  florins 
(about  half  a  million  of  dollars),  or  somewhat  less  than  six  cents  the  Eng- 


140  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

lish  acre.  But  a  large  extent  of  land  is  included  in  this  average  that  is 
literally  of  no  value ;  so  that  the  rent  of  the  cultivable  land  may  be  fairly 
set  down  at  from  twenty  to  thirty  cents  per  acre.  In  point  of  fact,  how- 
ever, the  money-rent  of  land,  in  a  country  like  Poland,  without  towns  and 
without  a  market  for  its  produce,  affords  no  test  whatever  of  its  real  value. 
Lands  belonging  to  private  individuals  are  rarely,  indeed,  ever  let,  except 
for  services  to  be  performed  on  the  other  parts  of  the  same  estates  ;  and 
the  value  of  the  land  is  to  be  determined,  not  by  the  amount  of  the  money- 
rent  it  will  bring,  but  by  the  amount  of  subsistence  it  affords,  or  the  number 
of  individuals  it  will  maintain  in  an  average  state  of  comfort,  according  to 
the  customs  and  habits  of  the  society. 

Formerly  the  whole  lands  of  the  republic  were  the  property  of  the  no- 
bility or  gentry,  and  could  not  be  held  by  any  one  else.  The  possession 
of  land  was,  in  fact,  of  itself  a  proof  of  nobility  ;  and  the  owner  of  an  estate 
of  three  acres  in  extent  voted  in  the  elections  of  nuncios,  and,  in  respect 
of  political  rights  and  privileges,  was  on  a  level  with  the  richest  nobleman 
in  the  country.  But  this  state  of  things  is  now  wholly  changed.  Landed 
property  is  no  longer  the  appanage  of  a  particular  class  ;  but  may  be  indif- 
ferently held  by  nobles,  burghers,  and  peasants.  Jews  only  are  prohibited 
from  becoming  proprietors  of  the  soil,  though  they  have  numerous  mort- 
gages thereon.  When  they  foreclose,  the  lands  must  consequently  be  sold ; 
and  as  the  Jews,  who  engross  the  greater  part  of  the  money-capital  of  the 
country,  can  not  become  purchasers,  the  prices  they  yield  are  very  trifling. 
Latterly,  however,  some  modifications  have  been  made  in  the  regulations 
respecting  the  Jews,  and  various  privileges  have  been  conceded  to  them. 

The  most  numerous  class  of  cultivators  are  peasants,  who  are  a  species 
of  quasi  proprietors  of  the  lands  they  occupy,  holding  them  under  condition 
of  working  a  stipulated  number  of  days  in  each  week  on  their  lord's  de- 
mesne, and  paying  him,  in  addition,  specified  quantities  of  poultry,  eggs, 
yarn,  &c.  The  extent  of  their  holdings  varies  according  to  the  quality  of 
the  land,  the  quantity  of  work  to  be  performed,  and  of  payments  in  kind 
to  be  made.  On  a  large  property  examined  by  Mr.  Jacob,  the  peasants 
had  each  about  forty-eight  acres  of  land,  for  which  they  were  bound  to 
work  two  days  a  week  with  a  pair  of  oxen.  If  their  further  labor  was 
required,  they  were  paid  at  the  rate  of  six  cents  a  day  for  two  days  more  ; 
and  if  beyond  that  number,  they  received  twelve  cents  a  day.  On  another 
property  the  peasants  had  about  thirty-six  acres,  for  which  they  worked 
two  days  a  week  with  two  oxen ;  when  called  upon  for  extra  labor,  they 
were  paid  twelve  cents  a  day  for  themselves  and  their  oxen  for  the  next 
two  days,  or,  without  the  oxen,  six  cents. 

Under  the  republic  the  Polish  peasants  did  not,  in  fact,  enjoy  as  much 
consideration  as  the  blacks  of  our  southern  states  in  the  present  day.  They 
were  the  absolute  property  of  their  masters.  Down  to  1768,  a  lord  who 
had  killed  his  serf  was  merely  amerced  in  a  small  fine ;  and,  though  in 
that  year  the  offence  was  made  capital,  such  an  accumulation  of  evidence 


RUSSIAN  POLAND.  141 

was  required  to  prove  the  fact,  that  the  enactment  was  rendered  quite  nu- 
gatory. It  was  customary  to  make  the  serfs  work  five  days  a  week  on  the 
estates  of  their  lords  ;  the  latter  also  might  seize  on  whatever  wealth  the 
serfs  had  accumulated,  might  inflict  on  them  corporal  punishment,  and 
might  sell  them  as  if  they  had  been  so  many  head  of  cattle.  The  ))oasted 
freedom  of  Poland  was,  in  truth  and  reality,  merely  the  license  of  the  gen- 
try to  trample  under  foot  the  mass  of  the  people,  browbeat  their  sovereign, 
and  sell  their  votes.  It  is  due,  however,  to  the  nobility,  to  state  that  some 
among  them  —  as  the  Zamoyskis,  Czartoryskis,  and  others — perceived  the 
miserable  consequences  of  such  a  state  of  society,  and  were  most  anxious 
for  the  improvement  of  the  peasantry  on  their  estates,  of  whom  they  eman- 
cipated considerable  numbers.  Generally,  however,  the  Polish  gentry 
were  not  inclined  to  establish  or  give  efficacy  to  any  regulations  in  favor 
of  the  peasantry,  of  whom  they  scarcely  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
same  race  of  beings  with  themselves,  or  as  entitled  to  the  common  rights 
of  humanity.  Under  these  circumstances,  none  will  be  surprised  to  learn 
that  the  Polish  peasantry,  at  the  dismemberment  of  the  republic,  in  1774, 
were  in  the  lowest  state  of  degradation,  being  at  once  ignorant,  indolent, 
addicted  to  drunkenness,  poor  and  improvident  in  the  extreme. 

The  servitude  of  the  peasants  was  modified  by  the  constitution  of  1791, 
and  it  was  wholly  abolished  in  the  grand-duchy  of  Warsaw  (nearly  identi- 
cal with  the  present  kingdom)  in  1807 ;  the  labor  and  ser^aces  due  by  the 
peasants  to  their  lords  having  since  been  regulated  and  defined  by  law. 
Owing  to  the  ignorance  of  the  peasantry,  the  influence  of  this  great  and 
salutary  change  was  for  a  lengthened  period  less  considerable  than  might 
have  been  supposed.  Though  the  peasants  may  now  leave  one  part  of  the 
country  to  settle  in  another,  they  must  first  pay  ofi"  any  debt  that  may  be 
owing  their  lords  ;  and  from  inability  to  do  this,  and  various  other  circum- 
stances, they  do  not  often  quit  the  estates  on  which  they  were  born.  When 
a  young  peasant  marries,  his  lord  assigns  him  a  certain  quantity  of  land, 
sufficient  for  his  maintenance  and  that  of  his  family  in  the  way  in  which 
they  have  been  accustomed  to  live.  Should  the  family  grow  numerous, 
some  little  addition  is  made  to  the  grant.  At  the  same  time,  the  young 
couple  obtain  a  few  cattle,  as  a  cow  or  two,  with  steers  to  plough  their 
land.  These  are  fed  in  the  stubble,  or  in  the  open  places  in  the  woods, 
as  the  season  admits.  The  master  also  provides  them  with  a  cottage,  with 
implements  of  husbandry  ;  in  short,  with  all  their  little  movable  property. 
Owing  to  the  powerful  influence  of  old  habits,  but  few  peasants  improve 
the  little  stock  committed  to  their  management ;  their  conduct  being  most 
frequently  marked  by  carelessness  and  a  want  of  forecast.  This,  however, 
is  by  no  means  uniformly  the  case :  there  have  been  many  instances  of  ac- 
cumulation ;  indeed,  several  of  the  peasants  have  become  proprietors,  while 
others  have  hired  a  larger  extent  of  land.  But  it  wall  require  the  lapse  of 
a  lengthened  series  of  years  before  any  very  general  change  can  be  made 
in  the  habits  and  condition  of  tlie  bulk  of  the  people. 


142  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

Speaking  generally,  the  houses  of  the  Polish  peasantry  are  miserable 
hovels.  They  are  all  built  of  wood  ;  even  those  of  the  better  class  have 
merely  the  ground-floor.  On  the  exterior  they  are,  in  every  point  of  view, 
humble,  very  often  mean  in  appearance :  the  interior  is  occasionally  some- 
what better,  though  you  look  in  vain  for  anything  like  comfort.  There 
are  usually  two  or  three  ordinary  rooms,  whitewashed,  though  only  one 
serves,  for  the  most  part,  as  a  sitting-room.  The  floors  are  sometimes  of 
earth  only,  but  more  frequently  planked.  A  bed  stands  almost  always  in 
every  room. 

The  villages,  which  are  of  the  most  wretched  description,  are  thinly 
scattered,  rather  along  the  skirts  than  in  the  midst  of  the  forests,  and  some- 
times in  vast  bare  heaths,  where  no  other  object  is  to  be  seen.     They  con- 
sist of  from  ten  to  fifty  miserable  huts,  rudely  constructed  of  timber,  and 
covered  over  with  straw,  turf,  or  shingles ;  and  afford  so  imperfect  a  shel- 
ter, that  the  inhabitants  are  glad  to  stop  up  the  chimneys  in  winter,  and 
to  be  half  smothered  with  smoke,  rather  than  die  of  cold.     Each  of  those 
huts  consists  generally  of  only  one  apartment,  with  a  stove,  round  which 
the  inhabitants  and  their  cattle  crowd  together.     Bad  as  these  villages  are, 
you  may  travel  ten  miles,  even  in  the  clear  part  of  the  country,  without 
seeing  one,  or  indeed  beholding  any  human  habitation.     The  common  diet 
of  the  peasantry  is  cabbage  ;  potatoes  sometimes,  but  not  generally  ;  peas, 
black  bread,  and  soup,  or  rather  gruel,  without  the  addition  of  butter  or 
meat.     Their  chief  beverage  is  the  cheap  whiskey  of  the  country,  which 
they  drink  in  quantities  that  would  astonish  the  best  customers  of  the  gin- 
palaces  of  England  or  of  this  country.     Their  houses  generally  have  little 
that  merits  the  name  of  furniture  ;  and  their  clothing  is  at  once  coarse  and 
disgustingly  filthy.     These,  however,  are  only  their  general  characteristics. 
The  condition  of  the  peasantry  depends  much  on  the  character  of  their 
lords,  and  upon  the  more  or  less  embarrassed  state  of  the  property  on 
which  they  may  be  settled.     On  the  estates  of  opulent  and  enlightened 
landlords  it  is  wholly  different  from  what  it  is  on  the  estates  of  those  of  an 
opposite  description,  and  may  indeed  be  said  to  be  decidedly  comfortable. 
It  is,  perhaps,  hardly  necessary  to  state  that,  from  the  labor  applied  to 
the  lords'  estates  being  rendered  as  compulsory  service,  it  is  performed  in 
the  most  negligent  and  slovenly  manner  possible.     All  the  operations  of 
husbandry  are  very  ill  executed :  the  ploughing  is  shallow  and  irregular ; 
the  harrows,  with  wooden  tines,  do  not  penetrate  sufficiently  to  root  up 
weeds  in  fallowing ;  so  that  the  land  is  always  foul,  and  in  bad  order. 
The  same  want  of  attention  prevails  in  thrashing.     In  short,  the  natural 
efi'ects  of  the  system  of  duty-labor  are  strikingly  visible  in  the  whole  admin- 
istration of  most  of  the  large  estates  where  it  is  followed ;  and  is  hardly 
even  prevented  from  exhibiting  itself  on  the  estates  belonging  to  the  few 
proprietors  who  have  intelligent  and  active  managers,  and  are  free  from 
pecuniary  embarrassments.     The  common  course  of  crops  is  the  old  system 
of  a  whole  year's  fallow,  followed  by  winter  grain,  and  that  by  summer 


RUSSIAN  POLAND.  143 

grain,  and  then  a  fallow  again,  so  that  one  third  of  the  land  bears  nothing. 
The  winter  crop,  in  the  north  of  Poland,  consists  of  wheat  and  rye,  the 
latter  being  to  the  former  nearly  as  nine  to  one,  the  little  manure  that  is 
preserved  being  laid  out  on  the  wheat-land.  In  the  southern  part  of  the 
kingdom  the  wheat  bears  a  larger  proportion  to  the  rye,  amounting,  on  the 
more  tenacious  soils,  to  one  fifth,  and  in  some  cases  to  one  fourth  part,  or 
upward.  On  a  well-managed  farm  in  the  province  of  Lublin,  the  quanti- 
ties of  seed  and  produce  are  said  by  Mr.  Jacob  to  have  been  as  follows : 
Potatoes,  about  twenty  bushels  to  the  acre  planted,  and  about  two  hundred 
bushels  raised ;  wheat,  two  bushels  sown,  and  from  sixteen  to  twenty 
reaped  ;  rye,  two  bushels  sown,  and  from  twelve  to  fifteen  reaped  ;  buck- 
wheat, three  bushels  sown,  and  from  ten  to  fifteen  reaped.  The  barley 
and  oats  scarcely  yield  four  times  the  seed. 

The  stock  of  cattle  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  land  and  the 
number  of  the  inhabitants.  The  Polish  horses,  formerly  held  in  high  esti- 
mation, have  much  degenerated,  and  a  good  breed  is  to  be  met  with  only 
in  a  few  studs.  A  miserable  race  of  colts  is  employed  to  transport  mer- 
chandise, and  field-labor  is  almost  wholly  performed  by  oxen  or  cows. 
The  latter  are  small,  and  generally  kept  in  bad  condition,  both  as  to  food 
and  condition.  They  are  mostly  stall-fed,  but,  from  negligence,  yield  very 
little  butter,  and  no  good  cheese.  Previously  to  the  revolution  of  1831, 
the  total  number  of  sheep  in  Poland  was  roughly  estimated  at  three  mil- 
lions ;  but,  though  the  country  is  extremely  well  adapted  to  sheep-breeding, 
the  Polish  breeds  were  greatly  inferior  to  those  of  Saxony,  and  there  wore 
very  few  flocks  of  fme-wooUed  sheep.  Latterly,  however,  the  Polish  wool 
has  improved  very  much  in  point  of  quality  ;  and  is  now  sent  in  large  quan- 
tities to  the  markets  of  Leipsic,  Berlin,  and  Breslau,  where  it  sometimes 
brings  a  very  high  price.  Hogs,  though  not  very  numerous,  are  of  a  good 
breed,  originally  from  Hungary. 

The  burdens  laid  directly  on  the  land  are  not  very  heavy.  Tithes  are 
moderate,  and  principally  compounded  for  at  fixed  rates.  A  small  sum  is 
levied  in  each  district  for  the  repair  of  roads,  bridges,  and  other  local  pur- 
poses ;  but  that  and  the  land-tax  do  not  exceed  twenty-five  per  cent,  on  the 
presumed  annual  value  of  the  land,  which  is  usually  far  below  its  real  value. 
The  other  taxes  fall  equally  on  the  diff"erent  classes  of  the  community. 
That  on  beer  is  let  to  farm  by  the  government  to  the  brewers.  Heavy 
duties  are  laid  on  foreign  commodities,  such  as  sugar,  coffee,  wine,  <fec. 
The  great  mass  of  the  population  can  not,  however,  afford  to  purchase  such 
luxuries,  but  content  themselves  with  honey,  dried  chicory,  and  whiskey. 

The  forests  are  highly  important,  and  in  the  governments  of  Augustow 
and  Plopk  they  cover  more  than  a  third  part  of  the  surface ;  though  in 
some  of  the  other  governments  they  have  been  much  neglected,  especially 
in  the  territory  adjacent  to  Krakow,  where,  however,  the  place  of  wood- 
fuel  is  supplied  by  coal.  Scotch  pine,  black  fir,  alder,  aspen,  oak,  beech, 
ash,  maple,  linden,  and  elm,  are  the  principal  forest-trees,  and  the  Polish 


144 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 


MrfJ.i^'fi.SQ 


Polish  Bison  (Ubus),  ob  Lithuanian  Wii.d-Eull. 

oak  and  fir  timber  is  of  very  superior  quality.  Most  of  the  larger  forests 
belong  to  the  crown,  and  are  felled  in  portions  annually,  so  as  to  cut  them 
every  fifty  years. 

Among  the  wild  animals  of  Poland  may  be  specified  the  bison  (Polish, 
zubr},  found  in  the  vast  forests  of  the  province  of  Plogk,  traversed  by  the 
Narew.  The  emperor  Alexander  prohibited  the  chase  of  the  bison,  of 
which,  perhaps,  the  only  remnant  in  Europe  is  now  to  be  found  in  Ploek 
and  the  adjoining  province  of  Bialystok.  The  other  wild  animals  include 
the  elk,  roebuck,  wild  boar,  badgers,  foxes,  hares,  &c.,  the  skins  of  which 
last  form  articles  of  export. 

Minerals  are  more  numerous  and  valuable  than  might  have  been  expected 
in  so  flat  a  country.  Bog-iron  is  found  almost  everywhere  ;  but  the  prin- 
cipal mining  districts  are  in  the  south,  in  the  government  of  Sandomir  and 
in  Austrian  Poland.  Coal  is  raised  in  considerable  quantities  at  Bendzine, 
Reden,  Niemcy,  <fec.  Zinc,  which  is  exported  in  considerable  quantities,  is 
found  in  the  vicinity  of  Krakow ;  lead  at  Olhusz ;  and  copper  at  Kielce. 
Iron  of  excellent  quality  is  also  mined  in  Sandomir. 

The  domestic  manufacture  of  woollen  and  other  stuff's  is  universal  through- 
out Poland,  almost  every  agricultural  family  having  a  loom  for  the  manu- 
facture of  the  coarse  cloths  required  for  their  consumption.  The  yarn  used 
to  be  partly  imported  from  foreign  countries,  but  lately  a  large  spinning- 
factory  has  been  established  at  Girardow,  which  occupies  five  hundred 
hands,  and  produces,  besides  yarn,  a  quantity  of  linen  cloth.  In  1829,  the 
woollen  cloth  made  in  the  country  was  estimated  at  seven  millions  of  Polish 


RUSSIAN   POLAND.  145 

ells,  worth  upward  of  seventy  millions  of  florins,  about  a  tenth  part  of 
which  was  sent  into  Russia.  During  the  disturbed  period  which  followed, 
the  production  of  Polish  woollens  sank  to  one  third  of  what  it  had  previ- 
ously been  ;  but  it  has  lately  revived  in  consequence  of  the  importation  of 
Polish  cloths  into  Russia,  duty  free,  where  tlicy  are  in  extensive  demand 
for  the  clothing  of  the  troops,  and  for  other  purposes.  They  are  also  sent 
in  considerable  quantities  to  Kiachta,  on  the  borders  of  Chinese  Tartary. 
Leather  is  the  manufacture  next  in  importance ;  and  then  follow  linen  and 
cotton  fabrics,  sailcloth,  paper,  bleached  wax  and  wax-candles,  alum  and 
other  chemical  products,  glass,  printing-types,  jewelry,  carriages,  &c.  Gen- 
erally, however,  these  articles  are  produced  on  a  very  small  scale ;  and, 
notwithstanding. the  cheapness  of  labor,  they  are  mostly,  from  the  want  of 
skill  on  the  part  of  the  workmen,  at  once  high-priced  and  inferior.  Poland, 
in  fact,  is  an  agricultural  country ;  and,  except  a  few  of  the  more  bulky 
and  coarser  articles,  it  would,  were  the  citizens  permitted  to  resort  to  the 
cheapest  markets,  derive  almost  all  its  manufactures  and  articles  of  luxury 
from  other  countries,  in  exchange  for  grain,  wool,  timber,  tallow,  flax,  spir- 
its, and  such  like  articles.  Spirits  are  distilled  in  every  village  from  rye 
and  potatoes,  but  their  sale  is  still,  as  formerly,  a  manorial  right,  each  lord 
of  a  manor  having  the  exclusive  sale  of  spirits  within  his  domain.  There 
are  breweries  in  Warsaw,  and  in  some  other  large  towns  ;  and  mead,  and 
drinks  made  from  raspberries,  cherries,  &c.,  principally  in  the  southern 
provinces,  are  favorite  beverages  of  the  people.  Of  late  years  several  beet- 
root sugar  factories  have  been  established. 

The  trade  of  Poland  is  almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews.  The 
internal  commerce  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  means  of  fairs,  at  which,  also,  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  foreign  trade  is  conducted.  During  the  revo- 
lution of  1831,  '32,  the  exports  decreased  greatly,  while  the  imports  were 
considerably  augmented.  Since  that  period,  however,  the  balance  has  been 
in  a  great  measure  restored.  England,  Holland,  and  France,  take  ofl", 
through  Dantzic,  most  of  the  grain  which  Poland  has  to  export.  But  in 
years  when  prices  are  high  in  the  former  countries,  and  when,  consequently, 
there  is  a  great  demand  for  breadstufis  in  Dantzic,  a  good  deal  of  the  sup- 
plies brought  to  that  port  come  from  Galicia.  Goods  are  conveyed  in 
summer  by  heavy  wagons,  and  in  winter  by  sledges ;  but  the  roads  are 
generally  bad,  and  during  the  insurrection  were  much  cut  up.  Latterly, 
however,  the  imperial  government  has  been  exerting  itself  for  their  im- 
provement. Steam-navigation  is  but  in  its  infancy  ;  and  merchandise  is  at 
present  mostly  forwarded  down  the  rivers  by  flat-bottomed  boats  to  the 
Prussian  ports.  But  Russia  seems  to  be  endeavoring  to  put  a  stop  to  the 
intercourse  between  Poland  and  the  Prussian  ports  on  the  Baltic,  by  con- 
structing a  great  commercial  road  from  the  southwestern  angle  of  Poland 
to  the  Baltic  ;  and  a  railway  has  been  projected  to  convey  from  "Warsaw  to 
the  harbors  of  Windau  and  Libau,  in  Courland,  the  goods  which  formerly 
went  to  Tilsit  or  Memel,  or  by  the  Pregel  to  Konigsberg.     A  similar  pur- 

10 


146  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

pose  is  served  by  the  canal  of  Augustow,  connecting  the  Narew  and  Vistula 
with  the  Niemen,  and  which  is  continued  to  the  Baltic  by  the  Windau 
canal,  in  the  government  of  Wilna.  The  canal  of  Augustow  is  ninety-six 
miles  in  length,  from  five  to  six  feet  in  depth,  and  of  sufficient  breadth  foi. 
two  large  boats  to  pass  each  other  with  ease.  It  has  seventeen  locks,  and 
several  convenient  basins  in  different  parts  of  its  course.  It  was  wholly 
completed  between  1821  and  1829,  and  is  now  the  means  of  an  active 
traffic.  Notwithstanding  these  measures,  the  Vistula  must  be  regarded  as 
the  great  natural  highway  of  the  country,  and  Dantzic  (formerly  belonging 
to  the  Polish  monarchy)  her  proper  shipping  port. 

Previously  to  1831,  Poland  had  its  two  legislative  chambers,  those  of 
the  deputies  and  the  senate  ;  but  after  the  unhappy  attempt  at  a  revolution 
that  then  broke  out,  Russia  suppressed  these  chambers,  and  Poland  is  now 
governed  nearly  in  the  same  way  as  the  other  portions  of  the  empire.  The 
council  of  administration  for  the  kingdom  consists  of  three  directors-gen- 
eral (of  the  interior,  justice,  and  finance),  a  comptroller-general,  and  other 
persons  appointed  by  the  emperor.  The  reports  of  this  council  are  submit- 
ted to  the  emperor  by  a  secretary  of  state  for  Poland  residing  in  St.  Pe- 
tersburg. There  is  also  in  that  capital  a  department  for  Polish  affairs,  to 
which  the  government  of  Poland  is  confided.  The  legislative  power  is 
vested  in  the  sovereign,  and  the  proposed  laws  for  this  kingdom  are  sub- 
mitted for  his  sanction  by  the  Russian  council  of  state.  The  local  admin- 
istration of  Poland  is  exercised  by  civil  governors,  with  the  same  powers 
as  those  established  in  the  different  governments  of  Russia. 

The  civil  and  commercial  codes  at  present  in  force  are,  for  the  most  part, 
the  same  as  in  France :  the  criminal  code  is  modelled  on  that  of  Prussia 
and  Austria.  Personal  and  religious  liberty  are  nominally  guarantied ; 
and  those  who  do  not  interfere  with  politics  are  as  secure  in  Poland  as 
anywhere  else.  But  those  who  wish  to  enjoy  this  security  must  have  a 
care  not  to  find  any  fault  with  any  action  of  the  government.  The  press 
is  under  the  control  of  censors,  who  are  stricter  here  than  even  in  Russia. 
Justices  of  the  peace  decide  in  civil  causes  up  to  the  amount  of  five  hun- 
dred florins  ;  above  which  the  latter  come  before  the  tribunals  of  original 
jurisdiction  in  the  capitals  of  the  different  governments.  At  Warsaw,  be- 
sides a  court  of  appeal,  there  is  a  supreme  court  of  cassation,  and  commer- 
cial tribunals  are  established  in  all  the  principal  towns.  Criminal  causes 
are  tried  in  separate  tribunals,  of  which  there  are  four  in  the  kingdom. 
Political  offences  come  under  the  cognizance  of  a  council  of  war,  or  a  com- 
mission specially  appointed. 

Until  lately,  upward  of  three  fourths  of  the  Poles  belonged  to  the  Roman 
catholic,  or  the  united  Greek  church,  the  Greco-Russian  communicants 
being  but  few  in  number.  But  of  late  the  Russian  government  has,  by 
every  means,  been  endeavoring  to  shake  the  spiritual  dependence  on  the 
court  of  Rome,  not  only  of  the  Poles,  but  of  the  united  Greeks  throughout 
the  empire  ;  and  the  measures  in  this  respect  appear  to  have  been  attended 


RUSSIAN    POLAJjD.  14? 

wirii  so  much  success,  that,  previously  to  1840,  from  three  to  four  millions 
of  the  united  Greeks,  including  most  of  those  of  Poland,  had  joined  the 
orthodox  Greek  church.  Until  1832,  the  Greco-Russians  had  no  prelate  in 
Poland  ;  but  at  that  period  an  archimandrite  was  appointed,  who  resides  at 
Warsaw.  The  bishop  of  the  united  Greek  church  resides  at  Heline,  in  the 
government  of  Lublin.  The  Roman  catholics  have  an  archbishop  and  eight 
bishops,  nominated  by  the  pope  on  the  recommendation  of  the  emperor  of 
Russia.  Tliere  are  a  number  of  convents  possessing  territorial  revenues ; 
l)ut  the  secular  clergy  receive  a  regular  stipend  from  the  government,  the 
landed  possessions  formerly  belonging  to  them  being  now  public  property. 
The  parish-priests,  however,  receive  tithes,  the  amount  of  which  is  some- 
times considerable.  The  Lutherans  and  Calvinists,  amounting  together  to 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  persons,  are  principally  Germans. 
There  are  a  few  Mennouites  and  Moravians,  and  some  Mohammedans. 

Previously  to  1830,  education  in  Poland  was  scarcely  diffused  at  all, 
except  among  the  nobility  and  upper  classes  residing  in  the  towns,  and  the 
total  number  of  persons  receiving  instruction  at  that  period  is  said  not  to 
have  exceeded  sixteen  thousand,  or  about  one  in  two  hundred  and  sixty 
of  the  population.  After  the  suppression  of  the  insurrection,  the  schools 
were  shut  for  several  months,  and,  when  re-opened,  were  organized  upon 
the  same  plan  as  those  of  Russia.  Private  schools  are  su])ject  to  the  same 
inspection  on  the  part  of  the  government  as  pul)lic  schools.  Tlie  number 
of  pupils  in  public  and  private  schools  amounted  in  1839  to  about  seventy 
thousand,  or  one  to  every  sixty-two  individuals.  In  1838,  an  order  was 
issued  by  the  Russian  government,  directing  that  there  should  be  a  teacher 
of  the  Russian  language  in  every  primary  school ;  and  that  all  children 
attending  such  schools  should  be  obliged  to  learn  the  Russian  language. 
It  was  also,  at  the  same  time,  ordered  that  no  individual  should  be  em- 
ployed as  a  tutor  unless  he  possessed  a  testimonial,  signed  by  the  proper 
authorities,  certifying  his  ability  to  give  instruction  in  the  Russian  lan- 
guage ;  and  that  no  person  unacquainted  with  Russian  should  be  promoted 
to  any  civil  or  military  employment. 

This  regulation,  as  was  to  be  expected,  gave  much  offence  to  the  Poles, 
and  was  the  theme  of  much  declamation  in  this  and  otlier  countries.  Rus- 
sia, no  doubt,  wishes  to  secure  her  hold  over  Poland ;  and  everything  that 
tends  to  Russianize  the  latter,  and  to  give  her  people  the  same  tastes, 
habits,  and  modes  of  thinking,  as  the  Russians,  must  necessarily  tJontribute 
to  this  end :  and  it  is  undoubtedly  thought  that,  of  all  the  means  to  bring 
about  this  consummation,  the  gradual  substitution  of  the  Russian  for  the 
Polish  language  will  be  one  of  the  most  effectual.  Nevertheless,  this  meas- 
ure is  one  of  great  injustice  and  hardship  to  the  conquered  race ;  indeed, 
among  the  numerous  degradations  to  which  foreign  domination  subjects  the 
Poles,  there  is  none  to  which  they  appear  more  keenly  sensible  than  this 
attempt  to  complete  their  national  destruction  by  the  extirpation  of  their 
native  tongue,  which  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  richest  '-z^^  sweetest  of  the 


148  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

Slavonian  dialects,  and  having  a  strong  affinity  to  the  Latin,  the  latter  being 
much  spoken  by  the  higher  classes. 

The  Poles  are  the  descendants  of  various  Slavonic  tribes,  who,  in  the 
sixth  century,  having  proceeded  up  the  Dnieper,  entered  the  basin  of  the 
Vistula,  drove  out  the  Finns  —  the  original  inhabitants  —  and  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  whole  country,  from  the  Warta  eastward,  and  around 
the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  They  are  a  remarkably  fine  race  of  people,  being 
well  formed,  strong,  active,  ardent,  and  daring.  In  their  general  appear- 
ance, they  are  said  to  resemble  the  western  Asiatics  rather  than  tlie  Euro- 
peans, which  has  led  some  ethnographers  to  the  belief  that  they  are  of 
Tartar  origin.  The  gentry  are  haughty  and  brave,  but,  at  the  same  time, 
frank  and  generous.  The  peasantry,  however,  bowed  down  by  continual 
oppression,  are  cringing  and  servile ;  their  whole  behavior  evincing  the 
state  of  abject  servility  from  which  they  are  now  being  emancipated.  The 
nobility  are  very  numerous  in  Poland,  amounting  at  present  to  not  less 
than  two  hundred  and  eighty-three  thousand  individuals !  According  to 
the  old  laws  of  the  republic,  the  nobles  were  terrig-ence :  every  person  who 
possessed  a  freehold  estate,  how  small  soever,  or  who  could  prove  his  de- 
scent from  ancestors  formerly  possessed  of  such  an  estate,  and  who  had 
not  debased  himself  by  engaging  in  any  sort  of  manufacture  or  commerce, 
was  a  nobleman  or  gentleman,  the  terms  being  in  Poland  synonymous. 
The  gentry  were  all  held  to  be  equal  to  each  other,  the  titles  of  prince, 
count,  &c.,  which  some  of  them  enjoyed,  not  being  supposed  to  add  any- 
thing to  their  real  dignity.  Under  the  republic,  the  nobility  were  every 
thing,  and  the  rest  of  the  people  nothing.  The  former  were  the  absolute 
lords  of  their  estates,  and  of  the  boors  by  whom  they  were  occupied.  They 
enjoyed  the  royal  privilege  of  maintaining  troops,  and  constructing  fortres- 
ses ;  and  they  only  could  elect  the  sovereigns.  No  noble  could  be  arrested 
without  previous  conviction,  except  in  cases  of  high-treason,  murder,  or 
robbery  on  the  highway  ;  and  then  only  provided  he  were  taken  in  the  fact ! 
His  house  was  a  secure  asylum  to  all  to  whom  he  chose  to  extend  his  pro- 
tection, whatever  might  be  their  crimes.  Even  his  vassals  could  not  be 
arrested,  nor  their  effects  seized ;  they  were  exempted  from  all  payment 
of  tolls  and  other  direct  duties ;  and  though  the  king  might  bestow  titles, 
he  had  no  power  to  create  a  nobleman  or  gentleman,  that  being  the  exclu- 
sive pri^lege  of  the  diet.  Happily,  however,  this  state  of  things  has  been 
wholly  changed.  Under  the  vigorous  government  of  Russia  (and  the  same 
remark  applies  to  those  divisions  of  Poland  under  Austria  and  Prussia), 
the  oppressive  privileges  of  the  nobles  have  been  suppressed  ;  they  can  no 
longer  trample  witli  impunity  on  their  inferiors,  nor  commit  offences  with- 
out subjecting  themselves  to  the  full  penalty  of  the  law ;  and  a  poor  gen- 
tleman no  longer  considers  it  a  degradation  to  engage  in  some  department 
of  industry. 

Though  modernized  in  a  considerable  degree,  the  richer  Polish  nobles 
continue  to  live  in  large  castles,  in  a  state  of  rude  hospitality,  entertaining 


RUSSIAN   POLAND. 


149 


m   ' 


Polish  Jew  at  his  Devotions. 


great  numbers  of  their  dependents  and  such  strangers  as  may  happen  to 
dsit  them.  At  these  feasts  the  ancient  custom  of  sitting-  below  the  salt  is 
still  kept  up,  the  best  dishes  and  the  most  costly  wines  being  appropriated 
by  the  elite  of  the  guests. 

The  Jews  are  more  numerous  in  Poland  than  in  any  other  European  coun- 
try, amounting  to  some  four  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand,  of  whom 
about  four  fifths  live  in  towns.  They  are,  as  already  stated,  in  the  almost 
exclusive  possession  of  the  commerce  of  the  country ;  they  also  are  the 


150  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

great  manufacturers  and  sellers  of  spirituous  and  fermented  liquors ;  ad- 
vance money  on  lands  and  goods  ;  are  the  only  jewellers  and  silversmiths  ; 
and  carry  on  all  pecuniary  dealings.  Those  in  the  towns  are  mostly  all 
burgesses,  and  they  may  be  said  to  engross  all  the  most  lucrative  business. 
But  notwithstanding  all  this,  the  majority  of  the  Israelites  are  extremely 
poor.  They  seem  also  to  be  in  a  lower  state  of  civilization  than  any  otlier 
class.  Even  the  richer  individuals,  though  they  occupy  the  best  houses  in 
the  towns,  appear  to  care  little  for  cleanliness  or  comfort ;  and  the  lower 
orders  live  in  a  state  of  filth  and  discomfort  that  would  be  intolerable  any- 
where else. 

Tliere  are  in  Poland  many  instances  of  longevity,  and,  on  the  whole,  the 
country  may  be  said  to  be  healthy ;  but  the  people  are,  notwithstanding, 
especially  liable  to  endemical  diseases,  such  as  small-pox  and  fevers,  which 
frequently  make  great  havoc.  Among  the  diseases  peculiar,  or  nearly  so, 
to  Poland  and  the  Lithuanian  provinces,  the  plica  polonica  is  the  most 
remarkable.  This  is  a  disease  of  the  head,  which  terminates  by  afiecting 
the  liair,  which  it  dilates,  softens,  and  clots  into  one  undistinguished  mass  ! 
This  disgusting  malady  spares  neither  age  nor  sex,  gentry  nor  peasants, 
though  it  is  more  frequent  among  the  latter  than  the  former.  Various  the- 
ories have  been  formed  to  account  for  its  origin :  most  probably  it  is  occa- 
sioned by  the  bad  water,  unwholesome  food,  and  filth  of  the  people. 

Poland  suffered  much  from  the  outbreak  of  1831,  in  consequence  partly 
of  the  destruction  of  property,  and  partly  of  the  proscriptions  and  oppres- 
sive measures  of  the  imperial  government  which  followed  its  suppression. 
Witliin  the  last  few  years,  however,  the  country  has  again  begun  to  revive. 
The  population  and  revenues  have  considerably  increased ;  houses  and 
other  buildings  have  multiplied  ;  old  roads  have  been  materially  improved, 
and  new  ones  projected  ;  so  that,  on  the  whole,  however  depressed  in  some 
respects,  the  country  is  certainly  advancing  in  improvement. 

The  Polish  army,  which  before  1831  amounted,  in  time  of  peace,  to 
thirty-five  thousand  men,  is  now  amalgamated  with  that  of  Russia. 

Poland  was  first  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom  by  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, in  1025,  when  Boleslaus  Khrabry  became  its  sole  monarch.  He 
belonged  to  what  lias  Ijeen  called  the  Piast  dynasty,  being  one  of  the  de 
scendants  of  Prince  Piast,  who,  as  early  as  840,  had  been  acknowledged 
chief  of  all  the  Poles  who  dwelt  between  the  Vistula  and  the  Warta.  His 
reign  was  long  and  flourishing,  and  the  prosperity  which  he  had  commenced 
was  continued  and  extended  under  his  successors,  Boleslaus  II.  and  III. 
The  latter  monarch,  however,  under  whom  Christianity  had  been  intro- 
duced into  the  country,  counterbalanced  the  good  which  he  had  done,  and 
laid  the  foundation  for  a  lengthened  series  of  civil  wars,  and  all  sorts  of 
disasters,  by  following  the  practice  then  common  in  Europe,  of  dividing 
his  dominions,  in  1139,  among  four  sons,  with  only  a  nominal  superiority 
in  the  eldest.  The  unity  of  the  kingdom  was  thus  destroyed,  and  its  fur- 
ther development  impeded  by  civil  dissensions,  which  did  not  terminate  till 


RUSSIAN   POLAND.  151 

1308,  when  the  different  portions  of  the  monarchy  were  again  united  in  the 
person  of  Ladislaus  Lokietek,  whose  merits  as  a  sovereign  would  have 
been  more  conspicuous  if  they  had  not  been  in  some  measure  eclipsed  by 
those  of  his  son  Casimir  the  Great,  in  whom  all  the  qualities  of  a  good  and 
wise  prince  seem  to  have  been  happily  combined.  His  reign,  which  began 
in  1333,  and  terminated  in  1370,  is  the  most  brilliant  in  the  Polish  annals  ; 
still,  however,  the  foundations  were  laid  in  it  of  that  anarchy  that  destroyed 
the  kingdom. 

Casimir,  having  no  children  of  his  own,  the  male  line  of  the  Piasts  thus 
became  extinct ;  and  being  anxious  that  the  crown  should  devolve,  at  his 
death,  upon  his  nephew  Louis,  king  of  Hungary,  in  preference  to  the  legiti- 
mate heirs,  he  obtained  for  that  purpose  the  sanction  of  a  general  assembly 
of  the  nobles,  and  Louis  agreed  to  the  conditions  under  which  they  offered 
him  the  crown  —  establishing,  in  this  way,  a  precedent  for  similar  interfe- 
rence on  future  occasions.  Li  like  manner,  Louis,  in  his  turn,  was  anxious 
to  secure  the  succession  to  his  youngest  daughter,  Hedwig ;  but  as  this 
could  not  be  obtained  without  innovating  on  the  constitution,  he  endeavored 
to  accomplish  it  by  courting  the  nobility,  and  bestowing  upon  them  privi- 
leges with  so  lavish  a  hand,  as  virtually  to  make  them  masters  of  the  crown 
itself.  Hedwig  was  crowned  in  1382,  and,  by  her  subsequent  marriage 
with  Jagellon,  grand-duke  of  Lithuania,  united  that  duchy  to  Poland.  The 
house  of  Jagellon  continued  to  occupy  the  Polish  throne  for  about  two  cen- 
turies, and  the  monarchy  was  thus  truly  hereditary ;  but  at  each  change 
of  a  sovereign  an  assembly  of  the  nobles  or  diet  was  held,  at  which  the 
new  sovereign  was  formally  elected  to  the  throne. 

On  tlie  death  of  the  last  of  the  Jagellons,  in  1572,  the  throne  of  Poland 
became,  substantially  as  well  as  formally,  elective ;  and  it  was  called,  not 
a  kingdom,  but  a  republic.  Henceforth,  on  the  death  of  a  sovereign,  the 
nobility  or  gentry  repaired  in  vast  numbers,  sometimes  to  the  amount  of 
one  hundred  thousand,  on  horseback,  and  armed,  with  crowds  of  attend- 
ants, to  a  sort  of  camp  in  the  neighborhood  of  Warsaw,  to  elect  his  succes- 
sor, who  had  to  subscribe,  and  make  oath  to  observe,  the  pacta  conventa, 
or  conditions  under  which  he  had  been  elected.  These  were  such  as  to 
reduce  the  royal  authority  within  the  narrowest  limits,  to  secure  and  ex- 
tend the  privileges  of  the  nobility  and  clergy,  and  to  perpetuate  the  degra- 
dation of  the  mass  of  the  people,  who,  being  serfs  {nieivolnik)  in  the  fullest 
extent  of  the  term,  were  not  supposed,  in  fact,  to  have  any  legal  existence  ! 

At  the  death  of  Sigismund  Augustus,  the  last  of  the  Jagellon  dynasty, 
Sweden,  France,  Austria,  and  Russia,  all  brought  forward  their  candidates, 
and  endeavored  to  carry  the  election  by  such  appliances  as  the  exigencies 
of  the  occasion  might  seem  to  justify — by  violence,  intimidation,  intrigue, 
and  bribery.  Henry  Valois,  of  France,  was  the  successful  competitor,  but 
his  reign  was  short  and  inglorious ;  and  no  great  name  occurs  in  the  list 
of  sovereigns  elected  under  this  monstrously  vicious  system,  except  that  of 
the  famous  John  Sobieski,  the  last  great  king  of  Poland,  who  mounted  the 


152  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

throne  in  1674,  having  been  highly  successful  as  a  general  since  the  year 
1648,  and  whose  reign  is  rendered  memorable  by  his  numerous  victories 
in  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  and  by  his  terrible  overthrow  of  the  Turkish 
besieging  host  under  the  walls  of  Vienna  in  1683. 

Exclusive  of  the  diets*  for  the  election  of  the  sovereigns,  ordinary  diets 
were  held,  at  least,  once  every  two  years,  at  which  all  matters  connected 
with  the  government  of  the  country  were  discussed  and  decided  upon.  It 
is  easy  to  see,  from  what  has  been  already  stated,  that  this  form  of  govern- 
ment could  not  fail  to  produce  great  party  contests  and  disorders,  and  that 
it  must  have  afforded  every  facility  to  the  surrounding  powers  for  acquiring 
a  preponderating  influence  in  the  diet.  Probably,  however,  the  abuses 
already  noticed  might  have  been  repaired,  but  for  the  principle,  if  we  may 
so  call  it,  first  introduced  in  1652,  that  no  decision  could  be  come  to  upon 
any  matter  submitted  for  consideration  unless  the  <liet  were  unanimous. 
Hence  the  singular  and  extraordinary  privilege  of  the  liberum  veto^  by 
which  any  single  member  of  the  diet  was  permitted  to  interpose  his  abso- 
lute veto,  and,  by  doing  so,  could  nullify  its  whole  proceedings !  And, 
which  is  even  more  extraordinary,  this  absurd  privilege,  which  allowed  the 
whim,  caprice,  or  bad  faith  of  an  individual,  to  prevent  the  adoption  of  any 
measure,  however  necessary  and  however  generally  approved,  was,  for  a 
lengthened  period,  regarded  by  the  Poles  as  the  palladium  of  their  liberties  ! 

It  is  plain,  from  these  statements,  that  latterly  the  whole  powers  of  the 
state  were  engrossed  by  the  nobles,  or  gentry,  many  of  whom,  though  en- 
joying the  same  political  rights  and  franchises  as  the  others,  were  misera- 
bly poor.  In  consequence,  corruption,  intimidation,  and  such  like  arts, 
had  full  scope  in  the  Polish  diets,  particularly  in  tliose  held  for  the  elec- 
tion of  sovereigns ;  and  latterly  the  crown  was,  in  fact,  either  sold  to  the 
highest  bidder,  or  the  election  was  decided  under  the  influence  of  foreign 
force.  And  if,  while  the  government  was  in  this  state  of  abasement,  we 
bear  in  mind  that  the  whole  people,  with  the  exception  of  the  nobles  or 
gentry,  were  serfs,  on  whom  every  indignity  might  be  practised  by  their 
masters,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  subversion  of  such  a  state  of  things  might 
reasonably  be  expected. 

Even  before  the  election  of  John  Sobieski,  schemes  of  dismemberment  had 
been  suggested  by  the  neighboring  powers ;  and  though  the  brilliancy  of 
his  reign,  and  other  encouraging  causes,  prevented  them  from  assuming 
any  definite  shape,  the  disorganization  of  the  internal  government,  and  the 
anarchy  which  prevailed  at  every  new  election,  made  it  obvious  to  all  but 
the  infatuated  Poles  themselves,  that  their  execution  was  only  postponed, 
and  would  sooner  or  later  be  effected. 

*  The  diets  consisted  —  first,  of  the  senate,  composed  of  the  bishops,  palatines,  or  perpetual  g;ov- 
emors  of  provinces,  castellans,  or  governors  of  towns,  and  the  grand  oflRcers  of  the  crown  ;  and, 
second,  of  the  nu.icios,  or  representatives  of  the  nobles,  or  gentry.  These  bodies  did  not,  however, 
deliberate  separately,  but  together;  and,  as  will  be  immediately  seen,  they  could  come  to  no  reso 
lution  without  being  unanimous. 


RUSSIAN  POLAND.  153 

The  partition  of  Poland  had,  in  fact,  been  proposed  by  the  Swedes,  in 
the  reign  of  Casimir  V.  (a  short  while  previously  to  the  election  of  John 
Sobieski),  as  the  only  method  by  which  the  disorders  tliat  agitated  the 
country  could  be  put  an  end  to,  and  the  inconvenience  thence  arising  to 
the  surrounding  states  be  obviated.  But  it  was  not  till  more  than  a  cen- 
tury after  that  the  first  actual  partition  was  agreed  upon,  in  1772,  by  the 
emperor  of  Austria,  the  empress  of  Russia,  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  the  latter  of  whom  is  said  to  have  first  proposed  the  plan 
of  dismemberment  to  Maria  Theresa,  fearful  lest  Catherine  II.  should  get 
the  whole  territory.  By  this  partition,  about  a  tliird  part  of  the  kingdom 
Avas  dismembered,  and  added  to  the  dominions  of  the  partitioning  powers, 
their  respective  shares  being  as  follows  :  to  Prussia,  a  little  over  thirteen 
thousand  ;  Austria,  twenty-seven  thousand  ;  and  Russia,  forty-two  thousand 
square  miles. 

But  it  was  not  to  be  supposed  that,  having  once  begun  to  share  in  so 
rich  a  spoil,  these  powers  would  rest  satisfied  with  this  acquisition.  The 
pretexts  for  further  interference  still  continued  undiminished.  Poland,  as 
before,  remained  a  prey  to  all  sorts  of  disorders ;  and  the  Russian  embas- 
sador, and  not  the  king,  was  the  real  sovereign. 

In  1791,  the  majority  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  then  assembled  in  a 
diet,  which  had  been  made  permanent,  being  desirous  to  raise  their  coun- 
try from  the  miserable  state  into  which  it  had  fallen,  and  stimulated  by 
the  events  connected  with  the  French  Revolution,  drew  up  the  projet  of  a 
new  constitution  on  a  more  liberal  and  broader  basis,  abolishing  tlie  liberum 
veto,  and  making  the  crown  hereditary,  on  the  demise  of  King  Stanislaus 
Augustus,  in  the  Saxon  family.  This  constitution  was  accepted  by  the 
king ;  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  nation  did  not,  and  could  not,  take  any 
interest  in  the  change  :  and  the  government  were  wholly  without  the  means 
of  supporting  the  new  order  of  things.  Russia  had  little  difficulty  in  fo- 
menting fresh  disorders  ;  and  the  unfortunate  Poles,  with  an  imbecile  sov- 
ereign, without  forces,  and  abandoned  and  betrayed  by  their  pretended 
allies,  were  again  compelled  to  submit  to  a  fresh  dismemberment  of  their 
country.  By  this  second  partition,  in  1793,  Prussia  obtained  twenty-two 
thousand  five  hundred,  and  Russia  ninety-six  tliousand  five  hundred  square 
miles. 

Provoked  by  these  repeated  indignities,  the  Poles  awoke  from  their  stu- 
por, and,  headed  by  the  heroic  Kosciusko,  rose  in  rebellion  in  1794.  But 
it  was  too  late ;  their  means  were  totally  inadequate  to  the  struggle  in 
which  they  had  engaged.  After  displaying  prodigies  of  valor,  Kosciusko 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  (10th  of  October,  1794),  and  Praga,  the 
suburb  of  Warsaw,  being  taken  by  storm,  that  city  forthwith  surrendered ; 
and  there  being  no  longer  any  obstacle  in  the  way,  a  dismemberment  of 
the  remaining  territories  of  the  republic  took  place  in  1795,  and  Poland 
was  finally  obliterated  from  the  map  of  Europe.  Stanislaus  Augustus,  the 
last  Polish  king,  degraded  into  a  pensionary  of  the  Russian  court,  died  at 


154  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

St.  Petersburg  in  1798.  These  successive  partitions  liad  given  Austria 
forty-iive  thousand  square  miles  of  Polish  territory,  with  five  millions  of 
inhabitants  ;  Prussia,  fifty-seven  thousand  square  miles,  with  two  and  a  half 
millions  of  inhabitants ;  and  Russia,  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand 
square  miles,  with  four  millions  six  hundred  thousand  inhabitants. 

The  powers  who  dismembered  Poland  had,  in  reality,  nothing  better  to 
allege,  in  justification  of  tlicir  measures,  than  the  robber's  plea,  that  the 
power  to  commit  an  act  malces  it  at  once  right  and  expedient !  But,  how 
objectionable  soever  the  motives  by  which  they  were  influenced,  and  how 
dangerous  soever  the  precedent  which  they  established,  there  can  be  no 
reasonable  doubt  that  their  measures  have  been  decidedly  advantageous  to 
the  great  bulk  of  the  Polish  people.  The  vices  inherent  in  Polish  society 
were  such  that  it  is  idle  to  suppose  they  could  have  been  eradicated  by  any 
remodelling  of  the  constitution.  There  was  no  middle  class  (or  none  worth 
notice)  in  the  country ;  nothing  between  nobles,  jealous  of  their  rank  and 
privileges,  on  the  one  hand,  and  newly-emancipated  serfs,  brutalized  and 
degraded  by  a  long  course  of  oppression,  on  the  other.  To  restrain  the 
first  within  the  limits  prescribed  by  law,  and  to  raise  the  second  class,  was 
a  work  that  could  only  be  undertaken  by  a  powerful  government,  such  as 
there  were  no  means  of  forming  out  of  native  materials.  It  is  to  be  regret- 
ted that  Russia  obtained  the  lion's  share  of  the  spoil ;  but  even  in  Russian 
Poland  the  condition  of  the  people  has  been  very  decidedly  changed  for 
the  better,  and  in  Austrian  and  Prussian  Poland  the  improvement  in  their 
condition  has  been  signal  and  extraordinary. 

A  dawn  of  hope  appeared  in  1806,  wlien  Napoleon,  during  the  campaign 
of  Friedland,  extended  his  protection  over  the  Poles  ;  and  shortly  after,  in 
accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  formed  the  grand-duchy 
of  Warsaw,  which,  increased  in  1809  by  the  addition  of  western  Galicia, 
which  he  wrested  from  Austria,  extended  over  an  area  of  sixty  thousand 
square  miles,  and  contained  three  millions  seven  hundred  and  eighty  thou- 
sand inhabitants.  But  Napoleon,  having  now  formed  an  alliance,  offensive 
and  defensive,  with  Alexander,  against  England,  could  not  carry  out  his 
original  desire  and  intention  of  re-establishing  the  ancient  kingdom  of 
Poland.  After  his  fall,  the  congress  of  Vienna  (1815),  composed  mainly 
of  the  spoliators  themselves,  naturally  enough  confirmed  these  spoliations ; 
but  by  an  arrangement  which,  in  the  circumstances,  looks  more  like  insult 
than  generosity,  erected  tlie  city  of  Krakow  into  an  independent  republic. 

About  two  thirds  of  the  Russian  share  was  completely  incorporated  with 
the  general  government,  and  ceased  to  retain  any  distinctive  appellation ; 
but  the  remainder  was  erected,  as  before  remarked,  into  what  was  called 
the  kingdom  of  Poland,  and  received  a  separate  constitution  from  the  em- 
peror Alexander,  drawn  up  in  a  more  liberal  spirit  than  might  have  been 
anticipated.  It  appears,  however,  to  have  been  more  liberally  devised 
than  faithfully  executed.  Unfortunately,  too,  the  disgust  occasioned  by 
the  brutality  of  the  grand-duke  Constantino,  commander-in-chief  of  the 


RUSSIAN   POLAND. 


155 


Polish  Exiles  on  theib  way  to  Siberia.^ 


Russian  forces  in  the  kingdom,  conspiring  with  the  excitement  produced 
by  the  French  revolution  of  1830,  and  the  abuse  of  Russia  in  intemperate 
and  ill-judged  speeches  in  the  house  of  commons  and  chamber  of  deputies, 
which  made  it  be  believed  that  England  and  France  were  ready  to  assail 
that  power,  precipitated  the  Poles  into  an  insurrection.  They  made  a  gal- 
lant stand  in  defence  of  their  liberties,  but  in  the  end  every  vestige  of  their 
independence  was  totally  destroyed.  The  confiscation  of  the  property, 
and  exile  to  Siberia,  of  the  leading  patriots,  followed  as  a  matter  of  course. 
The  name  of  the  kingdom  remains  ;  but  its  peculiar  privileges  have  been 
subverted,  and  it  is  now  substantially  and  in  fact  a  part  of  the  Russian 
empire. 

The  city  of  Krakow,  the  ancient  capital  of  Poland,  and  which,  by  the 
congress  of  Yienna,  in  1815,  was  erected  into  a  free  and  independent  re- 
public, with  a  territory  of  four  hundred  and  sixty  square  miles,  after  main- 
taining a  feverish  existence  till  1846,  was  seized  upon  by  Austria,  and 
incorporated  with  her  kingdf)m  of  Galicia.     The  cathedral  of  Krakow,  a 

*  This  illustration  is  drawn  mainly  from  tlie  celebrated  painting-  of  tl)o  Polish  exiles,  by  Sir  Wil- 
liam Allan,  the  scene  of  which  is  thus  happily  alluded  to  by  Christopher  North  :  "  They  are  but 
one  family,  but  in  their  sufferings  they  represent  those  of  all  sent  to  Siberia,  and  cold  and  base 
would  be  that  heart  which  melted  not  before  such  a  picture.  Toward  evening,  fatigue  has  weighed 
them  down  —  one  and  all  on  the  roadside  ;  but  there  is  no  fainting,  no  hysterics.  That  man  in 
Poland  was  a  patriot  —  in  the  steppes  of  Siberia  ho  is  but  a  father!  With  humble,  almost  humili- 
ated earnestness,  he  beseeches  the  Bashkirs  to  let  his  wife  and  daughter,  and  other  children,  and 
iiimself,  rest  but  for  an  hour!  The  Bashkirs  are  three  ;  and  he  who  refuses,  does  so  without  cru- 
elty, but,  inexorable  in  his  sense  of  duty,  points  toward  the  distance,  a  dim  dreary  way  along  the 
wilderness,  not  unoccupied  by  other  wretches  moving  toward  the  mines  !" 


156  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

view  of  which  is  given  at  the  close  of  this  chapter,  is  a  magnificent  struc- 
ture, and  justly  celebrated  from  its  being  the  resting-place  of  the  remains 
of  the  kings  and  many  illustrious  men  of  Poland ;  among  others,  it  con- 
tains the  tombs  of  Casimir  the  Great,  of  John  Sobieski,  and  of  Kosciusko 
and  Poniatowski,  "  the  last  of  the  Poles." 

Warsaw,  the  capital  of  Poland,  is  situated  on  the  Vistula,  six  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  southeast  of  St.  Petersburg.  Its  population,  including  its 
suburbs,  in  1850  was  one  hundred  and  sixty-four  thousand.  The  city,  which, 
with  its  gardens  and  suburbs,  covers  a  great  extent  of  ground,  is  on  the 
left  or  west  bank  of  the  river,  which  is  here  about  seven  hundred  feet 
broad,  being  connected  with  the  suburb  of  Praga  on  the  right,  by  a  bridge 
of  boats.  A  suspension-bridge  was  some  years  since  projected  instead  of 
the  latter,  but  the  project  has  not  hitherto  been  carried  into  effect. 

Warsaw,  being  situated  partly  in  a  plain,  and  partly  on  an  ascent  grad- 
ually rising  to  the  river's  bank,  has  a  magnificent  appearance  from  the  St. 
Petersburg  road.  But  though  the  contrary  has  been  affirmed  by  some 
travellers,  the  impression  of  grandeur  is  not  supported  on  entering  the 
town.  It  has,  indeed,  many  fine  palaces,  public  buildings,  and  noble  man- 
sions, and,  latterly,  its  private  houses  have  been  improved  by  prohibiting 
the  construction  of  new  buildings  of  wood.  But  its  streets,  though  spa- 
cious, are  badly  paved,  badly  lighted,  and  dirty  ;  the  greater  part  of  the 
houses  in  the  city,  and  still  more  in  the  suburbs,  are  mean  and  ill-con- 
structed, above  one-fourth  part  of  their  number  being  at  this  moment  of 
wood ;  and  the  whole  town  exhibits  a  painful  contrast  of  wealth  and  pov 
erty,  civilization  and  barbarism,  luxury  and  misery.  The  suburbs  of  Praga, 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  river,  once  strongly  fortified  and  extensive,  is  now 
all  but  deserted.  There  are  still,  however,  several  other  suburbs  of  large 
extent ;  and  those  adjacent  to  the  city  proper  are  included  within  its  ram- 
part and  ditch. 

The  principal  public  building  is  the  zamek,  a  huge  edifice,  formerly  the 
palace  of  the  kings  of  Poland,  and  that  in  which  the  emperor  still  resides 
when  he  visits  Warsaw.  The  hall  of  the  Polish  diet,  a  splendid  gilt  ball- 
room, and  the  national  archives  of  Poland,  are  in  this  building ;  and  the 
fine  paintings  of  Canaletti,  Bacciarelli,  &c.,  with  the  library  and  other 
treasures,  have  been  removed  since  1831  to  the  Russian  capital.  There 
are  several  other  royal  palaces.  That  called  the  palace  of  Casimir,  which 
was  appropriated  to  the  university,  has  in  its  square  a  statue  of  Coperni- 
cus. The  Palais  de  Saxe  is  a  large  building  in  one  of  the  finest  squares. 
At  the  back  of  this  palace  are  the  principal  public  gardens  in  the  interior 
of  Warsaw,  which  resemble  in  some  respects  the  park  at  Brussels,  though 
considerably  larger.  Another  handsome  public  garden,  much  frequented 
at  the  fashionable  hour  of  twelve,  belongs  to  what  is  called  the  government 
palace.  This  latter  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  most  chaste  and  really  beautiful 
architectural  elevations  in  the  Polish  capital.  It  is  strictly  in  the  Italian 
style,  and  contains  the  national  theatre,  customhouse,  high  tribunals,  and 


RUSSIAN   POLAND WARSAW.  157 

offices  of  the  minister  of  tlic  interior.  The  palace  of  the  minister  of  finance, 
which  is  quite  modern,  forms,  with  the  new  exchange,  a  very  imposing 
object  at  the  end  of  the  street  leading  to  the  Breslau  gate.  The  Marie ville 
bazar  is  a  large  square,  the  four  sides  of  which  consist  of  covered  arcades, 
with  dwellings  for  the  merchants  above,  and  shops  for  the  merchandise 
under  them ;  the  latter  amount  to  about  three  hundred,  beside  several 
warehouses.  A  great  number  of  churches  are  to  be  found  in  the  city,  some 
of  which  are  of  really  colossal  dimensions,  as  the  cathedral  of  St.  John,  and 
the  church  of  tlie  Holy  Cross.  In  the  former  are  an  altarpiece  of  great 
merit  by  Palma  Nova,  and  a  large  standard  wrested  from  the  Turks  by 
Sobieski  at  the  siege  of  Vienna.  The  Lutherans  have  also  a  magnificent 
church,  erected  at  an  expense  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand 
dollars,  and  superior  in  beauty  and  boldness  of  design  to  all  the  catholic 
churches  in  the  place,  having  a  dome  and  tower  of  prodigious  elevation. 
Which  way  soever  a  traveller  turns,  he  can  not  fail  to  pass  some  one  of 
the  monuments  which  stand  in  the  squares  to  commemorate  the  reign  of  a 
sovereign,  or  the  achievements  of  a  Polish  warrior.  The  colossal  statue  of 
Sigismund  III.,  cast  in  bronze,  gilt,  and  placed  on  a  lofty  pillar  of  marble 
of  the  country,  produces  a  very  good  effect ;  and  the  equestrian  group  in 
bronze  of  Poniatowski,  &c.,  by  Thorwaldsen,  is  also  worthy  of  admiration. 

Independently  of  the  public  gardens,  Warsaw  may  be  said  to  have  in  its 
vicinity  some  of  the  finest  drives  and  promenades  in  Europe  for  width  and 
extent.  The  numerous  avenues  of  the  Ujasdow,  planted  with  lofty  lime 
and  chestnut-trees,  are  the  rendezvous  of  nearly  the  entire  population  of 
Warsaw  on  Sundays  and  other  holydays,  and  are  admirably  calculated  for 
horse  and  sledge-races,  both  of  which  take  place  here.  In  the  immediate 
vicinity  is  the  royal  villa,  formerly  the  country  residence  of  Stanislaus 
Augustus.  The  palace  is  built  in  the  Italian  style  :  Bacciarelli's  paintings 
decorate  one  of  the  principal  rooms  ;  and  it  has  a  ball-room,  ornamented 
with  colossal  statues  in  whiie  marble  ;  a  chapel,  with  some  curious  works 
in  mosaic,  &c.  In  the  park  is  a  stone  bridge,  on  which  is  erected  the 
equestrian  statue  of  John  Sobieski.  The  view  of  the  Vistula  from  the  park 
is  very  fine ;  and  a  large  island  lying  in  the  middle  stream  is  much  fre- 
quented in  summer  by  the  amateurs  of  aquatic  expeditions. 

Among  the  other  public  buildings  may  be  specified  the  Radzivil  and 
Krasinski  palaces,  the  barracks,  mint,  six  hospitals,  five  theatres,  and  sev- 
eral good  inns.  Since  the  insurrection  of  1831,  a  strong  citadel  has  been 
erected  partly  in  the  view  of  protecting,  but  more  of  overawing  the  town. 
This  citadel  was  built  from  the  produce  of  a  loan  raised  in  Poland  ;  and, 
in  1835,  when  the  emperor  Nicholas  visited  Warsaw  in  his  way  from  the 
congress  of  Toplitz,  he  distinctly  informed  the  civic  authorities  that  on  the 
first  disturbance  breaking  out  in  the  city,  the  guns  of  the  citadel  should 
level  it  with  the  ground !  A  cast-iron  obelisk  has  been  erected  in  the  cit- 
adel in  honor  of  his  predecessor,  inscribed,  "  To  Alexander,  the  conqueror 
and  benefactor  of  Poland !" 


158  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

The  university  of  Warsaw,  established  in  1816,  had  faculties  of  theology, 
jurisprudence,  medicine,  philosophy,  belles-lettres,  and  fine  arts,  and  a 
library  containing,  it  is  said,  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  volumes  of 
printed  books,  exclusive  of  rare  manuscripts,  with  an  observatory  and  bo- 
tanic gardens,  cabinets  of  natural  philosophy,  zoology,  mineral,  models,  and 
coins,  and  printing  and  lithographic  presses.  Unfortunately,  however,  the 
university  no  longer  exists,  having  been  suppressed  subsequently  to  the 
late  ill-fated  insurrection,  its  fine  library  being  then,  also,  removed  to  St. 
Petersburg.  Of  late  years  there  has  been  a  Roman  catholic  college  at 
Warsaw,  with  twelve  professors ;  but  the  adherents  of  the  Russo-Greek 
church  are  rapidly  increasing  here,  as  in  all  other  countries  subject  to 
Russia,  and  have  now  a  cathedral  and  other  churches  in  the  city.  The 
Jews,  of  whom  there  arc  about  twenty-five  thousand,  have  several  syna- 
gogues ;  the  Armenians,  too,  have  their  places  of  worship,  and  the  English 
have  a  chapel.  Among  the  educational  establishments,  are  numerous  su- 
perior, special,  and  elementary  schools  ;  all  of  them  being  modelled  on  the 
new  system,  and  having  attached  to  each  a  native  Russian,  as  a  teacher  of 
his  own  language,  a  considerable  proficiency  in  which  is  now  an  indispen- 
sable qualification  for  holding  any  public  office,  how  trifling  soever. 

Warsaw  has,  also,  a  deaf  and  dumb  asylum,  a  musical  conservatory, 
societies  of  friends  of  literature  and  natural  science,  a  bible  society,  &c., 
and  some  newspapers,  and  other  periodical  publications.  These,  however, 
ai'e  subjected  to  a  rigorous  censorship,  and  are,  consequently,  worth  little 
or  nothing.  Its  manufactures  comprise  woollen  and  linen  cloths,  saddlery, 
leather,  carriages  of  different  kinds,  ironmongery,  paper,  and  tobacco,  with 
chemical  and  cotton  printing-works,  and  numerous  breweries.  Warsaw  is 
the  great  commercial  entrepot  for  Poland  ;  and  has  two  large  fairs,  in  May 
and  September,  attended  by  traders  from  many  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
five  banks,  an  insurance  society,  <fec. 

In  comparing  this  city  with  St.  Petersburg,  Dr.  Granville  says,  "  There 
is  a  notable  difference  between  the  general  aspect  of  the  iidiabitants  of 
Warsaw  and  those  of  the  capital  he  had  just  left.  The  women  here  are 
handsomer  than  the  men :  at  St.  Petersburg  the  impression  I  received  was 
of  an  opposite  nature.  The  absence  of  those  semi- Asiatic  costumes,  which 
are  so  prevalent  in  all  the  streets  of  the  Russian  capital,  tends,  in  a  great 
measure,  to  give  to  the  capital  of  Poland  a  more  European  aspect ;  but 
there  is  something  else  that  contributes  to  produce  that  effect.  The  Poles 
are  uniformly  merry ;  they  are  loud  chatterers,  fond  of  amusement,  and  as 
partial  to  living  in  tlie  open  air,  doing  nothing,  as  tlie  Parisian  faineants 
and  the  habitues  of  the  Palais  Royal,  the  Tuileries,  the  Boulevards,  or  the 
Luxembourg ;  to  which  class  of  people  I  should  be  tempted  to  compare 
them  in  many  respects.  They  also  do  business  differently :  their  shops  and 
public  places  of  amusement  are  more  like  those  of  any  other  European  oity 
farther  south ;  and  their  menace  appears  to  be  much  nearer  to  that  of  che 
French  than  of  the  Russians." 


RUSSIAN   POLAND  —  KALISCH  —  LUBLIN.  159 

Warsaw,  though  a  very  ancient  town,  was  not  the  capital  of  Poland  till 
1566,  after  the  union  with  Lithuania;  when  the  Polish  diet  was  transferred 
to  it  from  Krakow.  The  city  was  occupied  by  the  Swedes  in  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  surrendered,  without  opposition,  to  Charles 
XII.  in  1703.  In  1793,  the  inhabitants  expelled  the  Russian  garrison 
previously  in  occupation ;  and  the  town  was  successfully  defended  against 
the  Prussians,  in  the  succeeding  year,  by  Kosciusko.  But  the  suburb  of 
Praga,  being  soon  after  taken  and  sacked  by  the  Russians  under  Suwar- 
row,  by  whom  a  large  portion  of  the  inhabitants  were  put  to  the  sword,  the 
city,  threatened  with  a  similar  fate,  submitted  to  the  conquerors.  In  1795, 
Warsaw  was  assigned  to  Prussia :  in  1806,  she  was  made  the  capital  of 
the  grand  duchy  of  Poland ;  and  in  1815,  she  became  the  capital  of  the 
new  kingdom  of  Poland.  She  was  the  principal  seat  of  the  ill-fated  insur- 
rection of  1831. 

Kalisch,  another  Polish  city,  capital  of  the  palatinate  of  the  same  name, 
is  situated  on  an  island  in  the  Prosna,  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  miles 
west-southwest  of  Warsaw.  It  is  considered  one  of  the  finest  cities  of 
Poland,  and  one  of  the  principal  places  in  point  of  mercantile  wealth  and 
trade.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  flanked  with  towers,  and  entered  by 
four  gates  ;  and  has  ten  churches,  three  convents,  one  synagogue,  a  Roman 
catholic  gymnasium,  with  a  fine  library,  and  extensive  scientific  collections; 
a  military  school,  theatre,  public  garden,  house  of  charity,  and  three  hos- 
pitals. The  streets  are  spacious,  and  well  paved,  and  some  of  them  adorned 
with  trees.  The  houses  are  well  built.  The  most  remarkable  edifices  are 
the  palace  of  the  voyvodes,  in  Avhich  the  courts  of  law  are  now  held ;  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Joseph,  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas,  and  that  of  the  Lutho 
rans.  It  has  linen,  woollen,  and  leather  manufactures  ;  and  six  fairs  are 
held  annually.  Kalisch  was  founded  about  655,  and  was  long  the  resi- 
dence of  the  dukes  of  Great  Poland.  At  a  little  distance  from  the  city  the 
Swedes  were  defeated  by  the  Poles,  in  1706 ;  in  1835,  a  grand  military 
review  was  held  here,  attended  by  the  emperors  of  Austria  and  Russia,  and 
the  king  of  Prussia ;  on  the  18th  and  19th  of  July,  1852,  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  city  was  burned  down.  The  population  of  Kalisch  is  about 
fifteen  thousand,  of  whom  about  one  fifth  are  Jews. 

Lublin,  the  capital  of  the  palatinate  of  Lublin,  is  beautifully  situated 
on  a  height  above  the  left  bank  of  the  Bistritza,  ninety-four  miles  southeast 
of  Warsaw.  It  consists  of  the  town,  properly  divided  into  a  high  and  a 
low  town,  and  surrounded  by  walls  and  ditches,  and  of  a  large  suburb  ;  but 
it  is  poorly  built,  most  of  the  houses  being  of  wood,  and  the  streets  uneven 
and  irregular.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  the  seat  of  a  superior  appeal 
court ;  it  contains  eighteen  churclies,  one  of  Avhich  is  a  cathedral,  and  at 
least  three  others  are  handsome  structures ;  an  elegant  townhouse,  a  pal- 
ace, which  belonged  to  Sobieski ;  a  Piarist  college,  a  diocesan  seminary, 
central  schools,  an  old  monastery,  a  military  house  of  correction,  a  theatre, 
an  orphan  and  several  other  hospitals ;  possesses  agricultural,  scientific, 


160 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCEIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 


and  musical  societies  ;  and  has  manufactures  of  woollen  and  linen  cloth,  a 
trade  in  cloth,  corn,  and  Hungarian  wine ;  and  three  annual  fairs,  one  of 
which  lasts  a  month,  and  is  numerously  attended  by  German,  Greek,  Ar- 
menian, Russian,  Turkish,  and  other  dealers.  On  a  steep  height  near  the 
town  are  the  remains  of  an  old  castle,  built  by  Casimir  the  Great.  Its 
population  is  about  thirteen  thousand. 

The  palatinate  lies  wholly  within  the  basin  of  the  Vistula,  which  bounds 
it  on  the  west ;  it  is  extensively  covered  with  woods  and  marshes,  but  has 
several  tracts  of  good  arable  and  pasture  land.  Its  only  mineral  is  bog- 
iron  ore. 

Flock,  capital  of  the  palatinate  of  that  name,  is  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Vistula,  sixty  miles  northwest  of  Warsaw,  on  a  height.  It  is 
walled,  divided  into  the  old  and  the  new  town,  and  has  no  less  than  twenty- 
five  squares,  of  which  one,  in  the  old  town,  is  very  regularly  built.  It  has 
a  handsome  cathedral,  and  ten  other  Roman  catholic  churches ;  a  bishop's 
palace,  in  which  the  courts  of  justice  hold  their  sittings  ;  two  monasteries, 
and  a  convent,  a  synagogue,  Piarist  college,  a  gymnasium,  and  several  ele- 
mentary schools  ;  a  theatre,  an  orphan  asylum,  and  poorhouse  :  and  a  con- 
siderable trade,  particularly  in  skins  ;  and  several  large  fairs.  Its  popu- 
lation is  six  thousand. 

Sandomir  is  another  Polish  town  of  considerable  importance,  situated  on 
the  Vistula,  fifty-six  miles  southwest  of  Lublin.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall 
and  fosse,  and  is  entered  by  six  gates.  It  has  an  old  castle,  seated  on  a 
rocky  height,  a  collegiate  church,  four  monasteries  with  churches,  a  syna- 
gogue, and  a  gymnasium.  It  possesses  considerable  general  trade,  and  has 
a  population  of  about  three  thousand. 


The  Kr.AKOw  Cathedkal, 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  —  BESSARABIA.  161 


CHAPTER   YI. 


SOUTHERN    RUSSIA. 


THE  governments  which  are  classed  under  the  general  name  of  South- 
ern Russia,  are  Bessarabia,  Kherson,  Ekatherinoslav,  Taurida 
(with  the  Crimea),  and  the  Don  Cossacks;  and  include  that  portion 
of  the  empire  resting  on  the  Black  sea  and  the  sea  of  Azov,  and  extending 
from  the  government  of  Astrakhan  on  the  east  to  the  Danube  and  its  im- 
portant tributary  the  Pruth,  which  form  the  boundary  of  Russia  on  the 
west,  separating  the  empire  from  the  principalities  of  Moldavia  and  Walla- 
chia,  the  occupation  of  which  by  the  armed  forces  of  Russia  led  to  the  war 
of  1854  between  that  government  and  Turkey  and  the  western  powers  of 
Europe.  The  territory  covered  by  these  governments  consists  principally 
of  the  steppes,  an  interesting  feature  of  Russian  topography,  which  will 
form  the  subject  of  a  future  chapter. 

Bessarabia,  once  the  eastern  division  of  Moldavia,  and  now  the  most 
southwestern  government  of  European  Russia,  is  principally  situated  be- 
tween the  forty-fifth  and  forty-eighth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the 
twenty-seventh  and  thirty-first  degrees  of  east  longitude.  It  is  bounded 
south  by  the  Danube ;  north  and  east  by  the  Dniester  and  the  Black  sea ; 
west  by  the  Pruth,  which  separates  it  from  Moldavia,  and  by  the  Becko- 
wina,  part  of  Austrian  Galicia.  It  thus  forms,  between  two  rivers,  a  strip 
of  territory  three  hundred  and  seventy-two  miles  long,  by  fifty  of  medium 
breadth,  and  comprises  an  area  of  about  sixteen  thousand  square  miles. 

On  nearing  the  maritime  borders,  the  province  gradually  widens,  and 
naturally  divides  itself  into  two  portions.  The  portion  named  by  the  Tar- 
tars Budjak,  is  composed  of  a  flat,  reaching  to  tlie  seashore,  between  the 
mouths  of  the  Danulje  and  the  lower  course  of  tlie  Dniester,  and  has  the 
common  aspect  of  the  Russian  steppes,  being  chiefly  suited  to  the  breeding 
of  stock.  No  trees,  a  few  shrubs  only,  are  observed  near  the  rivers  ;  the 
lakes,  or  stagnant  waters,  are  covered  with  reeds ;  and  in  the  plains  be- 
tween the  marshes,  the  ox,  buffalo,  and  bison,  wander  among  pastures 
where  the  herbage  rises  to  the  height  of  their  horns.  The  horse  and  the 
sheep  exist  in  a  wild  state.  The  northern  portion  presents  a  hilly  country, 
beautifully  undulated,  covered  with  noble  forests,  and  extremely  fertile. 
Wheat,  barley,  and  millet,  are  the  only  species  of  grain  that  are  raised. 

11 


162  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP  RUSSIA. 

yielding  from  sixty  to  a  hundred  fold.     Hemp,  flax,  and  tobacco,  are  also 
produced  in  considerable  quantities. . 

The  climate  is  in  general  mild,  salubrious,  and  agreeable ;  the  grape, 
the  liner  kinds  of  fruit,  and  melons,  growing  in  the  open  air.  The  chief 
mineral  product  is  salt,  obtained  from  lakes  in  the  Budjak.  Saltpetre, 
coal,  alabaster,  marble,  and  lime,  are  also  found.  Ismail,  Akermann,  Ben- 
der, Kichinev  (the  capital),  Biltsy,  and  Choczim,  are  its  chief  towns. 

In  the  Budjak  territory  are  met  Russians,  Cossacks,  Germans,  Jews, 
Bulgarians,  Swiss  vine-dressers,  gipsies,  together  with  Greek  and  Arme- 
nian traders.  The  northern  part  of  the  province,  again,  is  almost  entirely 
inhabited  by  the  Moldavian  race,  the  line  of  their  villages  extending  along 
the  Dniester,  to  near  Akermann. 

Bessarabia  was  the  fairest  and  most  productive  portion  of  Moldavia  at 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  and  perhaps  has  more  capabilities, 
natural  and  commercial,  than  any  portion  of  the  Russian  empire  of  the 
same  extent.  Yet,  till  very  recent  years,  it  has  been  strangely  neglected, 
being  poorly  cultivated,  and  in  many  places  almost  deserted.  The  Russian 
government  has  established,  in  different  parts  of  the  territory,  colonies  of 
Bulgarians,  Germans,  Cossacks,  and  even  some  heretofore-wandering  gipsy 
tribes. 

The  people  of  Bessarabia  are  essentially  agricultural ;  few  of  them  take 
to  trades :  the  few  of  those  that  exist  in  the  country  are  entirely  of  the 
domestic  kind.  Of  what  is  understood  by  the  term  manufactures,  there 
are  none,  with  the  exception  of  tanneries,  distilleries,  and  tallow  and  soap 
works.  A  good  deal  of  inferior  wine  is  made.  The  breeding  of  cattle  is 
an  important  occupation  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  Moldavian  peasants  are  generally  frank,  cheerful,  and  hospitable ; 
but  are  said  by  the  Russians  to  be  indolent.  Hommaire  de  Hell,  however, 
asserts  that  in  the  Moldavian  villages  the  houses  are  usually  kept  in  the 
neatest  order,  and  generally  surrounded  with  gardens  and  fruitful  orchards. 
The  education  of  the  people  is  at  the  lowest  ebb. 

Bessarabia  once  formed  the  eastern  district  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Dacia.  After  various  vicissitudes  consequent  upon  the  fall  of  that  empire, 
it  was  invaded  by  the  Asiatic  Turks,  and  became  a  portion  of  European 
Turkey.  It  was  ceded  to  the  Russians  by  the  treaty  of  Bucharest  in  1812. 
At  first,  the  Bessarabians  were  allowed  to  retain  their  peculiar  laws  and 
privileges  undisturbed ;  but  misunderstandings  soon  arose,  and  since  1829 
the  administrative  institutions  of  the  country  have  been  assimilated  to  those 
of  the  rest  of  the  empire. 

Kichinev,  or  Kishenmi,  the  capital  of  Bessarabia,  is  situated  on  the 
Biok,  a  tributary  of  the  Dniester.     Formerly  only  a  small,  miserable  town, 
it  is  now  adorned  with  numerous  handsome  buildings,  both  public  and  pri 
vate.     It  has  fourteen  churches,  a  gymnasium,  and  ten  other  schools ;  a 
library,  and  numerous  manufactures  of  woollen  cloth,  <fec.     It  has  a  popu 
lation  of  forty-five  thousand. 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  —  KHERSON.  1G3 

Ismail  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  arm  of  the  Danube  called  Kilia, 
forty-three  miles  above  the  Black  sea,  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  south- 
west of  Odessa.  It  is  strongly  fortified,  and  being  near  the  Turkish  fron- 
tier, forms  an  important  military  station.  It  contains  a  magnificent  palace, 
a  Greek  and  an  Armenian  church,  and  a  cloister.  Its  harbor  is  good,  but 
its  commerce  is  not  as  great  as  formerly ;  the  chief  exports  are  grain,  hides, 
tallow,  (fee.  The  customhouse  and  quarantine  are  of  the  first  class.  Ow- 
ing to  the  shallowness  of  the  water  over  the  bar  of  the  Kilian  mouth,  ves- 
sels bound  for  Ismail  generally  enter  the  Danube  by  the  Sulineh  or  middle 
mouth  of  the  river. 

This  town  was  long  in  possession  of  the  Turks.  In  1790,  a  large  Russian 
army,  under  Suwarrow,  laid  siege  to  it,  but  were  repulsed  by  the  garrison 
in  eight  successive  assaults  on  the  fortress.  The  Turks  shouted  and  jeered, 
but  Suwarrow  determined  to  renew  the  attack.  Among  the  eccentricities 
of  this  famous  general,  was  his  habit  of  walking  out  alone  in  his  camp  long 
before  daybreak,  and  saluting  the  first  sentinel  on  duty  whom  he  met  with 
a  loud  crow  like  a  cock !  On  the  night  of  the  first  of  December,  knowing 
that  the  Turks  were  keeping  a  religious  festival,  Suwarrow  issued  the  fol- 
lowing laconic  proclamation  to  his  troops :  "  To-morrow  morning  I  shall 
rise  at  four  o'clock,  wash  myself,  say  my  prayers,  give  one  loud  crow,  and 
take  Ismail!"  He  kept  his  word:  his  troops  rushed  forward  to  the  ninth 
assault ;  and  although  the  Turks  manfully  defended  the  walls,  the  Russians 
finally  scaled  them,  carried  the  fortress  by  storm,  and  put  most  of  the  gar- 
rison to  the  sword.  The  whole  town  was  then  given  up  to  rapine  and 
pillage,  and  made  a  heap  of  ruins.  From  this  wanton  destruction  it  has 
never  fully  recovered,  but  it  is  improving.  Its  present  population  is  about 
twenty-two  thousand. 

* 

The  maritime  government  of  Kherson,  or  Cherson,  lies  between  the 
forty-sixth  and  forty-ninth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  tlie  twenty-ninth 
and  thirty-fourth  degrees  of  east  longitude ;  and  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  governments  of  Poltava  and  Kiev,  on  the  northwest  by  Podolia,  on 
the  west  by  Bessarabia,  on  the  south  by  Taurida  and  the  Black  sea,  and 
on  the  east  by  Ekatherinoslav.  Its  greatest  lengtli  from  east  to  west  is 
two  hundred  and  forty  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from  north  to  south 
about  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles,  containing  an  area  of  thirty-six  thou- 
sand square  miles. 

With  the  exception  of  that  part  of  the  government  which  borders  on 
Podolia,  and  consists  of  the  last  ramifications  of  the  Carpathians,  and  a 
tract  of  hilly  land  on  the  banks  of  the  Dnieper,  the  whole  surface  is  one 
uninterrupted  steppe,  destitute  of  trees,  but  covered  with  long  grass.  The 
soil  consists  generally  of  a  mixture  of  loam  and  sand,  not  unfavorable  to 
vegetation.  The  fertility  increases  inward  from  the  sea,  but  ceases  on 
approaching  the  hills.  There  is  some  good  ground  on  both  sides  of  the 
Boug,  but  between  that  river  and  the  Dnieper,  and  along  the  shores  of  the 


164  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

Black  sea,  a  dry,  barren  sand  prevails.  In  many  parts  the  soil  is  strongly 
impregnated  with  saltpetre.  The  chief  rivers  of  the  government  are,  the 
Dnieper,  which  waters  both  its  northern  and  its  southern  frontiers ;  the 
Dniester,  which  separates  it  from  Bessarabia ;  and  the  Boug,  which  trav- 
erses it  a  little  to  the  west  of  its  centre.  It  chief  lakes  are  the  Beloin, 
Jaiskoie,  and  Sasyk. 

The  climate  is  diversified,  and  subject  to  great  fluctuations.  In  winter 
the  rivers  are  frozen  for  a  short  time,  and  in  summer  the  heat  rises  to  about 
ninety  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Even  this  heat  is  often  followed  by  cold  nights, 
and  by  keen  blasts  from  the  north,  which  injure  vegetation.  Still  both  the 
vine  and  the  mulberry  thrive.  Among  the  hills  of  the  north  good  timber 
grows,  and  is  extensively  used  by  the  navy  of  the  Black  sea. 

Agriculture  is  in  a  defective  state,  but  considerable  attention  is  paid  to 
gardening,  and  cherries,  melons,  and  all  kinds  of  vegetables,  are  plentifully 
raised.  Pasture  being  both  good  and  extensive,  the  rearing  of  cattle  may 
be  regarded  as  the  staple  employment.  The  easy  communication  by  the 
Black  sea  enables  Kherson  to  carry  on  a  good  transit  trade,  particularly 
by  its  port  of  Odessa ;  but  its  own  exports  are  only  wool,  tobacco,  tallow, 
butter,  cheese,  caviar,  and  cattle.  Its  principal  towns  are  Kherson  (the 
capital)  and  Odessa. 

The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  of  Russian  descent,  including  Cossacks,  but 
the  number  of  Germans  has  been  estimated  at  twenty-five  thousand ;  and 
there  is  a  considerable  mixture  of  other  races,  as  Moldavians,  Wallachians, 
Tartars,  Armenians,  Greeks,  Jews,  &c. 

Kherson,  the  capital  of  this  government,  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Dnieper,  about  fifteen  miles  above  its  estuary.  It  is  a  place  of  great  ex- 
tent, and  is  regularly  built ;  but  is  in  a  very  dilapidated  state,  and  has  lost 
almost  all  its  former  importance  in  consequence  of  the  rise  of  Odessa.  It 
is  divided  into  four  parts  —  the  citadel,  the  admiralty,  the  Greek,  and  the 
military  suburbs.  In  the  first  are  the  difl'erent  government  offices,  and  the 
residences  of  the  governor  and  other  officials,  the  courts  of  justice,  the 
cathedral,  the  arsenal,  and  barracks.  In  the  second  are  extensive  docks, 
building-yards,  and  storehouses,  which  have  almost  ceased  to  be  used. 
The  Greek  suburb  is  inhabited  principally  by  citizens,  and  contains  three 
churches  (a  Greek,  a  Roman  catholic,  and  a  Russian)  and  an  extensive 
market-place.  The  military  suburb  has  only  three  streets,  one  church,  and 
a  number  of  mean  houses,  occupied  chiefly  by  mechanics  and  sailors.  The 
port,  owing  to  neglect,  has  become  diSicult  of  access,  and  its  trade,  with 
the  exception  of  that  in  timber,  which  is  still  extensive,  is  chiefly  transit 
to  Odessa.  The  chief  public  works  are  the  establishments  for  the  wasliing 
and  cleaning  of  wool,  one  of  which  employs  six  hundred  hands.  The  pop- 
ulation is  about  thirty  thousand. 

Howard  the  philanthropist  died  of  fever  here,  on  the  20th  of  January, 
1790.  Over  his  grave,  about  three  miles  north  of  the  town,  is  an  obelisk, 
erected  by  the  emperor  Alexander. 


SOUTHERN   EUSSIA KHERSON. 


165 


Kherson  was  founded  in  1778,  by  Prince  Potemkin,  the  powerful  and 
wealthy  favorite  of  Catherine  II.  When  that  empress  made  her  famous 
tour  to  the  Crimea  in  1787,  accompanied  by  Potemkin  and  an  immense 
suite,  the  prince,  in  order  to  excite  still  further  her  already-inordinate  am- 
bition for  conquest,  caused  a  guide-post  to  be  erected  on  the  route,  with 
this  significant  inscription:  "  The  road  to  Constantinople  !^^  The  hint  was 
not  lost :  the  very  next  year  Catherine  once  more  engaged  in  war  with  the 
Turks,  in  which  the  Ottoman  empire  would  have  been  utterly  subverted 
but  for  a  combination  of  the  western  powers.  Prince  Potemkin  lies  buried 
in  the  vault  of  the  cathedral  in  Kherson.  The  emperor  Paul  ordered  his 
body  to  be  taken  up  and  deposited  "  in  the  first  hole  that  could  be  found," 
but  the  command  was  in  some  way  evaded. 

Odessa,  the  principal  mercantile  city  of  southern  Russia,  is  situated  on 
the  northern  shore  of  the  Black  sea,  ninety  miles  west-southwest  of  Kher- 
son, and  three  hundred  and 
ninety  miles  north  of  Con- 
stantinople. The  growth  of 
this  emporium  has  been  quite 
extraordinary — its  founda- 
tions having  been  laid,  by 
order  of  the  empress  Cathe- 
rine II.,  so  late  as  1792,  af- 
ter the  peace  of  Jassy,  with 
the  Turks.  It  was  intended 
to  serve  as  an  entrepot  for 
the  commerce  of  the  Russian 
dominions  on  the  Black  sea, 
and  has,  in  a  great  measure, 
answered  the  intention  of  its 
founders.  It  has  been  said, 
indeed,  that  a  better  locality 
might  have  been  chosen ;  and 
in  proof  of  this,  it  is  stated 
that  there  are  no  springs  nor 
fresh  water  within  three  miles  of  the  town ;  that  the  vicinity  is  compara- 
tively barren  and  without  wood  ;  and  that,  not  being  on  or  near  the  mouth 
of  any  great  navigable  river,  its  communications  with  the  interior  are  diffi- 
cult and  expensive.  That  these  considerations  have  great  weight  is  clear  ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  situation  has  the  advantage  of  being  central 
and  salubrious.  The  bay,  or  roadstead  (the  figures  on  which  in  the  above 
engraving  give  in  fathoms  the  depth  of  the  soundings)  is  generally  open 
and  easy  of  access,  is  extensive,  the  water  deep,  and  the  anchorage  good. 
The  port,  which  is  artificial,  being  formed  by  two  moles,  is  fitted  to  accom- 
modate three  hundred  ships,  and  has  a  lazaretto,  on  the  model  of  that  of 
Marseilles.     The  inconvenience  arising  from  the  want  of  water  has  been 


1.  Customhouse 

Admiralty 
3.   Lazz'iretto 


Map  of  Odessa. 


166  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

obviated  by  the  cutting  of  a  canal,  by  which  it  is  conveyed  to  the  town ; 
and,  on  the  whole,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  any  position  could  have 
been  chosen  so  well  suited  to  serve  as  an  entrepot.  Latterly,  the  vicinity 
has  also  been  signally  improved  by  the  formation  of  many  gardens,  and  by 
the  planting  of  extensive  vineyards. 

The  town  is  well  built  of  soft,  calcareous  stone ;  but  the  houses  beine-, 
for  the  most  part,  detached  from  eacli  other,  there  are  but  few  handsome 
streets.  But  a  more  serious  defect  is,  that  the  streets  are  generally  un- 
pavcd ;  and  after  rain  the  ground  is  so  deep  that,  according  to  Mr.  Eliott, 
"  it  is  not  uncommon  for  gentlemen  to  be  obliged  to  leave  their  carriages 
in  quagmires  in  tlie  middle  of  the  streets,  and  to  send  oxen  to  drag  them 
out !"  Some  years  since,  a  caricature  of  the  streets  was  published,  which 
represented  a  Fi*enchman,  just  arrived  from  Marseilles,  sticking  up  to  his 
knees  in  the  mud,  and  exclaiming,  "Je  me  fixe  iciV  and  under  this  was 
written,  "  How  to  establish  one's  self  at  Odessa  !"  In  dry  weather,  owing 
to  the  limestone  cliff  on  which  the  city  stands,  it  is  excessively  dusty.  But 
some  of  the  principal  streets  are  now  either  paved  or  macadamized,  and  in 
this  respect  the  city  has  been  materially  improved.  Toward  the  sea  the 
city  is  defended  by  some  batteries,  and  on  its  eastern  side  is  a  citadel, 
which  commands  the  town  and  port.  The  space  comprising  the  city  and 
a  small  surrounding  district,  to  which  the  franchise  of  the  port  extends,  is 
bounded  by  a  rampart. 

Though  it  can  not  be  called  a  manufacturing  town,  Odessa  has  some  fab- 
rics of  coarse  woollen  and  silk  goods  ;  and  has  extensive  tallow-refineries, 
breweries,  distilleries,  ropewalks,  <fec.  The  trade  includes,  among  other 
articles,  grain,  linseed,  wool,  iron,  hides,  copper,  wax,  caviar,  isinglass, 
potash,  furs,  cordage,  sailcloth,  tar,  beef,  butter,  and  tallow.  The  last  is 
the  second  great  staple  ;  but  tlie  first,  and  that  which  has  made  the  name 
of  Odessa  familiar  throughout  the  commercial  world,  is  grain,  the  larger 
part  of  which  is  shipped  to  Great  Britain. 

The  granaries  in  Odessa  are  worthy  of  notice  ;  they  are  remarkably  well 
built  with  the  stone  found  here.  That  of  Sabansky,  now  occupied  as  a 
schoolhouse,  situated  on  the  ravine  so  called,  is  of  immense  extent,  and 
has  an  imposing  appearance  from  the  streets  looking  toward  the  Lazaretto. 
The  public  slaughtering-houses  are  also  on  a  large  scale :  many  thousands 
of  cattle  are  there  annually  boiled  down  for  their  tallow  ;  it  is  a  singular 
but  not  a  very  agreeable  spectacle. 

Favored  as  Odessa  is  by  its  position  on  the  sea,  "  it  is  surrounded  on  the 
land  side,"  says  Murray,  "  by  a  dreary  steppe  of  so  intractable  a  soil,  that 
trees  and  shrubs,  with  the  exception  of  the  acacia,  rarely  attain  any  size, 
and  in  many  places  will  not  even  live.  The  narrow  strip  along  the  sea- 
shore above  mentioned  is  the  only  oasis  of  vegetation  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  city.  Artesian  borings  have  been  made  in  the  town  to  a  depth  of 
six  hundred  feet,  for  water,  but  hitherto  without  success.  Fuel  is  likewise 
very  dear." 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA  —  KHERSON. 


16i 


View  of  the  Citv  and  IIakbok  of  Odessa. 


Odessa  enjoys  an  etablissement  des  Bains,  situated  at  the  foot  of  the 
Boulevard,  which  is  much  frequented  during  the  summer  months,  espe- 
cially by  Poles,  who  come  here  to  sell  their  grain,  and  disburse  their  money 
in  pianofortes,  English  agricultural  implgmeuts,  <fcc.  German  mineral 
waters  are  sold  at  an  establishment  in  the  town  garden.  Another  institu- 
tion worthy  of  mention  is  the  Richelieu  lyceum,  a  commercial  college,  in 
which  the  sciences  and  ancient  and  modern  languages  are  taught  by  pro- 
fessors, chiefly  German,  There  is,  perhaps,  no  town  in  the  world  in  which 
so  many  different  tongues  may  be  heard  as  in  the  streets  and  coffeehouses 
of  Odessa,  the  motley  population  consisting  of  Russians,  Tartars,  Greeks, 
Jews,  Poles,  Italians,  Germans,  French,  &c.  At  the  Parlatoire  of  the 
Quarantine  they  may  be  heard  in  perfection.  This  is  the  place  where  the 
captains  of  vessels  and  the  brokers  and  merchants  of  the  town  meet  to 
settle  their  business ;  and  here  in  little  cells,  but  separated  from  one  an- 
other by  a  wire  grating,  so  that  no  contact  can  take  place,  parties  can 
discuss  their  affairs  without  being  overheard.  There  is  a  botanical  garden 
near  Odessa,  but  the  difficulties  of  soil,  drought,  and  frost,  are  highly  in- 
jurious to  the  growth  of  plants. 

The  Greek  and  other  bazars  merit  mention.  There  is  no  regular  mar- 
ket-place (  Gostimi  dvor^yHS  in  other  cities,  but  the  Privosdni  bazar  is  an 
excellent  spot  for  observing  local  and  national  peculiarities,  especially  of 
the  Moldavians,  Jews,  and  gipsies.  The  latter  are,  for  the  most  part, 
smiths  ;  they  live  in  tents,  eat  hedgehogs,  and  hocuss  as  in  other  countries. 
The  women  braid  their  hair  into  twenty  tails,  like  the  Tartars,  smoke  all 
day  long,  and,  notwithstanding  their  wild  and  savage  appearance,  are  not 
destitute  of  beauty ;  they  have  fine  black  eyes  and  well-  proportioned  figures. 


168  ILLUSTRATED  DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

There  are,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Odessa,  as  previously  remarked,  large 
vineyards.  In  that  of  Count  Woronzoff  are  from  sixty  to  eighty  thousand 
vines ;  the  wine  made  from  these  grapes,  however,  is  not  so  good  as  that 
of  the  Crimea,  Vast  numbers  of  melons  are  also  raised  in  the  gardens  in 
the  environs  of  the  city  ;  some  of  them  are  of  the  most  delicious  flavor,  and 
so  cheap  that  half  the  population  live  upon  them  and  black  bread  during 
the  summer :  the  universal  favorite  is  the  watermelon,  which,  if  placed  in 
ice  for  a  short  time  before  dinner,  is  in  this  season  a  most  grateful  fruit. 
The  stone-fruit  is  very  poor. 

Admiral  Ribas  was  the  first  person  who  made  any  improvements  in 
Odessa,  but  he  was  thwarted  in  his  plans.  In  the  year  1803,  his  measures 
were  renewed  ;  the  population,  however,  as  in  all  commercial  towns  of  sud- 
den growth,  was  not  formed  of  the  best  materials,  being  composed  mainly 
of  adventurers  from  all  parts  of  the  Levant,  runaway  serfs,  and  other 
itinerant  persons. 

When  the  emperor  Paul  ascended  the  throne,  in  1796,  he  gave  the  town 
considerable  privileges  ;  but  its  prosperity  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  duke  de 
Richelieu,  a  French  immigrant,  Avho  was  subsequently  appointed  governor, 
and  who,  by  his  judicious  administration,  brought  the  commerce  of  the 
town  into  a  very  flourishing  state.  The  principal  streets  were  laid  out  by 
him,  and  his  amiable  and  charitable  disposition  was  such,  that  his  departure 
was  sincerely  regretted  by  all  classes.  With  every  opportunity  of  enrich- 
ing himself,  he  is  said  to  have  left  Odessa  with  a  small  portmanteau  con- 
taining his  uniform  and  two  shirts,  the  greater  part  of  his  income  liaving 
been  disbursed  in  relieving  the  distresses  of  a  portion  of  the  population, 
who  were  always  arriving  in  the  greatest  state  of  destitution. 

By  an  imperial  ukase,  in  1817,  Odessa  was  declared  a  free  port  for  a 
period  of  thirty  years.  In  1822,  however,  a  rumor  having  spread  that  the 
freedom  was  about  to  be  abolished,  the  foreign  merchants  were  on  the  point 
of  quitting  the  town,  when  the  order  was  rescinded,  and  Count  Langeron, 
the  governor,  who  had  advocated  this  measure,  dismissed.  The  port  has 
remained  free  up  to  the  time  of  the  existing  war  (1854),  and,  through  the 
exertions  of  Count  Woronzoff,  has  become  the  most  flourishing  one  in  the 
Black  sea.  His  house,  a  princely  mansion,  is  on  the  cliff  at  the  end  of  the 
Boulevard,  and,  when  resident  here,  he  is  particularly  attentive  to  foreign- 
ers passing  through. 

The  exchange  is  situated  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  Boulevard ;  the 
interior  is  handsome :  balls  are  held  in  the  principal  room  during  the  win- 
ter season,  and  are  very  numerously  attended.  The  theatre  is  in  the  large 
square,  near  the  Hotel  de  Richelieu.  Italian  operas  and  French  plays  are 
performed  here  throughout  the  year.  There  is  likewise  a  Russian  theatre, 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  Slavonic  inhabitants. 

The  principal  promenade  is  on  the  Boulevard,  which  on  Saturday  even- 
ings is,  by  a  sort  of  common  consent,  left  to  the  Jews,  who  reside  here  in 
great  numbers.     There  is  in  the  centre  of  this  walk  a  bronze  statue  of  tlic 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA  —  KHERSON.  171 

duke  de  Richelieu ;  he  is  looking  toward  the  sea,  and  facing  a  monster 
staircase,  which  has  been  built  on  arches,  and  reaches  from  the  Boulevard 
to  the  shore :  this  has  cost  an  enormous  sum  of  money,  and  its  strength  as 
well  as  use  is  so  problematical,  that  an  Odessa  wag  observed  that  Richelieu 
"  would,  in  all  probability,  be  the  first  person  to  descend  it !" 

The  museum  and  library  are  in  the  same  house  with  the  bureau  of  the 
military  governor,  situated  opposite  the  Hotel  de  Peiersbourg-,  and  in  the 
very  centre  of  the  Boulevard.  The  library  is  small,  but  well  cliosen  ;  the 
museum  contains  many  objects  of  antiquity  from  the  site  of  ancient  Greek 
colonies  in  this  part  of  the  world,  particularly  from  those  of  Olbia,  Cherso- 
nesus,  Kertch,  Sisopolis,  &c.  Some  of  the  vases  and  medals  are  worthy 
of  observation,  and  a  gold  one  of  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  is  in 
remarkable  preservation.  And  last,  though  not  least  in  interest,  is  a  jap- 
anned tiat  candlestick,  once  the  property  of  the  philanthropic  Howard :  it 
is  preserved  with  great  care.  The  sight  of  this  relic  will  call  up  a  host  of 
feelings  connected  with  the  remembrance  of  his  fate,  and  emotions  of  ad- 
miration and  respect  for  his  unwearied  exertions  in  the  cause  of  humanity. 
Howard's  last  words  to  his  friend  Priestman  are  characteristic :  "  Let  no 
monument  or  monumental  inscription  whatsoever  mark  the  spot  where  I 
am  buried ;  lay  me  quietly  in  the  earth,  place  a  sun-dial  over  my  grave, 
and  let  me  be  forgotten."  A  plain  brick  obelisk,  before  alluded  to,  erected 
by  the  emperor  Alexander,  marks  the  spot  where  the  dust  of  the  pliilan- 
thropist  reposes ;  but,  beyond  this,  his  dying  wish  has  been  regarded,  sav- 
ing, of  course,  its  concluding  clause :  lie  will  not  soon  be  forgotten. 

The  prosperity  of  Odessa  sustained  a  severe  check  in  the  war  of  1854, 
during  which  its  trade  was  cut  off;  and  it  was  bombarded  by  the  Anglo- 
French  fleet,  under  Admiral  Dundas,  who  destroyed  a  great  part  of  the 
fortifications,  and  sunk  many  Russian  ships-of-war  in  the  harbor.  The 
population  is  probably  about  seventy-five  thousand. 

The  town  of  Nikolaiev  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ingul  and 
Boug,  thirty-six  miles  northwest  of  Kherson.  It  is  fortified,  encloses  a 
large  space,  and  is  remarkably  well  built,  with  wide  streets  and  a  well- 
planted  boulevard.  The  houses  are  generally  whitewashed  or  yellow- 
washed,  which  gives  them  a  very  cheerful  aspect,  and  they  are  surrounded 
by  large  gardens.  It  has  a  cathedral,  richly  decorated  internally  ;  town- 
house,  with  two  fine  colonnades  ;  and  the  admiralty,  a  very  complete  estab- 
lishment, in  the  form  of  a  square ;  extensive  dockyards,  provided  with  ma- 
chinery, which  is  almost  all  British ;  and  a  harbor  with  deep  water.  In 
the  yards  of  this  town,  vessels  of  the  largest  size  are  built,  and  there  is  an 
excellent  hydrographical  school,  in  which  naval  cadets  are  trained.  The 
barracks  for  tlie  seamen  are  extensive,  and  there  is  an  observatory  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  town,  the  view  from  which  is  very  fine.  The  governor's 
house  was  built  by  Prince  Potemkin. 

Nikolaiev  was  founded  in  1791,  and  made  the  seat  of  an  admiralty,  and 
the  principal  station  of  the  Russian  navy  in  the  Black  sea.     The  progress 


172  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

it  made  at  first  was  very  rapid ;  but  it  soon  became  stationary,  and,  but 
for  the  support  which  it  receives  from  the  government,  would  soon  decline. 
The  chief  causes  of  this  are,  the  neighborhood  of  Kherson,  the  formidable 
competition  of  Odessa,  the  want  of  good  water,  and  scarcity  of  fuel.  The 
population  is  about  thirty  thousand. 

The  government  of  Taurida  is  situated  between  the  forty-fourth  and 
forty-eighth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  thirty-second  and  thirty- 
seventh  degrees  of  east  longitude.  It  consists  partly  of  the  Crimea,  or 
Crim  Tartary,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  and  partly  of  a  tract  on  the  mount- 
ains lying  between  the  Dnieper,  the  Black  sea,  the  sea  of  Azov,  and  the 
government  of  Ekatherinoslav.  Its  area  (including  the  Crimea)  is  about 
thirty  thousand  square  miles. 

The  mainland  part  of  the  government,  which,  though  the  least  interest- 
ing, is  the  most  extensive,  consists  almost  entirely  of  vast,  and  in  many 
parts  sterile  plains,  denominated  the  Steppe  of  the  Nog-ais,  from  the  Tartar 
tribes,  by  which  it  is  principally  occupied.  "  These,"  says  Dr.  Clarke, 
"  are  a  very  different  people  from  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea  ;  they  are  dis- 
tinguished by  a  more  diminutive  form,  and  by  the  dark,  copper  color  of 
their  complexions,  which  is  sometimes  almost  black.  They  bear  a  remark- 
able resemblance  to  the  Laplanders,  although  their  dress  and  manner  have 
a  more  savage  character."  About  twenty  thousand  Germans  are  colonized 
to  the  eastward  of  the  river  Molotchna. 

The  peninsula  of  the  Crimea  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  portions  of 
the  Russian  empire ;  and  a  sketch  of  it,  adequate  to  its  importance,  could 
not  be  given  here,  without  extending  the  chapter  to  too  great  a  lengtli. 
A  description  of  it  is  therefore  reserved  for  another  chapter. 

The  government  of  Ekatherinoslav,  or  Iekaterinoslav,  as  its  name  is 
sometimes  spelled,  is  situated  between  the  forty-seventh  and  fiftieth  degrees 
of  north  latitude,  and  the  thirty-third  and  fortieth  degrees  of  east  longi- 
tude. It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  governments  of  Poltava,  Kharkov, 
and  Voronej  ;  on  the  east  by  the  Don  Cossacks  ;  on  the  south  by  Taurida ; 
and  on  the  west  by  Kherson,  with  a  separate  portion  in  Don  Cossacks,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Don.  Its  territory  comprises  an  area  of  about  thirty-five 
thousand  square  miles. 

The  government  is  divided  into  two  sections  by  the  Dnieper,  which  in- 
tersects it  in  a  semicircular  course,  from  north  to  south,  abuut  three  fourths 
lying  east  and  one  fourth  west  of  that  river.  The  eastern  portion  belongs 
to  the  steppe  country  of  southern  Russia,  being  flat,  monotonous,  without 
trees,  often  without  water,  and  with  a  lean,  saliferous  soil.  The  western 
portion  is  more  undulating,  and  more  fruitful.  The  Donetz  forms  a  part 
of  the  northeastern  boundary,  and  there  are  sundry  smaller  streams,  chiefly 
affluents  of  the  Dnieper,  and  lakes  and  morasses  are  numerous. 

The  minerals  are  granite,  lime,  chalk,  salt,  and  garnets.     The  climate 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  —  EKATHERINOSLAV  —  DON   COSSACKS.  173 

is  moderate  and  healthy :  the  winter  is  short,  and  the  rivers  are  not  very 
firmly  frozen  ;  the  summer  is  very  warm,  and  often  without  rain.  Wheat, 
spelt,  barley,  and  oats,  are  raised  in  quantity  sufficient  for  local  consump- 
tion ;  and  hemp,  flax,  poppies,  peas,  vegetables,  and  fruits,  are  also  culti- 
vated. Grapes  and  mulberries  frequently  suffer  from  frost ;  but  melons, 
cherries,  &c.,  succeed  well.  But  the  chief  wealth  of  the  government  con- 
sists in  its  innumerable  herds  of  horses,  oxen,  sheep  (many  of  them  meri- 
nos), goats,  and  swine.  Bees  yield  a  large  return  ;  and  the  silk-culture  is 
carried  on  by  the  Greeks  at  Marioupol,  and  the  Armenians  at  Nakichevan. 

In  the  steppes,  wolves,  foxes,  hares,  wild-cats,  bustards,  pelicans,  par- 
tridges, quails,  ducks,  snipes,  c%c.,  are  found ;  and  in  the  rivers  fish  are  very 
plentiful.  Wood  is  wholly  wanting  in  the  east,  and  quite  insufficient  in 
quantity  in  the  west ;  fuel  consequently  is  scarce,  and  the  poorer  classes 
are  fain  to  burn  dung,  litter,  and  heather.  The  houses  are  of  clay,  thatched 
with  rushes. 

Of  manufacturing  industry  there  is  little ;  still  some  cloth,  leather,  can- 
dles, and  beer,  are  made,  and  tallow-smelting  carried  on ;  and  there  are 
over  two  hundred  distilleries.  The  exports  are  chiefly  fish,  tallow,  and 
other  animal  substances.  The  population  consists  principally  of  Russians 
and  Cossacks ;  but  there  are  several  other  races,  among  whom  may  be 
mentioned  ten  thousand  German  colonists.  Education  is  in  a  very  low 
condition.     The  government  is  divided  into  seven  districts. 

Ekatherinoslav,  the  capital  of  this  government,  is  located  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Dnieper,  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  northeast  of  Odessa. 
The  streets  are  long,  broad,  badly  filled  up  with  houses,  and  very  dirty. 
It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  whose  jurisdiction  extends  over  the  neigh- 
boring governments  of  Taurida  and  Kherson ;  and  has  three  churches,  a 
theological  seminary,  a  gymnasium,  ten  public  schools,  government-offices, 
law-courts,  barracks,  several  bazars,  a  public  park,  and  botanic  garden. 
In  the  vicinity  is  a  large  palace,  in  a  ruinous  condition,  with  extensive 
pleasure-grounds  attached ;  once  the  residence  of  Prince  Potemkin,  who 
here  entertained  Catherine  II.  in  1784,  at  which  date  the  city  was  founded, 
the  empress  laying  the  first  stone,  in  presence  of  the  emperor  Joseph  11. 
of  Austria,  It  has  some  cloth-manufactures,  and  an  important  annual 
wool-fair.  In  its  district  are  one  Roman  catholic  and  sixteen  Memnonite 
colonies :  the  latter  came,  in  the  end  of  the  last  century,  from  the  vicinity 
of  Dantzic  and  Elbing,  in  Prussia.  Its  population  is  about  twelve  thou- 
sand. Among  the  other  important  towns  may  be  mentioned  Paulograd  and 
Novomoskovsk. 

The  government  of  the  Don  Cossacks  lies  between  the  forty-seventh  and 
fifty-second  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  thirty-seventh  and  forty-fifth 
degrees  of  east  longitude.  It  is  bounded  north  by  the  governments  of  Sar- 
atov and  Yoronej,  west  by  Voronej  and  Ekatherinoslav,  south  by  the  sea 
of  Azov  and  the  Caucasus,  and  east  by  Saratov  and  Astrakhan.     Its  greatest 


174  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

length  from  north  to  south  is  three  hundred  and  thirty  miles,  its  breadth 
from  east  to  west  varying  from  one  hundred  and  thirty  to  two  hundred  and 
seventy-jBve  miles.  It  comprises  an  area  of  about  fifty-three  thousand 
square  miles. 

This  government  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  one  of  those  extensive 
flats  called  steppes ;  but  there  is  some  hilly  land,  particularly  toward  the 
north,  which  may  be  regarded  as  forming  one  of  the  last  ramifications  of 
the  Caucasian  chain.  The  soil  is  in  general  so  very  sandy  as  to  be  scarcely 
fit  for  cultivation.  Toward  the  north  there  is  some  tolerably  arable  land, 
and  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers  even  a  rich  alluvium  is  found ;  but  the 
south,  where  not  absolutely  waste,  affords,  at  the  best,  an  inferior  pasture. 
The  whole  surface  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Don,  which  forms  a  kind  of 
semicircle  around  its  centre,  and,  toward  the  eastern  part  of  the  govern- 
ment, approaches  the  Volga  so  near  as  to  be,  at  one  point,  not  more  than 
forty  miles  distant  from  it.* 

The  Don,  besides  watering  the  province  centrally,  receives  several  im- 
portant tributaries  within  it,  and,  after  the  confluence  of  the  Manytch,  has 
a  breadth  of  about  one  thousand  yards.  The  climate  is,  on  the  whole, 
mild  and  agreeable ;  but  in  winter  both  intense  cold  and  violent  storms 
occasionally  prevail. 

The  chief  employment  of  the  inhabitants  is  the  rearing  of  cattle ;  but, 
where  the  soil  is  suitable,  all  the  ordinary  cereals  and  legumes  are  culti- 
vated, and  yield  good  crops.  Hemp  and  flax  are  also  grown,  and  good 
wine  is  produced — part  of  it  scarcely  inferior  to  the  light  French  wines, 
and  part  resembling  Burgundy.  From  several  lakes  in  the  south  large 
quantities  of  salt  are  obtained.  Fish,  including  sturgeon,  salmon,  and 
carp,  abound,  and  form  a  principal  article  of  food.  The  caviar  of  this 
government  is  in  great  request,  and  forms  a  considerable  export. 

The  people  from  whom  this  government  derives  its  name  arc  not  confined 
to  it,  but  form  the  principal  part  of  the  population  of  several  extensive  dis- 
tricts in  Russia,  where,  according  to  the  localities  which  they  occupy,  they 
receive  different  designations,  and  are  called  Don  Cossacks,  Cossacks  of 
the  Black  sea,  Konban,  Vofg-a,  Ural,  Siberian  Cossacks,  &c. 

The  origin  of  the  Cossacks  is  involved  in  considerable  obscurity.  Their 
very  name  has  been  the  subject  of  keen  dispute,  but  the  prevailing  belief 
now  is  that  it  is  of  Tartar  derivation.  In  general,  it  may  designate  any 
light-armed  trooper ;  but  it  is  often  used  in  a  mere  vituperative  sense,  and 
applied  to  any  member  of  a  vagrant  horde  which  roams  or  makes  incursions 
into  a  district,  and  lives  on  the  plunder  of  its  inhabitants. 

Though  the  Cossacks  possess  several  characteristics  by  which  they  are 
easily  distinguished,  they  do  not  appear  to  have  sprung  from  one  original 
stock.     There  is  evidently  a  mixture  of  blood  among  them.     They  bear  a 

*  See  notice  of  attempts  to  unite  these  rivers  by  means  of  a  canal  between  two  of  their  tribnta- 
nos,  on  page  29  ;  also  remarks  of  Oliphant  on  the  practicability  and  advantages  of  directly  uniting 
the  main  trunks  of  the  rivers  at  this  point,  on  page  33  :  marginal  noteB. 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA  —  DON  COSSACKS.  175 

close  resemblance  to  the  Russians,  but  are  of  a  more  slender  make,  and 
have  features  which  are  decidedly  more  handsome  and  expressive.  They 
have  a  quick,  keen  eye,  and  an  car  which  is  ever  on  the  alert ;  and  are 
active,  spirited,  and  brave.  Their  intellect  is  good,  and  they  often  exhibit 
a  remarkable  degree  of  acuteness.  Education,  accordingly,  has  made  some 
progress  among  thera ;  and  their  old  capital,  Tcherkask  (or  Staro-Tcher- 
kask),  contains  a  gymnasium,  in  which  the  proficiency  of  the  Cossack 
pupils  would  not  suffer  by  comparison  with  that  of  any  other  town  of  the 
Russian  empire.  Their  language  is  a  mixture  of  Russian,  Polish,  and 
Turkish ;  their  religion  that  of  tlie  Greek  church,  to  which  they  are  very 
strongly  attached,  and  the  superstitious  practices  of  which  they  are  par- 
ticularly careful  in  observing.  In  many  of  their  domestic  habits  they  con- 
trast favorably  with  the  Russians.  They  are  much  more  cleanly,  and  pay 
a  greater  regard  to  personal  appearance.  Like  them,  they  often  drink  to 
excess,  but  seem  more  alive  to  the  degradation  which  results  from  it ;  and, 
accordingly,  when  they  do  indulge  in  bacchanalian  orgies,  have  generally 
the  sense  to  keep  them  private. 

"  Don  Cossacks,"  remarks  Oliphant,  "  are  the  most  compound  beings  in 
the  universe.  According  to  Clarke,  they  are  a  mixture  of  Circassians,  Malo- 
Russians,  Russians,  Tartars,  Poles,  Greeks,  Turks,  Calmucks,  and  Arme- 
nians !  Others  contend  that  they  are  almost  of  a  purely  Slavonic  origin  ; 
and  this  seems  to  me  the  probable  conjecture,  as  I  could  trace  nothing 
whatever  in  their  physiognomy  to  warrant  the  supposition  of  a  Mongolian 
descent.  They  are,  moreover,  bigoted  adherents  of  the  Greek  church,  and 
have  been  Christians  from  the  date  of  the  first  records  we  have  of  their 
existence.  But  if  ethnologists  have  been  at  variance  in  accounting  for 
their  origin,  etymologists  have  been  no  less  at  a  loss  in  deciding  on  the 
derivation  of  their  name,  and  have  ended  by  leaving  it  an  open  question 
whether  Cossacks  are  so  called  from  the  resemblance  of  that  word  to  those 
in  other  languages,  which  signify,  respectively,  '  an  armed  man,'  '  a  sabre,' 
'  a  rover,'  '  a  goat,'  '  a  promontory,'  '  a  coat,'  '  a  cassock,'  and  a  district  in 
Circassia." 

The  martial  tendencies  of  the  Cossacks  are  very  decided,  and  have  from 
time  immemorial  formed  their  distinoruishino;  feature.  Tlie  whole  structure 
of  society  among  them  is  military.  Originally,  their  government  formed  a 
kind  of  democracy,  at  the  head  of  which  was  a  chief,  or  hetmiin,  of  their 
own  choice ;  while,  under  him,  was  a  long  series  of  officers,  with  jurisdic- 
tions of  greater  or  less  extent,  partly  civil  and  partly  military  —  all  so 
arranged  as  to  be  able,  on  any  emergency,  to  furnish  the  largest  military 
array  on  the  shortest  notice.  Tlie  democratical  part  of  the  constitution 
has  gradually  disappeared  under  Russian  domination.  The  title  of  chief 
hetmdn  is  now  vested  in  the  heir-apparent  to  the  imperial  throne,  and  all 
the  subordinate  hetmans  and  other  officers  are  appointed  by  the  crown. 
Care,  however,  has  been  taken  not  to  interfere  with  any  arrangements 
which  fostered  the  military  spirit  of  the  Cossacks ;  and  hence  all  the  sub- 


176 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 


(./^o^^AT-r.  j"ff- 


Cossacks  of  the  Don. 


divisions  of  the  population  into  polks  and  minor  sections,  with  military 
heads,  and  of  the  villages  into  stanitza,  still  remain. 

Throughout  the  empire,  wherever  particular  alacrity,  vigilance,  and  ra- 
pidity of  movement,  are  required,  the  qualities  by  which  the  Cossack  is 
distinguished  mark  him  out  for  employment.  His  proper  sphere,  undoubt- 
edly, is  to  act  as  a  "  light-armed  trooper,"  and  to  be,  as  the  celebrated 
Suwarrow  emphatically  expressed  it,  "the  eye"  of  the  army,  protecting 
its  rear  in  retreat,  or  pushing  forward  in  advance,  and  making  it  almost 
impossible  for  a  flying  enemy  to  escape.  How  admirably  the  Cossacks  are 
adapted  to  these  purposes,  was  made  known  to  all  Europe  during  the  dis- 
astrous retreat  of  the  French  from  Moscow. 

The  Russian  government,  however,  has  found  other  fields  for  the  exer- 
tions of  these  fierce  warriors.  When  a  frontier  is  to  be  guarded,  the  quali- 
ties required  very  much  resemble  those  which  make  the  Cossack  so  valuable 
to  an  army  in  the  field ;  and,  accordingly,  colonies  of  Cossacks  have  been 
planted  on  all  the  borders  of  southern  Russia,  along  the  Kouban  and  the 
Terek,  and  form  a  most  efi'ective  barrier  against  sudden  incursions  by  half- 
civilized  tribes. 

In  the  Caucasus,  however,  the  Russians  have  met  with  a  foe  of  a  differ- 
ent stamp ;  and,  instead  of  having  merely  to  repel  sudden  incursions,  are 
obliged  to  fight  for  every  inch  of  ground  on  which  they  plant  their  feet. 
In  this  way  they  have  been  constrained  to  fix  upon  a  series  of  strong  posi- 
tions, on  which  they  have  constructed  a  kind  of  forts,  called  kreposts.  The 
nature  of  these,  the  sudden  attacks  to  which  they  are  exposed,  and  the 
mode  of  giving  the  alarm,  so  as  to  call  in  the  aid  of  neighboring  posts,  are 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA  —  DON   COSSACKS.  •  177 


Kkepost,  or  Cossack  Post,  on  the  Circassian  Frontier. 

well  exhibited  in  the  accompanying  graphic  and  very  faithful  illustration. 
In  this  service,  Cossacks  chiefly  are  employed ;  and,  though  that  remark- 
able quickness  of  ear,  by  which  they  can  catch  the  slightest  sounds,  at 
almost  incredible  distances,  may  fit  them  well  for  it,  it  certainly  must  be 
a  service  altogether  uncongenial  to  their  nature  and  habits.  The  Cossack 
is  almost  constantly  on  horseback,  and  is  in  his  element  when  scouring  the 
open  fields.  Here  he  is  cooped  up  within  a  narrow  space,  and  dare  not 
venture  a  hundred  yards  beyond  it,  without  exposing  himself  to  the  deadly 
aim  of  a  Circassian.  So  monotonous  is  this  mode  of  life  —  so  different 
from  that  which  he  had  been  accustomed  to  lead — that  the  Cossack  often 
abandons  himself  to  despair,  and  disappoints  the  Circassian,  by  becoming 
his  own  murderer. 

Novo  Tcherkask,  or  New  Cherkask,  the  capital  of  the  country  of  the 
Don  Cossacks,  is  situated  forty  miles  northeast  of  Azov,  on  an  eminence, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Aksai.  It  was  founded  by  tlie  hetman,  Platoff,  in 
1806,  the  inundations  to  which  Tcherkask,  the  former  capital,  was  exposed, 
having  rendered  it  necessary  to  remove  the  seat  of  government  to  a  more 
elevated  position.  "  In  his  anxiety  to  avoid  the  floods  of  the  Don,"  says 
Oliphant,  "  the  hetman  has  fallen  into  the  opposite  extreme,  and  perched, 
the  new  capital  on  a  most  unfavorable  site.  Eight  miles  distant  from  the 
river,  it  is  unable  to  benefit  by  the  increasing  traffic  which  passes  along  its 
stream,  and  the  approaches  are  steep  and  inaccessible  in  almost  every 
.direction.  The  only  advantage  which  is  afforded  by  its  lofty  situation  is 
an  extensive  view  to  the  southward,  and  in  clear  weather  the  snowy  peaks 

12 


178  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

of  the  Caucasus  are  said  to  be  distinctly  visible.  The  population  amounts 
to  about  ten  thousand.  The  streets  are  broad,  but  the  houses  mean  ;  and 
it  is  remarkable  that  the  practice  of  raising  them,  as  it  were,  upon  stilts, 
like  cornstalks  in  a  farmer's  '  hag^ard^  which  was  no  doubt  necessary  in 
the  old  inundated  town,  has  been  continued  by  the  working-classes  in  the 
new :  altogether  it  is  a  straggling,  ill-laid-out  place,  in  no  degree  calcu- 
lated to  realize  the  expectation  raised  by  its  approach  through  an  ostenta- 
tious archway."  Among  the  public  buildings  and  institutions  are  the 
cathedral,  a  large  hospital,  an  arsenal,  and  a  gymnasium,  where  the  Latin, 
French,  and  German  languages,  with  history,  geography,  mathematics,  &c., 
are  taught. 

Tcherkask,  the  former  capital  of  this  government,  is  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Don,  on  an  island  formed  by  that  river,  the  Aksai,  and 
one  of  its  branches,  called  the  Vasilievka.  It  is  thirty-seven  miles  east- 
northeast  of  Azov,  and  eleven  south  of  Novo  Tcherkask.  The  streets  are 
narrow  and  crooked ;  and  the  houses,  which  are  of  wood,  are  for  the  most 
part  built  on  piles,  and  raised  five  or  six  feet  above  the  ground,  on  account 
of  the  inundations  above  referred  to,  to  which  the  town  is  subject,  from  the 
beginning  of  April  till  the  end  of  June.  It  has  several  public  buildings, 
some  of  them  constructed  of  wood,  including  seven  churches,  an  academy, 
several  schools,  a  prison,  and  a  town-hall.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  considerable 
commerce  ;  and  fishing  is  carried  on  to  some  extent. 

The  foundation  of  this  town  is  attributed  to  a  colony  of  Greeks.  Under 
the  Russians  it  became  the  chief  place  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  and  such  it 
continued  till  the  seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Novo  Tcherkask. 
Its  population  is  about  fifteen  thousand. 

Taganrog  is  a  fortified  seaport  town  situated  on  the  north  shore  of  the 
northeast  angle  of  the  sea  of  Azov,  denominated  the  gulf  of  the  Don,  about 
ten  miles  from  the  mouth  of  that  river.  The  foundations  of  Taganrog 
were  laid  by  Peter  the  Great,  in  1698 ;  but  it  afterward  fell  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  Turks :  and  it  was  not  till  the  reign  of  Catherine  II.  that  it 
became  of  any  considerable  importance.  It  has  ten  churches,  of  which 
three  are  built  of  stone  ;  a  gymnasium,  a  poor's  hospital,  &c.  It  was  in- 
tended by  its  illustrious  founder  to  replace  xizov,  the  ancient  emporium  of 
the  Don,  the  port  of  which  had  become  all  but  inaccessible ;  and  its  whole 
consequence  is  derived  from  this  circumstance,  or  from  its  being  the  entre- 
pot of  the  commerce  of  the  vast  countries  traversed  by  that  great  river. 
The  exports  consist  principally  of  grain,  particularly  wheat ;  iron  and  hard- 
ware from  Toula ;  with  cordage,  linen  and  sailcloth,  copper,  tallow,  wool, 
leather,  furs,  wax,  ashes,  caviar,  isinglass,  &c.  The  imports  consist  prin- 
cipally of  wine,  oil,  fruit,  dry-salteries,  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  spices, 
dye-stuflfs,  tobacco,  sugar,  coffee,  <fec.  By  far  the  largest  portion  of  the 
trade  was  formerly  carried  on  with  Constantinople,  Smyrna,  and  other 
Turkish  ports  ;  and  there  is  an  extensive  coasting-trade  with  Odessa  and 
other  Russian  ports. 


SOUTHERN  BUSSIA  —  DON   COSSACKS.  179 

Seeing  that  Taganrog  was  built  to  obviate  the  difficulties  that  had  to  be 
encountered  by  vessels  entering  the  Don,  through  the  shallowness  of  the 
water,  it  might  have  been  supposed  that  care  would  be  taken  to  place  it  in 
a  position  in  which  it  should  be,  in  as  far  as  possible,  free  from  this  defect. 
This  important  consideration  seems,  however,  to  have  been  in  a  great  meas- 
ure overlooked.  The  gulf  of  the  Don  is  seldom  navigable  by  vessels  draw- 
ing more  than  from  eight  to  nine  feet  of  water ;  and  even  these  can  not 
approach  within  less  than  about  seven  hundred  yards  of  the  town.  They 
are  principally  loaded  by  carts,  drawn  each  by  a  single  horse,  the  expenses 
being  very  considerable. 

To  obviate  these  inconveniences,  it  has  been  proposed  to  make  Kertsch, 
on  the  western  coast  of  the  strait  of  Enikaleh,  a  depot  for  the  produce  of 
the  sea  of  Azov,  A  new  port  was  also  established  a  few  years  since  at 
Ghe'isk,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  sea ;  but  its  bay  is  rapidly  filling  up. 

Taganrog  has  a  population  of  about  twenty-two  thousand.  A  steamer 
leaves  twice  a  month  for  Odessa,  performing  the  voyage  in  ten  days !  A 
glance  at  the  map  will  show  that  in  any  other  country  the  passage  would 
not  occupy  three.  Oliphant  remarks  that,  "  Notwithstanding  the  present 
increasing  trade  and  population  of  Taganrog,  I  do  not  think  that  its  pros- 
perity is  at  all  of  a  permanent  character.  The  harbor  is  one  of  the  most 
inconvenient  in  Europe,  and  has  by  degrees  become  so  shallow,  that  ships 
are  obliged  to  anchor  at  a  distance  of  twelve  or  fifteen  miles  from  the  shore. 
There  seems  no  doubt  that  it  is  rapidly  filling  up.  So  recently  as  the  year 
1793,  Professor  Pallas  records  the  launch  of  a  large  frigate  upon  waters 
that  lighters  can  now  with  difficulty  navigate  !  As  if  nature  were  not  doing 
enough  to  ruin  Taganrog  as  a  port,  almost  every  ship  that  arrives  contrib- 
utes something  to  the  same  end.  The  Russian  government  has  strictly 
prohibited  the  throwing  overboard  of  ballast,  with  which  the  majority  of 
the  vessels  that  annually  visit  it  are  laden ;  and  the  customhouse  officials 
are  er\joined  to  see  that  this  order  is  complied  with,  by  measuring  the 
draught  of  water  of  every  ship  at  Kertsch,  and  comparing  it  with  that 
which  she  requires  upon  her  arrival  at  Taganrog.  Of  course,  by  this  reg- 
ulation, government  has  only  supplied  a  new  source  of  profit  to  the  customs' 
officers,  without  in  the  least  attaining  the  object  desired.  A  bribe  at 
Kertsch,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  ballast  to  be  discharged,  has  the 
instantaneous  effect  of  lightening  the  ship ;  so  that  after  she  has  thrown 
overboard  a  cargo  of  stones  at  the  entrance  of  the  Taganrog  harbor,  her 
draught  is  found  to  correspond,  with  singular  exactness,  to  the  measure- 
ment taken  at  Kertsch ;  and  thus  the  expense,  which  would  have  been 
incurred  by  landing  the  ballast,  is  reduced  to  the  more  moderate  sum  to 
which  the  bribe  may  have  amounted.  The  consequence  of  this  system  is, 
that  the  destruction  of  the  harbor  will  proceed  in  exact  proportion  to  the 
increase  of  the  trade  and  mercantile  importance  of  the  town,  until  it  be- 
comes so  eminently  prosperous,  that  no  ship  will  be  able  to  approach  it 
ataU!" 


180  ILLUSTEATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  EUSSIA. 

Moreover,  the  new  port  of  Berdianski  threatens  to  prove  a  most  for- 
midable rival,  as  it  affords  facilities  for  discharging  and  loading  cargo  un- 
equalled by  any  other  harbor  in  the  sea  of  Azov.  It  is  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Berda,  and  ships  of  considerable  tonnage  can  lie  close  in- 
shore. Marioupol,  too,  is  a  large  Greek  colony,  and,  though  not  pos- 
sessing any  great  advantage  as  a  port,  it  contains  an  indefatigable  popula- 
tion. Indeed,  to  the  mercantile  skill  and  enterprise  of  the  Greeks  is  to  be 
attributed  that  increasing  importance  which  the  grain-trade  of  the  southern 
provinces  of  Russia  has  recently  assumed. 

The  emperor  Alexander,  whose  reign  will  always  form  a  memorable  and 
brilliant  era  in  the  history  of  Russia,  expired  at  Taganrog,  on  the  19th  of 
November,  1825. 

Azov  is  a  fortified  town,  situated  on  an  eminence  on  the  left  bank  of  one 
of  the  arms  of  the  Don,  near  the  northeastern  extremity  of  the  sea  of  Azov. 
This  town  was  founded  at  a  very  early  period,  by  Carian  colonists  engaged 
in  the  trade  of  the  Euxine  ;  and  was  called  by  them  Tanais,  from  the  river 
(Don,  then  Tanais'),  of  which  it  was  the  port.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was 
called  Tana.  It  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Venetians  after  the  taking 
of  Constantinople  by  the  Latins,  and  was  held  by  them  till  1410,  when  it 
was  sacked,  and  its  Christian  inhabitants  put  to  the  sword,  by  the  Tartars. 
The  latter  gave  it  the  name  of  Azov,  which  it  still  retains.  Formerly  it 
had  an  extensive  trade,  being  the  emporium  of  all  the  vast  countries  trav- 
ersed by  the  Don.  But  owing  to  the  gradual  accumulation  of  sand  in  that 
channel  of  the  river  on  which  it  is  built,  and  the  consequent  difficulty  of 
reaching  it  by  any  but  the  smallest  class  of  vessels,  its  trade  has  been 
entirely  transferred  to  Taganrog ;  its  fortifications  have  also  fallen  into 
decay  ;  and  it  now  consists  only  of  a  cluster  of  miserable  cabins,  inhabited 
by  about  twelve  hundred  individuals.  This  town,  with  the  intervening 
district,  is  under  the  neighboring  government  of  Ekatherinoslav. 


Cossack  Girl  or  Tcherkask. 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA  —  THE   CRIMEA.  181 


CHAPTER   VII. 

THE    CRIMEA. 

THE  peninsula  of  the  Crimea  (the  Chersonesus  Tanrica  of  the  ancients) 
lies  between  the  forty-fourth  and  forty-sixth  degrees  of  north  latitude, 
and  the  thirty-second  and  thirty-seventh  degrees  of  east  longitude.  It 
is  united  on  the  north  to  the  mainland  by  the  isthmus  of  Perekop,  five 
miles  in  width,  and  has  on  its  east  the  Sivache,  or  Putrid  sea,  the  sea  of 
Azov,  and  the  straits  of  Enikaleh,  by  which  it  is  separated  from  the  isle  of 
Taman,  being  everywhere  else  surrounded  by  the  Black  sea.  It  is  esti- 
mated to  contain  about  fifteen  thousand  square  miles. 

The  Crimea  is  divided  into  two  distinct  parts,  one  lying  north  and  the 
other  south  of  the  river  Salghir,  which  flows  from  west  to  east,  and  is  the 
only  stream  of  any  importance  in  the  peninsula.  The  former  consists 
almost  entirely  of  vast  plains,  or  steppes,  destitute  of  trees,  but  covered 
with  luxuriant  pasture,  except  where  they  are  interspersed  with  heaths, 
salt-lakes,  and  marshes.  The  climate  of  this  region  is  far  from  good — 
being  cold  and  damp  in  winter,  and  oppressively  hot  and  very  unhealthy 
in  summer,  particularly  along  the  Putrid  sea. 

The  aspect  and  climate  of  the  other,  or  southern  portion  of  the  penin- 
sula, are  entirely  different.  It  presents  a  succession  of  lofty  mountains, 
picturesque  ravines,  and  the  most  beautiful  slopes  and  valleys.  The  mount- 
ains, formed  of  strata  of  calcareous  rocks,  stretch  along  the  southern  coast 
from  Cafi"a,  on  the  east,  to  Balaclava  on  the  west.  The  Tchadyadag,  or 
Trent  mountain,  the  highest  in  the  chain,  rises  to  the  height  of  more  than 
five  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  several  of  the  other  sum- 
mits attain  to  a  considerable  elevation.  The  climate  of  the  valleys,  and 
of  the  slopes  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea,  is  said  to  be  the  most 
delicious  that  can  be  imagined ;  and,  besides  the  common  products,  such 
as  grain,  flax,  hemp,  and  tobacco,  vines,  olives,  fig-trees,  mulberry- trees, 
pomegranates,  oranges,  &c.,  flourish  in  the  greatest  profusion. 

Professor  Pallas,  Dr.  Clarke,  and  others,  have  given  the  most  glowing 
descriptions  of  this  interesting  region.  According  to  Clarke,  "  If  there 
exist  a  terrestrial  paradise,  it  is  to  be  found  in  the  district  intervening 
between  Kutchukoy  and  Sudak,  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  Crimea.  Pro- 
tected by  encircling  alps  from  every  cold  and  blighting  wind,  and  only  open 
to  those  breezes  which  are  wafted  from  the  south,  the  inhabitants  enjoy 


182  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

every  advantage  of  climate  and  of  situation.  Continual  streams  of  crystal 
water  pour  down  from  the  mountains  upon  their  gardens,  where  every  spe- 
cies of  fruit  known  in  the  rest  of  Europe,  and  many  that  are  not,  attain 
the  highest  perfection.  Neither  unwholesome  exhalations,  nor  chilling 
winds,  nor  venomous  insects,  nor  poisonous  reptiles,  nor  hostile  neighbors, 
infest  their  blessed  territory.  The  life  of  its  inhabitants  resembles  that  of 
the  golden  age.  The  soil,  like  a  hot-bed,  rapidly  puts  forth  such  variety 
of  spontaneous  produce,  that  labor  becomes  merely  an  amusing  exercise. 
Peace  and  plenty  crown  their  board ;  while  the  repose  they  so  much  ad- 
mire is  only  interrupted  by  harmless  thunder  reverberating  on  rocks  above 
them,  or  by  the  murmur  of  the  waves  on  the  beach  below." 

But  if  this  description  be  as  faithful  as  it  is  eloquent,  it  will  not  certainly 
apply  to  any  other  portion  of  the  Crimea,  not  even  to  the  famous  valley  of 
Baider.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year  the  finest  parts  of  the  peninsula 
are  infested  with  swarms  of  locusts,  which  frequently  commit  the  most 
dreadful  devastation,  nothing  escaping  them,  from  the  leaves  of  the  forest 
to  the  herbs  of  the  plain.  Tarantulas,  centipedes,  scorpions,  and  other 
venomous  insects,  are  also  met  with  in  most  parts ;  and  even  to  the  south 
of  the  mountains  the  air  in  autumn  is  not  everywhere  salubrious,  and  ma- 
lignant fevers  are  not  uncommon. 

Owing  to  the  thinness  of  the  population,  and  their  want  of  industry,  the 
Crimea,  which  in  antiquity  was  the  granary  of  Athens,  and  whose  natural 
fertility  is  nowise  diminished,  does  not  produce  a  tenth  part  of  what  it 
might  do.  The  steppe  or  northern  portion  is,  in  general,  more  suitable  for 
grazing  than  for  tillage,  and  is  depastured  by  immense  numbers  of  sheep, 
horses,  and  black  cattle.  Some  of  the  rich  Nogai  Tartars  are  said  to  have 
as  many  as  fifty  thousand  sheep,  and  one  thousand  horses ;  and  the  poorer 
classes  have  one  hundred  of  the  former  and  ten  of  the  latter !  Thousands 
of  cattle  often  belong  to  a  single  individual :  camels  also  are  abundant. 
The  breed  of  horses  is  improved  by  crossing  with  Arabian  stock.  The 
sheep  are  mostly  of  the  large-tailed  species  peculiar  to  the  Kirghiz  Tartars. 
The  buffalo  is  domesticated,  and  yields  a  rich  milk  ;  and  the  culture  of  bees 
is  a  good  deal  attended  to.  Though  they  have  renounced  their  migratory 
habits,  the  Tartars,  who  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  population,  have  little 
liking  to,  or  skill  in,  husbandry.  Exclusive  of  milk  and  other  animal  food, 
they  subsist  chiefly  on  millet ;  producing,  however,  in  some  years,  as  much 
as  one  million  of  bushels  of  wheat  for  exportation.  The  mountainous,  or 
southern  portion  of  the  peninsula,  furnishes  large  quantities  of  indifferent 
wine,  with  flax,  fruits,  timber,  honey  and  wax,  &c. ;  but  the  cultivation  of 
grain  is  so  little  attended  to,  that,  even  in  the  best  years,  its  inhabitants 
have  to  import  a  large  proportion  of  their  supplies. 

The  most  important  and  valuable  product  of  the  Crimea  is  the  salt  de- 
rived from  the  salt-lakes  in  the  vicinity  of  Perekop,  Caffa,  Koslow,  and 
Kertsch.  It  is  monopolized  by  the  government,  and  yields  a  considerable 
revenue.     The  quantity  exported  from  the  lakes  near  Kertsch  amounts  to 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  —  THE   CRIMEA. 


183 


from  thirty  to  thirty-five  thousand  pounds  a  year :  the  lakes  of  Perekop  are 
even  more  productive.  At  Koslow  there  is  only  a  single  lake.  In  1833, 
the  different  lakes  of  the  Crimea  produced  the  immense  quantity  of  fifteen 
millions,  sixty-five  thousand  poods  (two  hundred  and  forty-two  thousand 
tons),  of  which  about  eight  and  a  half  millions  of  poods  were  sold  in  the 
course  of  the  year.  From  twelve  to  fifteen  thousand  men  are  employed  in 
the  works  ;  each  pood  costs  to  the  treasury  four  copecks,  or  thereabout,  the 
expense  of  production  being  seldom  greater  than  from  six  to  ten  cop'ecks. 
Government  sells  this  salt  at  eighty  copecks  per  pood,  except  the  portion 
destined  for  the  consumption  of  the  peninsula,  wliich  only  pays  fifteen 
copecks.     Salt  exported  is  charged  with  a  duty  of  five  copecks. 

Exclusive  of  salt  and  grain,  the  other  principal  articles  of  export  are 
wine,  honey  of  an  excellent  quality,  wax,  Morocco-leather,  hides,  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  inferior  wool,  with  lambskins  which  are  highly  esteemed, 
&c.  Silks  and  cottons,  in  the  style  of  the  Asiatics,  form  the  basis  of  the 
import  trade  ;  and  there  are  also  imported  woollen-stuff's,  wine,  oil,  dried 
fruits,  tobacco,  jewelry,  drugs,  and  spices.  The  only  manufacture  worth 
notice  is  that  of  Morocco-leather. 

The  principal  towns  are  Kertsch,  Caffia  (or  Theodosia),  Balaclava,  and 
Koslow  (or  Eupatoria).  Sevastapol,  the  finest  harbor  in  the  peninsula, 
is  one  of  the  stations  of  the  Russian  fleet.  Baktchiserai  was  the  old  capital 
of  Crim  Tartary,  under  the  khans;  Simferopol  is,  however,  the  modern 
capital,  not  of  the  Crimea  only,  but  of  the  entire  government  of  Taurida. 

The  population  consists  of  Tartars,  Russians,  Greeks,  Germans,  Jews, 
Armenians,  and  gipsies.  The  variety  of  difi"erent  nations  found  in  the 
Crimea,  and  the  fact  that  each  lives  as  in  its  own  country,  practising  its 
peculiar  customs,  and  preserving  its  , 
religious  rites,  is  one  of  the  remark- 
able circumstances  that  render  the 
peninsula  so  curious  to  a  stranger. 
The  number  of  Tartars  has  declined 
considerably  by  emigration  and  oth- 
erwise, since  the  occupation  of  the 
country  by  the  Russians  ;  but  they 
still  form  the  nucleus  and  principal 
body  of  the  population.  They  con- 
sist—  first,  of  Nogai  Tartars,  liWng 
in  villages,  who  pique  themselves 
on  their  pure  Mongolian  blood  ;  sec- 
ond, of  Tartars  of  the  steppe,  of  less 
pure  descent ;  and,  third,  of  those 
inhabiting  the  southern  coast,  who 
are  a  mixed  breed,  largely  alloyed  with  Greek  and  Turkish  blood,  and 
despised  by  the  others,  who  bestow  on  them  the  contemptuous  designation 
of  Tut,  or  renegade.     They  are  all,  however,  attached  to  the  Mohammedan 


CniM  Tabtabs. 


184  .  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP  RUSSIA. 

faith,  and  Simferopol  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  two  mvftis  of  the  Russian 
empire. 

The  Tartars  are  divided  into  the  classes  of  nobles  (rnoorzas),  of  whom 
there  are  about  two  hundred  and  fifty,  priests  (^mullahs'),  and  peasants.  A 
mullah  is  at  the  head  of  every  parish,  and  nothing  is  undertaken  without 
his  consent.  The  peasants  plough  his  land,  sow  and  reap  his  grain,  and 
carry  it  home  ;  and  it  is  seldom  that  the  proprietor  takes  tithe  of  the  priest. 
In  summer,  the  feet  and  legs  of  the  peasantry  are  bare  ;  but  in  winter  they 
are  clothed  after  the  Russian  fashion.  They  are  simple  in  their  manners 
and  dress ;  and  their  sobriety,  chastity,  cleanliness,  and  hospitality,  have 
been  highly  eulogized,  and  probably  exaggerated.  They  live  principally 
on  the  produce  of  their  flocks  and  herds  ;  are  wedded  to  routine  practices  ; 
and  if  they  be  not,  as  Pallas  seems  to  have  supposed,  decidedly  averse  to 
labor,  they,  at  all  events,  are  but  little  disposed  to  be  industrious.  The 
emigration  that  took  place  after  the  occupation  of  the  country  by  the  Rus- 
sians, was  owing  quite  as  much  to  the  efforts  of  the  latter  to  convert  the 
Tartars  into  husbandmen,  as  to  the  excesses  they  committed.  In  their 
diet  they  make  great  use  of  honey,  and  are  much  addicted  to  smoking. 
Every  family  has  two  or  more  copies  of  the  Koran,  which  the  children  are 
taught  to  read ;  but,  in  despite  of  this,  and  of  the  scliools  established  in 
their  villages,  they  are,  for  the  most  part,  exceedingly  ignorant. 

The  Greeks  established  themselves  in  the  Crimea,  and  founded  several 
colonies  upon  its  coasts,  nearly  six  centuries  before  tlie  Christian  era.  The 
country  fell  successively  into  the  possession  of  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus, 
and  of  the  Romans,  Goths,  Huns,  &c.  In  1237,  it  was  taken  possession 
of  by  the  Tartars,  forming  one  of  the  western  conquests  of  the  terrible 
hordes  issuing  from  central  Asia,  under  Zinghis  Khan,  which  overran  the 
Chinese  empire,  Persia,  and  other  countries.  About  the  same  time  its 
ports  were  much  resorted  to  by  the  Venetians  and  Genoese ;  the  latter  of 
whom  rebuilt  Caffa  (the  ancient  Theodosici),  and  made  it  the  centre  of 
their  power  and  of  the  extensive  commerce  they  carried  on  in  the  Euxine. 
In  1475,  the  Turkish  sovereign  Mohammed  II.  expelled  the  Genoese,  and 
reduced  the  peninsula  to  the  state  of  a  dependency  of  the  Ottoman  empire, 
leaving  it  to  be  governed  by  a  khaii,  or  native  prince.  This  state  of  things 
continued  for  about  three  centuries. 

The  khans  had  moved  the  seat  of  government  from  the  rocky  fortress  of 
Tchoufut  Kale  to  the  valley  of  the  Djurouk  Su,  and,  as  tributaries  of  the 
Porte,  had  reigned  in  their  palace  of  Baktchiserai  {Bag-tche  Serai)  for 
nearly  three  hundred  years,  when  the  bloody  war  wliich  had  been  relent- 
lessly carried  on  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  and  of  which  the  Crimea 
had  been  in  some  degree  the  theatre,  terminated  in  the  treaty  of  Kainarje. 
Devlit  Ghiri,  who  had  been  invested  with  the  dignity  of  khan  by  the  sul- 
tan, was  now  deposed  ;  and  his  brother  Jehan,  who  for  some  time  past  had 
been  retained  a  hostage  at  St.  Petersburg  (though  he  nominally  held  the 
office  of  a  captain  in  the  imperial  guard),  was  placed  upon  tlie  throne  by 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA  —  THE   CRIMEA.  185 

llie  empress  Catherine  —  an  act  which  was  in  direct  violation  of  the  princi- 
pal article  in  this  treaty,  in  which  the  independence  of  the  Crimea,  as  well 
as  the  free  choice  of  its  sovereigns,  had  been  expressly  stipulated. 

But  it  was  not  enough  that  a  prince  should  be  tlius  forced  upon  a  coun 
try,  in  opposition  to  the  will  of  the  people  :  a  mere  puppet  in  the  hands  of 
Russia,  he  was  compelled  to  show  a  marked  preference  for  the  power  to 
which  he  owed  his  crown,  and  to  introduce  so  many  Russians  into  his  ser 
vice,  that  he  soon  increased  the  hatred  and  disgust  of  his  subjects,  whose 
feelings  of  disaffection  were  secretly  fomented  by  Russian  emissaries,  until 
they  broke  out  into  an  open  revolt  of  so  serious  a  character  as  to  oblige 
the  khan  to  fly  to  Taman,  where  he  remained  until  assistance  arrived  in 
the  shape  of  a  Russian  army,  which  invaded  the  Crimea,  and  restored  him 
to  the  throne  from  wliich  he  had  been  forced. 

During  this  period  of  the  occupation  of  tlie  province  by  the  Russians,  the 
most  atrocious  cruelties  were  perpetrated  upon  those  who  had  been  insti- 
gated to  share  in  the  revolt.  So  anxious  did  Russia  profess  herself  to 
prevent  the  recurrence  of  such  an  event,  that  a  proposal  was  made  to  the 
khan  to  retire  from  the  throne  upon  a  pension  of  one  hundred  thousand 
roubles  a  year,  resigning  his  crown  into  the  safe  keeping  of  the  imperial 
government — an  offer  which  was  entitled  to  some  consideration  in  the 
presence  of  an  overwhelming  army  ready  to  enforce  its  acceptance.  The 
luckless  prince,  whose  residence  at  the  Russian  court  had  taught  him  to 
estimate  truly  the  value  of  promises  emanating  from  such  a  quarter,  per- 
sisted for  some  time  in  his  refusal,  but  he  found  himself  ultimately  obliged 
to  submit  to  the  terms  proposed  ;  and,  as  he  had  but  too  justly  anticipated, 
was  confined  as  a  prisoner  at  Kalouga,  in  Avhicli  character  he  was,  of  course, 
considered  undeserving  of  his  pension ! 

After  in  vain  petitioning  to  be  sent  to  St.  Petersburg,  Jehan  was  con- 
signed, at  his  own  request,  to  the  tender  mercies  of  the  Turks.  By  them- 
he  was  banished  to  Rhodes,  where  he  soon  after  fell  a  victim  to  the  bow- 
string: so  terminated  the  inglorious  career  of  the  last  of  the  khans.  An 
imperial  ukase,  issued  by  the  empress  Catherine,  annexed  this  magnificent 
province  to  her  fast-extending  empire. 

Sevastapol  (or  Aktiar'),  the  great  naval  station  of  Russia  on  the  Black 
sea,  occupies  part  of  a  considerable  peninsula  on  the  south  side  of  the  ex- 
cellent roadstead  of  the  same  name,  near  the  southwestern  extremity  of  the 
Crimea  (three  hundred  and  forty  miles  northeast  of  Constantinople),  rising 
from  the  shore  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  and  consisting  of  a  number 
of  tolerably  well-built  streets,  which  either  stretch  south  in  parallel  rows, 
climbing  a  steep  acclivity,  or  transversely  east  to  west.  Tlie  main  street, 
situated  along  the  harbor,  which  is  immediately  east  of  the  town,  is  lined 
with  two-story  houses  ;  many  of  the  others,  though  only  of  one  story,  being 
whitewashed,  have  a  clean  and  cheerful  appearance. 

The  roadstead  and  harbor,  and  the  extensive  establishments  connected 
with  them,  are  by  far  the  most  important  features  of  Sevastapol.     The 


186 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP  RUSSIA. 


BLACK 


THE  HARBOR  OF 

SEVASTAPOL 


Miles 


roadstead,  entered  from  the  west,  stretches  east  for  about  three  and  a  half 
miles,  forming  a  deep  hollow  between  lofty  limestone-ridges,  which  com- 
pletely shelter  it  both  on  the  north  and  south,  from  which  the  prevailing- 
winds  blow.  Its  breadth  at  the  entrance  is  about  thirteen  hundred  yards, 
immediately  widening  out  to  about  one  mile,  and  again  diminishing  till  not 
more  than  six  or  seven  hundred  yards  at  its  head.  The  average  depth  at 
the  entrance,  and  for  some  distance  within,  is  ten  fathoms,  but  afterward 
shallows  east  to  not  more  than  four  fathoms.  The  harbor  proper  is  a  creek, 
which  opens  from  the  roadstead,  and  stretches  south  along  the  east  side  of 
the  town.  It  is  above  a  mile  and  a  half  long,  and  at  its  entrance  four  hun- 
dred yards  wide.  In  addition  to  its  natural  advantages,  it  has  had  all  the 
improvements  which  art  and  unbounded  expenditure  could  give  to  make  it 
complete.  The  admiralty,  arsenal,  and  public  offices,  are  on  the  western — 
the  hospitals,  barracks,  and  magazines,  mostly  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
harbor.  Toward  the  land  side,  no  defences  appear  to  have  been  thought 
necessary,  but  both  the  roadstead  and  harbor  are  protected  by  three  batte- 
ries of  the  most  formidable  description.  Two  of  these,  called  Constantino 
and  Alexander,  defend  the  roadstead,  one  being  situated  on  each  side  of 
it ;  the  third,  called  Nicholas,  is  situated  in  the  haven  itself,  fronting  the 
town.  These  batteries,  which,  according  to  some,  are  of  the  most  perfect, 
and,  according  to  others,  of  very  indifferent  construction,  could  bring  twelve 
hundred  guns  to  bear  upon  any  fleet  attempting  to  force  a  passage.  The 
fortifications  were  commenced  in  1780,  when  it  was  a  mere  Tartar  village. 
The  population,  including  military  and  marine,  now  exceeds  forty  thousand. 
Oliphant,  who  visited  Sevastapol  in  1853,  thus  remarks :  "  Nothing  can 
be  more  formidable  than  the  appearance  of  the  town  from  the  seaward.  We 
visited  it  in  a  steamer,  and  found  that  at  one  point  we  were  commanded 
by  twelve  hundred  pieces  of  artillery.  Fortunately  for  a  hostile  fleet,  we 
afterward  heard  that  these  could  not  be  discharged  without  bringing  down 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA  —  THE   CRIMEA. 


187 


City  and  Habbor  of  Sevastapol. 


the  rotten  batteries  upon  which  they  are  placed,  and  which  are  so  badly 
constructed  that  they  look  as  if  they  had  been  done  by  contract.  Four  of 
the  forts  consist  of  three  tiers  of  batteries.  We  were,  of  course,  unable  to 
do  more  than  take  a  very  general  survey  of  these  celebrated  fortifications, 
and  therefore  can  not  vouch  for  the  truth  of  the  assertion  that  the  rooms 
in  which  the  guns  are  worked  are  so  narrow  and  ill-ventilated,  that  the 
artillerymen  would  be  inevitably  stifled  in  the  attempt  to  discharge  their 
guns  and  their  duty.  But  of  one  fact  there  was  no  doubt :  that  however 
well  fortified  may  be  the  approaches  to  Sevastapol  by  sea,  there  is  nothing 
whatever  to  prevent  any  number  of  troops  landing  a  few  miles  to  the  south 
of  the  town  in  one  of  the  six  convenient  bays  with  which  the  coasts,  as  far 
as  Cape  Kherson,  is  indented,  and,  marching  down  the  main  street  (pro- 
vided they  were  strong  enough  to  defeat  any  military  force  that  might  be 
opposed  to  them  in  the  open  field),  sack  the  town,  and  burn  the  fleet. 

"  I  was  much  struck  with  the  substantial  appearance  of  many  of  the  pri- 
vate houses  ;  and,  indeed,  the  main  street  was  handsomer  than  any  I  had 
seen  since  leaving  Moscow.  New  houses  were  springing  up  in  every  direc- 
tion, government  works  were  still  going  forward  vigorously,  and  Sevasta- 
pol bids  fair  to  rank  high  among  Russian  cities.  The  magnificent  arm  of 
the  sea  upon  which  it  is  situate  is  an  object  worthy  the  millions  which  have 
been  lavished  in  rendering  it  a  fitting  receptacle  for  the  Russian  navy. 

"  As  I  stood  upon  the  handsome  stairs  that  lead  down  to  the  water's 
edge,  I  counted  thirteen  sail-of-the-line  anchored  in  the  principal  harbor. 
The  newest  of  these,  a  noble  three-decker,  was  lying  within  pistol-shot  of 


188  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 

the  quay.  The  average  breadth  of  this  inlet  is  one  thousand  yards  ;  two 
creeks  branch  off  from  it,  intersecting  the  town  in  a  southerly  direction, 
and  containing  steamers  and  smaller  craft,  besides  a  long  row  of  hulks 
which  have  been  converted  into  magazines  or  prison-ships.  The  hard  ser- 
vice which  has  reduced  so  many  of  the  handsomest  ships  of  the  Russian 
navy  to  this  condition,  consists  in  lying  for  eight  or  ten  years  upon  the 
sleeping  bosom  of  the  harbor.  After  the  expiration  of  that  period,  their 
timbers,  composed  of  fir  or  pine  wood  never  properly  seasoned,  become 
perfectly  rotten.  This  result  is  chiefly  owing  to  inherent  decay,  and  in 
some  degree  to  the  ravages  of  a  worm  that  abounds  in  the  muddy  waters 
of  the  Tchernoi  Retcka,  a  stream  which,  traversing  the  valley  of  Inkerman, 
falls  into  the  upper  part  of  the  main  harbor.  It  is  said  that  this  pernicious 
insect — which  is  equally  destructive  in  salt  water  as  in  fresh — costs  the 
Russian  government  many  thousands,  and  is  one  of  the  most  serious  obsta- 
cles to  the  formation  of  an  efficient  navy  on  the  Black  sea It  is 

maliciously  said  that,  upon  the  few  occasions  that  the  Russian  fleet  in  this 
sea  have  encountered  a  gale  of  wind,  the  greater  part  of  the  officers  and 
men  were  always  sea-sick !  It  is  certain  that  they  have  sometimes  been 
unable  to  tell  whereabout  they  were  on  their  extensive  cruising-ground ; 
and  once,  between  Sevastapol  and  Odessa,  it  is  currently  and  libellously 
reported  that  the  admiral  was  so  utterly  at  a  loss,  that  the  flag-lieutenant, 
observing  a  village  on  shore,  proposed  to  land  and  ask  the  way !" 

Inkerman,  the  "  Town  of  Caverns,"  lies  near  Sevastapol.  The  curiosi- 
ties of  this  locality  consist  in  the  remains  which  exist  there  to  tell  of  races 
long  since  departed.  The  precipitous  cliffs,  between  which  flow  the  Tcher- 
noi Retcka,  are  honeycombed  with  cells  and  chapels.  The  origin  of  these 
singular  caves  is  uncertain  ;  but  they  are  supposed  to  have  been  excavated 
by  monks  during  the  reigns  of  the  Greek  emperors  of  Constantinople  in  the 
middle  or  later  ages.  When  the  Arians  who  inhabited  the  Chersonesus 
were  persecuted  by  the  Greek  church,  then  predominant,  the  members  of 
that  sect  took  refuge  in  these  singular  dwellings,  whose  lofty  and  inacces- 
sible position  rendered  them  to  a  certain  degree  secure.  The  largest 
chapel,  which  presents  all  the  characteristics  of  Byzantine  architecture,  is 
about  twenty-four  feet  long  by  twelve  broad.  Sarcophagi,  usually  quite 
empty,  have  been  found  in  many  of  the  cells ;  these  latter  are  often  con- 
nected with  each  other,  and  are  approached  by  stairs  cut  in  the  living  rock. 

Perched  upon  the  same  cliff,  and  of  much  earlier  date  than  the  caverns 
which  undermine  them,  are  the  ruined  walls  of  an  old  fort.  Whether  they 
are  the  remains  of  the  Ctenus  of  the  ancients,  built  by  Diophantes,  King 
Mithridates's  general,  to  strengthen  the  Heraclean  wall,  or  of  the  Theodori 
of  tlie  Greeks,  or  of  some  Genoese  stronghold,  is  still  a  very  open  question. 
There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  seat  of  government  of  the  prin- 
cipality of  Theodori  stood  formerly  on  this  spot ;  but  it  is  probable  that  its 
inhabitants  were  composed  of  Greek  colonists,  and  not  of  Circassian  tribes, 
as  some  writers  have  supposed. 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA  —  THE   CRIMEA.  189 


I 


Inkebman,  the  "  Town  of  Cavebns." 

Tlio  view  from  the  high-road  to  Baktchiserai  of  the  valley  of  Inkerman, 
with  its  perforated  cliffs  and  ruined  fortress  (as  represented  in  the  accom- 
panying engraving),  is  as  remarkable  as  it  is  beautiful.  A  romantic  old 
bridge  in  the  foreground  spans  the  sluggish  stream,  which  winds  amid  the 
most  luxuriant  vegetation. 

Simferopol  (or  Aknictchet'),  the  capital  of  Taurida  and  the  Crimea,  lies 
in  a  central  position,  forty  miles  northwest  of  Sevastapol.  It  stands  in  a 
fine  but  not  very  healthy  situation  on  the  river  Salghir,  and  consists  of  two 
parts :  one  new  built  by  the  Russians,  in  the  European  style ;  the  other 
old,  and  occupied  by  the  Tartars.  The  streets  in  the  former  are  wide  and 
regular ;  and  it  contains  the  government  offices,  and  a  cathedral,  said  by 
Dr.  Lyall  to  be  by  far  the  handsomest  ecclesiastical  edifice  he  had  seen  in 
Russia. 

The  following  is  Oliphant's  description  of  the  modern  cajntal  of  the 
Crimea,  and  its  environs,  as  they  appeared  to  him  in  1853 :  "  When  the 
Crimea  was  ceded  to  Russia  in  1781,  the  picturesque  old  capital  of  Bak- 
tchiserai was  considered  unworthy  of  being  the  chief  town  of  the  new  proA'- 
ince,  and  a  gay  modern  city  was  laid  out  upon  the  plains  of  the  Salghir, 
dignified  with  an  imposing  ancient  Greek  name,  and  built  in  true  Russian 
taste,  with  very  broad  streets,  very  white,  tall  houses,  decorated  with  very 
green  paint.  If  the  population  consisted  entirely  of  Russians,  the  interior 
of  the  town  would  be  as  far  from  realizing  the  expectations  which  its  out- 
ward appearance  is  calculated  to  produce,  as  Kazan  or  Saratov ;  but  for- 
tunately for  Simferopol,  it  was  once  Akmetchet  (or  '  The  White  Mosqne'}, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  Akmetchet  still  linger  near  the  city  of  their  ances- 
tors, and  invest  the  cold  monotony  of  the  new  capital  with  an  interest  of 
which  it  would  be  otherwise  quite  unworthy. 

"  Formerly  the  second  town  in  tlie  Crimea,  and  the  residence  of  the 
kalg-a  sultan,  or  vice-khan,  Akmetchet  was  a  city  of  great  importance. 


190  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

adorned  with  palaces,  mosques,  and  public  batlis.  It  has  now  exchanged 
the  eastern  magnificence  of  former  days  for  the  tawdry  glitter  of  Musco- 
vite barbarism. 

"  The  streets  inhabited  by  Tartars  are  composed  entirely  of  blank  walls, 
and  would  therefore  be  the  dullest  places  imaginable  were  it  not  for  the 
people  who  traverse  them.  The  houses  are  only  one  story  high,  and  each 
is  enclosed  in  a  separate  courtyard.  The  parchment  windows  which  look 
out  into  it  are  placed  so  low  as  to  be  quite  hidden  from  the  street ;  and  so 
the  unfortunate  females  have  not  the  ordinary  amusement  of  eastern  ladies, 
and  no  black  eyes  glance  out  of  latticed  windows  upon  the  passenger  as  he 
passes  beneath  them.  The  Tartar  women  of  Akmetchet,  however,  do  not 
lose  much  by  their  seclusion.  The  streets  have  none  of  the  life  and  bustle 
of  a  town  like  Cairo.  ■■  The  shops  are  few  and  far  between,  very  small  and 
poor,  and  kept  by  ugly,  unveiled  women.  The  beauties  walk  about  cov- 
ered up  to  the  eyes  with  the  white  ^fereedje,'  which  reaches  as  low  as  the 
knee.  Were  it  not  for  the  bright-colored  skirt  which  flutters  beneath  it, 
and  the  loose  drawers  that  fall  over  tiny  yellow  boots,  they  would  look 
precisely  like  animated  bundles  of  white  linen.  The  men  occasionally 
wear  the  turban  and  flowing  robe  of  the  true  oriental ;  but  their  costumes, 
always  picturesque,  vary  so  much  as  to  be  almost  indescribable. 

"  We  soon  got  tired  of  wandering  through  this  maze  of  narrow  lanes, 
always  confined  between  high,  blank  walls,  and  changed  the  scene  by  sud- 
denly coming  upon  the  fashionable  promenade,  where  the  band  was  playing 
in  cool,  delicious  gardens,  to  the  gay  world,  who  delight  to  assemble  here 
and  stroll  upon  the  banks  of  the  Salghir,  away  from  the  heat  and  dust  of 
the  town.  The  present  governor,  Pestel,  a  brother  to  '  Yes,  it  comes  at 
last,'  is,  I  understand,  in  high  favor  with  the  emperor.  Ilis  house  is  a 
substantial,  handsome-looking  mansion.  There  are  extensive  barracks  sit- 
uated a  little  outside  the  town,  but  the  hospital  alone  is  always  in  use ;  the 
rest  of  the  building  is  only  occupied  occasionally  by  troops  passing  to  and 
from  the  Caucasus. 

"  There  are  no  less  than  two  hotels  in  Simferopol,  and  in  the  one  we 
were  at  they  actually  gave  us  a  sheet  each,  but,  of  course,  no  means  of 
washing !  Our  windows  looked  out  upon  the  principal  street,  and  were 
always  interesting  posts  of  observation.  Sometimes  a  lumbering  noble- 
man's carriage,  piled  with  luggage,  and  stored  with  provisions  for  a  month, 
rattled  into  the  town  —  the  family  being  about  to  return  to  St.  Petersburg 
for  the  winter,  after  spending  the  summer  at  their  country-seat  in  the 
Crimea ;  or  an  unpretending  vehicle,  exactly  similar  to  ours,  jogged  quietly 
past,  crammed  with  Armenian  merchants,  some  of  whose  legs,  protruding 
from  between  the  curtains,  were  presumed  to  belong  to  Armenians,  from 
the  perfume  of  Turkish  tobacco  which  was  diff"used  over  the  street  during 
their  transit ;  or  a  file  of  camel-carts,  filled  with  straw,  moved  sedately 
along,  stopping  every  now  and  then  for  a  few  moments  while  the  drivers 
spoke  to  friends,  when  all  the  camels  lay  down :  no  amount  of  experience 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA  —  THE   CRIMEA. 


191 


Camel-Cart 


seemed  to  show  tliem  that  it  was  hardly  worth  while  to  do  this,  consider- 
ing how  soon  they  would  have  to  get  up  again,  and  the  great  exertion  it 
involved.  Accustomed  only  to  the  camels  and  dromedaries  of  still  more 
eastern  countries,  the  appearance  of  this  Bactrian  camel  was  quite  new  to 
me.  The  two  humps  are  generally  so  long,  that,  unable  to  sustain  them- 
selves, they  fall  over,  and  often  hang  down  on  each  side  of  the  animal's 
back.  The  neck  and  legs  are  covered  with  long,  thick  hair,  from  which 
the  Tartar  women  weave  cloth  of  a  soft,  woolly  texture. 

"  In  strong  contrast  to  these  singular  carts,  pert  droskies  were  continu- 
ally dashing  about.  Though  so  small  and  light,  all  the  public  droskies 
here  have  two  horses,  generally  very  good  ones,  while  the  heat  of  the  sun 
has  rendered  it  necessary  that  they  should,  for  the  most  part,  be  supplied 
with  hoods ;  so  that  the  atrocious  little  vehicle  of  St.  Petersburg  is  con- 
verted at  Simferopol  into  quite  a  respectable  conveyance.  Next  door  to 
our  hotel  was  rather  a  handsome  Jewish  synagogue,  in  which  school 
seemed  perpetually  going  on.  Simferopol  contains  about  fourteen  thou- 
sand inhabitants,  of  which  comparatively  a  large  proportion  are  members 
of  this  persuasion. 

"  Fortunately  the  annual  fair,  which  takes  place  in  the  first  week  of 
October,  was  being  held  duriug  the  period  of  our  stay ;  and  then  it  is  that 
the  greatest  variety  of  costume,  and  all  the  characteristic  features  of  the 
Crimea,  are  most  opportunely  collected  for  the  traveller's  benefit.  To  be 
properly  appreciated,  the  fair  of  Nijnei-Novgorod  should  be  seen  before 
that  of  Simferopol,  which  we  found  infinitely  more  striking,  perhaps  be- 
cause we  were  completely  taken  by  surprise  when,  quite  unaware  of  its 
existence,  we  chanced  to  enter  the  market-place  one  afternoon.  It  is  sel- 
dom that  two  races  so  widely  differing  in  manners  and  customs,  springing 
from  origins  so  distinct,  are  brought  into  every-day  contact  in  such  a  pal- 
pable manner  as  in  Crim  Tartary  ;  and  this  mixture  is  the  more  interesting 
from  the  improbability  of  its  existing  very  long  in  its  present  unnatural 
condition. 

"  An  enormous  square,  many  acres  in  extent,  contained  an  indiscriminate 
mass  of  booths,  camels,  carts,  droskies,  oxen,  and  picturesque  groups. 


192  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

Here  may  be  seen  the  red-bearded  Russian  mujik,  in  jackboots  and  sheep- 
skin, in  close  confabulation  with  a  gayly-dressed  Tartar,  who  has  just  gal- 
lojiped  across  the  steppe,  and  who  sits  his  liorse  as  if  he  were  part  and 
parcel  of  him.     He  wears  a  large,  white  fur-cap ;  a  red-striped,  embroi- 
dered jacket,  fitting  close  to  his  body,  with  wide,  open  sleeves ;  while  his 
loose,  dark-blue  trousers  are  girded  with  a  bright-colored  sash,  amid  the 
folds  of  which  the  massive  handle  of  his  dagger  appears  ;  and  his  slippered 
feet  are  thrust  into  clumsy  stirrups  at  the  ends  of  very  long  leathers.     His 
horse  is  a  wiry  little  animal,  possessing  an  infinitely  greater  amount  of 
intelligence  than  beauty.     Farther  on  among  the  crowd,  and  distinguished 
by  his  green  turban,  floats  the  robe  of  some  pious  hadje;  nor  does  he  seem 
in  the  least  scandalized  by  two  young  ladies  in  a  drosky,  not  only  devoid 
Q)i  fereedje^  but  even  of  bonnets,  and  wearing  only  the  jaunty  little  caps  of 
the  Parisian  grisette.     We  might  very  fairly  suggest,  however,  the  propri- 
ety of  their  profiting,  in  some  degree,  from  the  example  of  the  muffled 
females  over  the  way,  who  seem  afraid  to  expose  to  the  profane  gaze  of 
men  the  dyed  tips  of  their  finger-nails !     In  the  narrow  lanes  formed  by 
carts  and  tents,  Greeks,  in  a  no  less  gay  though  somewhat  different  cos- 
tume from  tliat  usually  worn  in  theii'  own  country,  are  haggling  with  Rus- 
sian Jews  in  long  black  beards,  and  long  black  cloaks  reaching  down  to 
their  ankles.     It  is  an  even  bet  who  will  have  the  best  of  such  a  bargain  ! 
Savage-looking  Nogais,  and  Cossack  soldiers,  are  making  purchases  from 
Armenian  or  German  shopkeepers.     There  are  large  booths,  like  gipsies' 
huts  magnified,  which  have  no  connection  with  the  ragged  representatives 
of  that  Avandering  race  who  swarm  at  the  fair,  but  which  contain  quantities 
of  most  tempting  fruit — huge  piles  of  apricots,  grapes,  peaches,  apples, 
and  plums  —  of  any  of  which  one  farthing  will  buy  more  than  the  purcliaser 
can  conveniently  carry  away  with  him.     Besides  these  booths,  there  are 
heavy  carts,  with  wicker-work  sides,  and  ungreased,  angular  wheels,  which 
make  that  incessant  and  discordant  creaking  familiar  to  those  who  have 
ever  heard  a  Bengal  bullock-hackery.     Presiding  over  the  whole  scene, 
not  in  the  least  disconcerted  by  the  uncongenial  forms  which  surround 
them,  are  hundreds  of  camels,  in  all  sorts  of  positions,  chewing  the  cud 
with  eastern  philosophy,  and  perfectly  submissive  to  very  small,  ragged 
Tartar  boys,  who  seem  to  have  entire  charge  of  them,  and  who  do  not 
reach  higher  than  their  knees.     Rows  of  shops  enclosed  this  miscellaneous 
assemblage,  containing  saddles,  knives,  whips,  slippers,  tobacco-pouches, 
and  Morocco-leather  boots,  all  of  Tartar  manufacture,  besides  every  de- 
scription of  every  European  article.     It  was  some  satisfaction  to  feel,  as 
we  moved  through  the  busy  throng,  in  plaid  shooting-coats  with  mother-of 
pearl  buttons,  that  we  too  were  adding  another  variety  to  the  motley  cos- 
tumes of  the  fair  at  Simferopol. 

"  But  the  charm  of  Simferopol  does  not  consist  in  the  variety  of  races 
which  inhabit  it.  Though  it  seems  to  lie  in  a  plain,  as  approached  from 
Kertsch,  a  great  part  of  the  town  is  situated  upon  the  precipitous  edge  of 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  —  THE   CRIMEA.  193 

the  steppe,  whence. a  magnificent  view  is  obtained  immediately  below  ;'and 
at  the  foot  of  abrupt  rocks,  two  hundred  feet  high,  runs  the  tiny  Salghir, 
dignified  with  the  name  of  a  river,  and,  if  not  entitled  to  it  from  its  size, 
worthy  the  appellation  by  reason  of  the  lovely  valley  which  it  has  formed 
in  its  northern  course.  Orchards  and  gardens,  containing  every  sort  of 
fruit-trees,  and  aliounding  in  rows  of  tall  poplars,  line  its  banks,  until  the 
hills,  becoming  higher  and  more  thickly  wooded,  form  a  ridge,  which  is 
connected  with  the  Tchatir  Dagh  (or  Tchadyadag-'),  a  noble  background, 
and  which  does  full  justice  to  this  lovely  picture.  Nor  did  a  closer  ac- 
quaintance with  the  details  of  this  view  detract  from  our  original  impres- 
sions on  beholdino;  it. 

"  We  determined  to  take  advantage  of  the  glorious  weather  to  make  the 
ascent  of  the  Tchatir  Dagh  (the  '■Mountain  of  the  Tent^  of  the  Tartars, 

Trapezus  of  the  Greeks,  and  Pcdata  Gora  of  the  Russians) We 

reached  the  giddy  edge  of  the  limestone  cliff  which  forms  the  highest  peak, 
a  few  moments  after  sunrise,  having  attained  an  elevation  of  over  five  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  sea.  We  were  well  repaid  for  the  fatigue  of  the  ascent 
by  the  magnificent  view  we  obtained  from  this  point.  Immediately  at  our 
feet,  and  so  directly  beneath  us  that  a  stone  might  be  dropped  perpendicu- 
larly upon  the  trees  two  thousand  feet  below,  lay  charmingly-diversified 
woods  and  meadows  ;  curling  wreaths  of  blue  smoke  ascended  from  clumps 
of  trees  scattered  over  the  park-like  scenery,  while  large  herds  of  cattle 
seemed  from  their  diminutiveness  to  have  been  peppered  out  upon  the  rich 
pasture-land 

"  We  soon  accomplished  the  steep  descent  of  the  first  thousand  feet ; 
and,  mounting  our  ponies,  attempted  to  pick  our  way  over  the  rocks,  to 
some  caves,  reported  to  be  worth  seeing.  Our  path — or  rather  where  our 
patli  would  have  been,  had  one  existed — lay  over  a  large  extent  of  strati- 
fied limestone,  of  a  gray  color.  The  rugged  surface,  strewn  with  huge 
fragments  of  the  stone,  was  frequently  indented  by  hemispherical  hollows, 
in  which  grew  clumps  of  trees,  and  which,  had  they  not  occurred  so  fre- 
quently, might  have  been  mistaken  far  the  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes. 

"  Whatever  may  have  been  their  origin,  they  were  the  cause  of  incessant 
annoyance  to  us  as  we  wound  round  them  —  the  rocks  becoming  so  sharp 
and  jagged,  that  we  were  obliged  to  lead  our  horses  a  great  part  of  the 
way.  At  last  we  descended  into  one,  and  the  guides  pointed  to  a  small 
under  a  rock,  into  which  we  were  expected  to  crawl,  telling  us  it  was  the 
entrance  to  the  cave  of  Foul  Kouba,  a  view  of  which  is  presented  on  the 
following  page.  Armed  with  a  tallow-candle,  I  forthwith  crept  into  the 
hole,  scrambling  on  hands  and  knees  amid  a  quantity  of  human  skulls  and 
bones,  which  rattled  dismally  as,  one  after  another,  we  crawled  among 
them.  For  twenty  or  thirty  yards  we  thus  proceeded,  occasionally  obliged 
to  lie  down  perfectly  flat  upon  the  wet  mud  and  bones,  and  burrow  our 
way  along — a  mode  of  entry  which  reminded  me  of  an  unpleasant  experi- 
ence I  once  endured  in  descending  into  an  Egyptian  mummy-pit. 

13 


194 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 


Cave  of  Foul  Kouba, 


"At  last  we  were  enabled  to  stand  upright  and  look  around.  A  spa- 
cious cliamber,  about  forty  feet  high,  seemed  supported  by  some  huge  sta- 
lactites. The  largest  of  these  was  at  least  fifty  feet  in  circumference  ;  and 
if  the  cave  had  been  lighted  up  with  such  torches  as  those  used  at  Adels- 
burg,  instead  of  with  three  tallow-dips,  I  have  no  doubt  their  varied  colors 
would  have  produced  a  striking  effect.  I  followed  a  clear  stream  through 
a  small  opening  into  what  appeared  another  chamber,  but  could  get  no 
one  to  accompany  me  on  an  exploring  expedition,  as  my  companion  felt 
too  unwell  to  enter  the  cave  at  all.  Montandon,  however,  says  that  Mon- 
sieur Oudinet,  a  Frenchman,  penetrated  half  a  day's  journey  into  this  cave 
without  reaching  the  end.  The  innumerable  skulls  and  bones  lying  strewn 
about  in  all  directions  told  a  melancholy  history — a  party  of  Genoese  had 
been  smoked  to  death  here,  during  their  wars  with  the  Tartars  in  the  thir- 
teenth century. 

"  We  were  glad  to  get  into  the  fresh  air  again,  and,  very  hot  and  dirty, 
started  for  Kisil  Kouba,  another  cave  not  far  distant.  The  entrance  to 
this  was  magnificent ;  and,  after  descending  gradually  for  about  a  hundred 
yards,  the  cave  increased  to  a  breadth  of  thirty  or  forty  yards,  while  its 
height  could  not  have  been  less  than  sixty  feet.  Here,  however,  the  sta- 
lactites were  comparatively  poor,  though  occasionally  well-colored.  It  has 
never  been  fully  explored  ;  a  stream,  which  we  did  not  reach,  becoming  too 
deep  to  allow  of  its  extent  being  ascertained." 

The  celebrated  traveller  and  naturalist  Pallas  lived  for  fifteen  years  in 
the  town  of  Simferopol.  It  was  his  own  wish  to  emigrate  thither ;  and,  to 
enable  him  to  gratify  it,  the  empress  Catherine  II.  made  him  a  present  of 
an  estate  in  the  best  part  of  the  Crimean  peninsula.  But,  being  cut  off 
from  the  society  he  had  enjoyed  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  exposed  to  family 
annoyances,  Pallas  became  dissatisfied  with  the  country  and  with  the  cli- 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA THE    CRIMEA.  195 

mate  he  had  so  highly  panegyrized.  Having  sold  his  estate,  he  left  Sim- 
feropol in  disgust  in  1811,  and  returned,  after  an  al^sence  of  forty-two 
years,  to  his  native  city  Berlin,  where  he  died  in  the  course  of  the  same 
year. 

Kertsch,  a  seaport  town  of  the  Crimea,  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Panticapaeum,  on  a  tongue  of  land  forming  a  peninsula  of  the  same  name 
on  the  strait  of  Euikaleh,  connecting  the  sea  of  Azov  with  the  Euxine,  one 
hundred  and  thirty  miles  east-northeast  of  Simferopol.  It  is  regularly  and 
beautifully  built,  chiefly  of  stone  obtained  from  the  fine  quarries  of  the 
neighborhood,  and  possesses  great  natural  advantages  for  commerce.  In 
1827,  it  was  declared  a  free  port,  and  an  extensive  lazaretto  was  built,  at 
which  all  the  vessels  coming  by  the  Black  sea  perform  quarantine.  The 
number  of  vessels  which  touch  at  it  in  passing  out  of  the  sea  of  Azov  aver- 
ages four  hundred  annually,  and  the  number  of  coasting-vessels  is  from  five 
to  six  hundred.  The  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  are  employed  in  com- 
merce. It  exports  building-stone,  and  large  quantities  of  salt,  obtained 
from  the  neighboring  lakes  ;  and  its  herring  and  sturgeon  fisheries  are  very 
productive. 

The  ancient  town  of  Panticapaeum  was  the  residence  and  reputed  burial- 
place  of  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus.  A  mound  in  the  vicinity  is  said  to 
be  the  tomb  of  that  formidable  and  inveterate  enemy  of  Rome ;  but  this  is 
contradicted  by  the  most  authentic  accounts,  which  represent  Mithridates 
as  having  been  buried,  by  order  of  Pompey,  in  the  sepulchre  of  his  ances- 
tors at  Sinope.  The  modern  town  of  Kertsch  is  of  very  recent  existence, 
and  has  risen  up  as  if  by  magic ;  and,  by  its  increase,  has  prejudicially 
affected  some  of  the  other  ports.     Its  population  is  about  twelve  thousand. 

Cafia,  or  Feodosia  (the  ancient  Theodosia},  is  another  seaport  town, 
situated  at  the  western  angle  of  a  magnificent  bay  in  the  southeast  of  the 
Crimea.  It  is  walled  and  well  fortified,  and  contains  numerous  public 
buildings,  of  which  the  most  worthy  of  notice  are  the  three  churches  —  a 
Greek,  Roman  catholic,  and  Armenian  ;  two  mosques,  a  spacious  and  com- 
modious quarantine,  and  a  college,  founded  by  the  emperor  Alexander, 
chiefly  for  gratuitous  instruction  in  the  modern  languages.  There  is  also 
a  botanical  garden,  and  a  museum,  which  is  rich  in  the  antiquities  of  the 
neighborhood.  The  site  and  excellent  harbor  of  Caffa  would  seem  to  mark 
it  out  as  a  place  of  great  trade,  but  it  has  formidable  competitors  in  Odessa 
and  Kertsch,  and  does  not  seem  destined  to  recover  its  lost  importance. 

CaflFa  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  having  been  founded  by  a  colony  of 
Greeks  from  Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor.  It  received  its  name  of  Theodosia 
from  the  wife  of  Leucon,  king  of  the  Bosphorus,  who  took  it  after  a  long 
siege,  and  soon  made  it  a  place  of  great  importance.  In  the  middle  ages 
it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Genoese,  by  purchase  from  the  khans  of  the 
Crimea,  and  became  the  seat  of  an  extensive  commerce  with  the  East,  by 
the  way  of  the  Caspian  and  Astrakhan.  At  this  time  it  is  said  to  have 
liad  a  population  of  eighty  thousand  ;  but,  having  been  taken  by  the  Turks 


196  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

in  1474,  its  prosperity  rapidly  declined.  Much  has  been  done  for  it  since 
it  came  into  the  possession  of  Russia,  and  it  is  still  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant towns  in  the  Crimea,  but  its  population  probably  does  not  exceed 
eight  or  ten  thousand. 

Baktchiserai  (the  "  Seraglio  of  Gardens"')  is  one  of  the  most  remarka- 
ble towns  in  Europe.  It  is  situated  on  the  Djurouk-Su,  about  fifteen  miles 
southwest  of  Simferopol.  It  is  the  capital  in  which  the  khans  or  Tartar 
sovereigns  of  the  Tauridian  peninsula  long  held  sway,  as  deputies  or  tribu- 
taries of  Turkey,  before  Russia  established  herself  in  the  Crimea.  Bak- 
tchiserai is  a  place  of  great  interest,  both  historical  and  local.  The  Tartar 
impress  is  still  strong  upon  it.  It  stands  at  the  bottom  of  a  narrow  valley, 
hemmed  in  by  precipitous  rocks,  and  watered  by  a  small  rivulet,  by  no 
means  of  the  most  limpid  appearance,  and  consists  almost  entirely  of  a  sin- 
gle street,  builc  along  the  side  of  this  rivulet,  and  lined  with  bazars  and 
workshops,  in  which  the  Tartar  toils,  in  primitive  simplicity,  in  the  pro- 
duction of  articles  of  the  very  same  form  and  quality  as  furnished  by  his 
forefathers  two  centuries  ago  !  The  town  contains  several  mosques,  which 
are  usually  embosomed  among  trees,  and  whose  minarets  rise  high  above 
the  houses,  and  is  adorned  with  numerous  fountains.  The  number  of 
houses  in  the  town  exceeds  two  thousand,  inhabited  by  about  ten  thousand 
persons  —  the  majority  of  Tartar  blood,  the  rest  Russians,  Greeks,  Arme- 
nians, and  Jews.  The  Karaite  Jews,  a  peculiar  section  of  that  people, 
carry  on  a  considerable  trade  in  common  stufi-goods,  mercery,  and  colonial 
produce. 

The  main  street  above  alluded  to  is  nearly  a  mile  long,  and  so  narrow 
that  two  carts  can  scarcely  pass.  Fortunately  this  is  a  contingency  which 
does  not  often  arise ;  and  the  busy  throng  that  traverses  it,  which  consists 
almost  entirely  of  Tartars,  Karaite  Jews,  and  gipsies,  is  extremely  incon- 
venienced by  the  appearance  of  a  wheeled  vehicle  at  all.  In  mixing  with 
this  nondescript  populace,  Oliphant  remarks  that  his  attention  was  divided 
between  the  variety  of  feature  and  costume  which  it  exhibited,  and  the 
wonderful  display  of  goods  exposed  for  sale  in  tlie  open  shops.  These  are 
devoid  of  any  front  wall,  and  are  closed  at  night  by  the  wooden  shutters 
which  in  the  daytime  form  a  sort  of  counter.  Upon  this  the  owner  sits 
cross-legged,  earnestly  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  the  article  he  sells, 
and  only  allowing  himself  to  be  distracted  from  his  occupation  by  the  arri- 
val of  a  customer. 

From  the  manner  in  which  these  shops  are  arranged,  the  members  of 
each  craft  would  seem  to  be  collected  into  divisions  specially  appropriated 
to  them.  Thus,  immediately  on  leaving  the  khan,  or  Tartar  inn,  and  turn- 
ing up  the  principal  street  toward  the  palace,  a  bazar  is  passed  in  which 
sheepskin-caps  are  fabricated.  Beyond  these  come  the  workers  in  leather, 
encompassed  by  piles  of  saddles,  richly-embroidered  belts,  tobacco-pouches, 
and  absurd-looking  whips,  with  a  large,  flat  piece  of  leatlicr  at  the  end  of 
the  lash,  and  a  knife  concealed  in  the  handle,  like  the  one  in  the  accompa- 


SOUTHERN    RUSSIA THE    CRIMEA. 


197 


nying  engraving.  Opposite  are  slippcr-makcrs  and  tailors  ;  while  the  cutr 
lers  occupy  a  great  extent  of  territory,  and  are  famed  for  the  excellent 
Tartar  knives  which  they  manufacture. 

"  We  were  so  long  moving  about  from  one  set  of  these 
aflfable  shopkeepers  to  another,"  says  Oliphant,  "  that  it 
was  late  in  the  day  before  I  began  to  wonder  whether  we 
were  never  coming  to  a  food-quarter.  Hitherto,  since 
leaving  Sevastapol,  we  had  feasted  our  eyes  only,  while 
our  guide  had  subsisted  entirely  on  pipes.  Upon  liis  now 
suggesting  that  we  should  go  to  a  cook-shop,  we  willingly 
proceeded  in  search  of  one  ;  and  were  attracted,  by  sundry 
whiffs  redolent  of  mutton,  to  a  large  corner-house,  whence 
arose  a  cloud  of  fragrant  steam.  Here  a  number  of  people 
were  standing  in  tlie  open  street,  diving  into  huge,  project- 
ing caldrons  of  soup,  whence  they  extracted  square  pieces 
of  fat,  which  they  djevoured  with  great  relish  while  strolling 
about  among  the  crowd.  Not  entirely  approving  of  this 
al-fresco  mode  of  dining,  and  fearing  that  we  might  stand 
a  chance  of  being  run  over  while  discussing  an  interesting 
morsel,  we  were  glad  to  discover  that  it  was  not  necessary 
to  present  a  ticket  of  admission  to  a  Batchiserai  soup- 
kitchen  :  so  we  entered,  and  seated  ourselves  on  a  narrow  tabtar  whip. 
bench,  behind  a  very  filthy  plank  intended  to  serve  as  a 
festiv^e-board.  Being  fully  exposed  to  the  street,  we  were  in  a  most  con- 
venient position  for  the  loungers  in  it  to  satisfy  their  curiosity  regarding 
us,  and  accordingly  we  were  mutually  edified  by  staring  at  one  another. 

"  Our  attention,  however,  was  soon  diverted  to  the  head-cook,  who 
brought  us  a  boiled  sheep's  head  in  one  hand,  while  with  the  other  he  at- 
tempted to  catch  the  gravy  that  trickled  through  his  fingers  upon  a  loaf  of 
black  bread.  These  he  set  down  before  us  on  the  cleanest  part  of  the 
plank  we  could  pick  out,  and  evidently  considered  that  our  every  want 
was  supplied.  We  fortliwith  proceeded  with  our  penknives  to  discuss  the 
sheep's  head,  which  seemed  to  have  been  previously  stripped  of  everything 
but  the  eyes  ;  and,  with  the  addition  of  some  kibaubs  (square  pieces  of  fat 
strung  upon  a  reed),  succeeded  in  accomplisliing  a  meal,  which  sustained 
us  for  the  rest  of  the  day :  not  that  it  would  be  possible  to  starve  in  Bak- 
tchiserai ;  the  heaps  of  delicious  fruit  with  which  the  street  is  lined  for 
some  hundreds  of  yards  would  always  furnish  an  abundant,  if  somewhat 
unwholesome  meal.  Grapes,  figs,  pomegranates,  peaches,  nectarines,  and 
apricots,  tempt  the  passenger  to  refresh  himself  at  every  step ;  while,  as 
if  in  gentle  remonstrance  with  his  imprudence,  innumerable  fountains  of 
the  purest  water  gush  out  of  the  hillside,  murmuring  invitations  to  the 
thirsty  soul  which  it  is  difficult  to  resist.  From  one  of  these,  which  has 
ten  spouts,  the  sparkling  streams  fall  upon  slabs  of  marble.  A  continual 
babbling  goes  on  in  every  direction  as  the  clear  little  rivulets  seem  hurrying 


198  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

away  from  tlie  filtli  of  the  town,  determined  to  lose  themselves  as  speedily 
as  possible  in  the  waters  of  the  Djurouk-Su." 

The  far-famed  palace  of  the  khans  occupies  one  side  of  a  small  square 
at  the  extreme  end  of  the  main  street.  Crossing  the  moat,  a  painted  gate- 
way with  projecting  eaves  is  passed,  and  the  singular  collection  of  build- 
ings whicli  then  meets  the  eye  on  every  side  is  no  less  astonishing  than 
deliglitful.     To  the  right  of  a  large  grass-grown  court  stands  tlie  rambling, 


'■  Palace  of  the  Khans. 

disjointed  palace,  with  gaudy  walls  and  highly-decorated  trellis-work,  fes- 
tooned with  vines,  and  small  lattice-windows  looking  out  upon  fragrant 
gardens ;  wliile  above  all  is  an  octagonal  wooden  tower,  with  a  Chinese- 
looking  roof.  On  the  left  are  a  number  of  two-storied  buildings,  with 
verandahs  supported  by  ornamented  posts,  and  near  them  a  mausoleum 
and  mosque,  with  two  tall  minarets  —  the  mark  of  royalty.  A  handsome 
fountain,  shaded  by  willows,  stands  opposite  the  private  entrance ;  behind 
it  the  coui't  is  enclosed  by  the  walls  of  an  orchard,  situated  on  a  rising 
ground,  which  is  intersected  by  terraces. 

Looking  beyond  the  immediate  objects,  the  view  is  no  less  striking. 
The  palace  seems  to  be  in  the  arena  of  an  amphitheatre,  of  which  the  flat 
roofs  of  the  Tartar  houses  —  stuck,  as  it  were,  in  rows  against  the  sides  of 
the  mountains — represent  the  seats.*    All  over  tliese  mountains  caves  occur 

*  The  Tartars,  unlike  other  people,  generally  prefer  the  steep  siile  of  u  hill  fm-  the  site  of  their 
villages,  rather  than  those  level  situations  vulgarly  known  as  "  eligible  building-lots."  By  excava- 
ting a  space  out  of  the  hill,  in  proportion  to  the  accommodation  required,  the  architect  is  saved  the 
trouble  of  building  a  back  wall,  while  he  simply  fills  up  with  mud  the  angles  at  the  sides.  The 
roof,  which  thus,  as  it  were,  projects  out  of  the  hill,  is  perfectly  flat,  and  covered  with  mould.  It 
extends  beyond  the  front  walls,  and,  supported  by  posts,  forms  a  sort  of  verandah.  Thus,  when 
the  traveller  jiasses  below  one  of  these  cottages,  the  roof  is  not  visible  at  all ;  while,  if  he  be  above 
them,  they  would  have  the  effect  of  diminutive  drying-grounds  for  grain  or  coffee,  were  it  not  for 
the  smoke  that  issues  from  the  conical  mud-chimneys.  Tbesc  serve  not  only  as  apertures  for  the 
smoke,  but  also  as  a  means  of  verbal  communication  with  tiie  interior  of  the  houses.     On  a  dark 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA — THE   CRIMEA. 


199 


Taktab  Villagk. 


frequently,  resembling  pigeon-holes.  Nothing  can  be  more  unique  than 
the  aspect  of  the  town  from  the  courtyard  of  the  palace,  while  gigantic 
rocks,  of  grotesque  shape,  are  poised  in  mid-air,  threatening  destruction 
to  all  that  remains  of  the  capital  of  this  once-mighty  empire. 

Entering  the  principal  vestibule  of  the  palace,  the  celebrated  "  Fountain 
of  Tears,"  immortalized  among  Russians  by  a  poem  of  Alexander  Pushkin, 
is  seen.  This  hall  opens,  by  means  of  arches,  to  the  gardens  of  the  seraglio; 
and,  from  it,  dark  staircases  ascend  and  terminate  in  narrow  passages, 
which  again  lead  to  spacious  galleries,  brilliantly  decorated. 

Wandering  through  the  latter,  the  visiter  loses  himself  at  last  in  a  laby- 
rinth of  small  apartments,  scarcely  differing  from  one  another,  connected 
by  doorways,  in  which  swing  heavy  satin  brocades.  He  glides  noiselessly 
through  them  over  the  soft  Turkish  carpets,  as  if  treading  the  chamber  of 
death.  There  is  something  appropriate  in  the  mysterious  silence  which 
characterizes  all  his  movements,  surrounded  as  he  is  by  a  luxury  so  fresh- 
looking  and  real,  that  it  seems  as  though  its  possessors  had  but  just  van- 
ished for  ever  from  the  fairy  scenes  they  had  conjured  around  them.  Here 
are  broad  crimson  divans  ;  richly-embroidered  curtains  carefully  suspended 
over  the  latticed  windows  ;  and  tapestry  of  costly  satin,  elaborately  worked, 
concealing  the  walls,  or  hanging  quaintly  from  semicircular  projections 
over  the  fireplaces — a  flimsy  splendor,  which  was  not  allowed  to  fade  and 
vanish  with  its  original  possessors,  but  is  retained  in  all  its  gaudy  coloring, 
as  if  to  mock  the  memory  of  those  to  whose  effeminate  tastes  it  once  had 
ministered. 

night  an  equestrian  mig-ht  easily  mistake  his  way,  and,  riding-  straight  over  one  of  these  roofs,  make 
his  appearance  at  the  front  door  in  a  manner  too  abrupt  to  be  altogether  consistent  with  gooil 
breeding.  The  engraving  which  we  give  on  this  page  presents  a  characteristic  view  of  one  of  the 
numerous  villages  or  hamlets  of  the  Crim  Tartars. 


200 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OP  RUSSIA. 


Taktak  Gcide. 


But  Muscovite  sovereigns  have  condescended  to  lodge  in  the  former 
abode  of  the  khans ;  and  the  guide,  of  course,  imagines  that  the  most  in- 
teresting object  in  the  palace  is  the  bed  in  which  the 
empress  Catherine  II.  slept.  The  room  of  Maria 
Potoski,  however,  is  fraught  with  more  romantic  as- 
sociations. Here  for  ten  years  the  infatuated  count- 
ess resided,  hoping  to  effect  a  compromise  between 
her  conscience  and  her  passion  for  the  khan,  by  a 
life  devoted  to  religious  exercises,  while  content  to 
reign,  at  the  same  time,  supreme  in  the  palace  of  the 
infidel.  The  apartments  appropriated  to  her  are  lux- 
uriously arranged ;  and  a  lofty  hall,  with  fountains 
plashing  upon  slabs  of  marble,  bears  her  name.  Ad- 
joining it  is  a  Roman  catholic  chapel,  which  was  built 
expressly  for  her  use  by  the  amorous  khan. 

Many  of  the  rooms  are  ornamented  with  represen- 
tations of  birds,  and  beasts,  andr  creeping  things,  in 
every  variation  of  grotesque  form ;  while,  as  if  to 
compensate  for  this  direct  violation  of  the  Koran,  fragments  of  that  sacred 
record  are  inscribed  upon  the  walls.  One  of  the  most  singular  chambers 
in  this  most  singular  palace  is  a  large  glass  summer-house,  surrounded  by 
a  divan,  and  decorated  in  a  most  unorthodox  manner,  in  which  a  fountain 
plays  into  a  porphyry  basin.  It  opens  upon  a  flower-garden,  at  the  farther 
end  of  which,  shaded  by  a  magnificent  old  vine,  is  a  marble  bath,  prepared 
for  the  empress  Catherine  by  the  considerate  gallantry  of  Potemkin,  and 
supplied  by  cascades  from  tlie  fountain  of  Selsabil.  The  favorite  lived 
enclosed  among  delicious  gardens,  in  the  now-deserted  harem,  during  the 
residence  of  his  royal  mistress  in  the  palace,  from  which  it  is  approached 
by  a  succession  of  pavilions  and  verandahs.  Attached  to  it  is  the  octago- 
nal tower ;  and  authorities  differ  as  to  whether  the  khans  reserved  it  for 
the  use  of  their  women  or  their  falcons.  As  it  is  exactly  like  a  large 
wooden  cage,  no  light  is  thrown  upon  the  subject  from  its  construction. 
From  between  the  bars  a  singular  panoramic  view  is  obtained  of  the  town 
and  palace.  The  palace  first  became  the  residence  of  the  khans  in  the 
year  1475. 

"  Having  seen  the  former  abode  of  the  khans,"  says  Oliphant,  "  we 
thought  we  would  now  visit  their  present  resting-place.  So,  leaving  the 
fountains  to  play  and  babble  in  silent  halls,  and  the  divans  to  grace  unten- 
anted rooms,  and  the  trees  to  blossom  and  perfume  the  deserted  gardens, 
we  entered  the  vaulted  chambers  in  which  the  most  illustrious  khans  re- 
pose. Here  a  venerable  old  hadje  held  tremulously  aloft  the  dim,  flickering 
light,  to  enable  us  to  look  over  the  turbaned  tombstones.  Passing  out,  we 
walked  through  the  cemetery,  where  vines  cluster  over  the  crumbling  ruins 
that  tell  of  departed  greatness  ;  and  all  seemed  travelling  the  same  road 
which  the  occupants  of  these  sculptured  sepultures  have  already  taken." 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  —  THE   CRIMEA. 


201 


I 


Mausoleum  of  the  Khans. 


The  valley  in  which  Baktchiserai  lies  almost  concealed,  terminates  in  a 
narrow  gorge,  containing  caverns  occupied  only  by  gipsies.  From  this 
gorge  the  way  emerges  upon  a  dark,  mysterious  glen,  heavily  wooded  with 
oaks  and  beech-trees.  A  winding  path  dives  into  its  inmost  recesses,  and 
through  amaze  of  tombstones,  formed  in  the  shape  of  sarcophagi,  and  cov- 
ered with  Hebrew  inscriptions.  This  is  the  "Valley  of  Jehoshaphat"  — 
for  centuries  the  cemetery  of  the  Karaite  Jews,  who  still  love  to  lay  their 
bones  beside  those  of  tlieir  ancestors  ;  so  that  the  sleeping  inhabitants  of 
the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  far  outnumber  the  population  of  Karaites  in  any 
one  town  in  the  Ci^mea. 

The  little  path  extends  for  nearly  a  mile,  always  surrounded  by  these 
touching  mementoes  of  a  race  who,  in  whatever  part  of  the  world  they  may 
be  scattered,  still  retain  the  profoundest  veneration  for  a  spot  hallowed  by 
such  sacred  associations.  The  grove  terminates  suddenly  near  a  frightful 
precipice,  from  the  dizzy  edge  of  which  a  magnificent  view  is  obtained. 

A  few  miles  distant,  the  conical  rock  of  Tepekerman  rises  abruptly  from 
the  broken  country,  its  beetling  crags  perforated  with  innumerable  myste- 
rious caverns  and  chambers.  Beyond,  the  Tchatir  Dagh,  with  the  elevated 
sea-range,  of  which  it  is  part,  forms  the  background  of  the  rich  and  varied 
landscape. 

Following  the  line  of  the  calcareous  cliffs,  a  point  is  reached  where  the 
prospect  in  the  opposite  direction  is  still  more  striking.     To  the  right,  the 


202  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

dilapidated  old  fortress  of  Tchonfut  Kale  crowns  the  nearest  height,  while 
the  monastery  of  Uspenskoi,  built  into  the  face  of  the  overhanging  rock, 
appears  as  if  it  had  been  excavated  by  the  inhabitants  of  Stony  Petra, 
rather  than  by  monks  of  the  Greek  church.  Here,  too,  compressed  within 
narrow  limits,  lies  the  old  Tartar  capital,  almost  hidden  by  the  gardens 
which  clothe  the  valley  in  a  mantle  of  richest  green.  Lower  down,  the 
precipices  soften  into  gentle  slopes,  and  the  cultivation  spreads  over  a 
great  extent  of  country,  through  which  the  Djurouk-Su  meanders  until  it 
falls  into  the  Black  sea,  that  bounds  the  western  horizon. 

When  the  Tartar  khans  deserted  Tchoufut  Kale  for  the  lovely  vale 
below,  this  singular  stronghold  became  again  exclusively  the  residence  of 
the  Karaite  Jews,  who  had  lived  there  from  time  immemorial,  and  who  are 
naturally  bound  to  it  by  the  strongest  feelings  of  reverence  and  affection, 
since  it  has  been  alike  the  cradle  of  their  sect,  and  the  rock  upon  which 
they  have  ever  found  a  secure  refuge  in  times  of  persecution.  Singular  as 
it  may  seem,  perched  upon  this  almost  inaccessible  cliff  is  the  headquarters 
of  a  sect  whose  members  are  scattered  over  Eussia,  Poland,  and  Egypt. 

As  the  population  was  said  to  be  entirely  Jewish,  Oliphant  remarks  that 
he  expected  to  find  Tchoufut  Kale  filled  with  picturesque  groups  of  hand- 
somely-dressed men  and  lovely  maidens  ;  but  he  passed  through  the  arch- 
way, and  along  the  streets,  to  which  the  living  rock  answered  the  purpose 
of  pavement,  and  still,  to  his  astonishment,  not  a  soul  wa?  to  be  seen !  A 
few  dogs  flew  at  him,  and  obliged  him  to  perambulate  the  rest  of  the  town 
armed  with  stones.  It  seemed  quite  empty,  for  not  only  were  the  public 
thoroughfares  deserted,  but  he  could  get  no  answer  at  any  of  the  doors  at 
which  he  knocked  ;  so  that  he  was  beginning  to  suspect  that  the  last  inhab- 
itant must  have  recently  got  some  one  to  bury  him  in  the  valley  of  Jehosh- 
aphat,  when  a  husky  voice  murmured  something  through  a  crack  in  a  shut- 
ter ;  and  presently  a  decrepit,  stone-blind  old  man,  who  might  have  been 
the  individual  in  question,  hobbled  out  with  a  stick,  and  offered  to  conduct 
him  to  the  synagogue. 

This  edifice  is  a  plain  building,  differing  in  no  respect  from  an  ordinary 
Jewish  place  of  worship.  It  contains  some  magnificently-bound  copies  of 
the  Old  Testament  in  manuscript.  The  books  of  Moses  only  are  printed 
and  taught  in  the  schools.  The  Karaites  profess  to  have  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  its  most  genuine  state. 

The  derivation  of  their  name  has  been  ascribed  to  kara  and  ite,  words 
signifying,  in  Arabic,  "black  dog"  —  a  not  unlikely  epithet  to  be  applied 
by  Mohammedans  to  this  despised  race.  A  more  generally  received  and 
probably  correct  derivation,  however,  seems  to  be  from  the  word  kara, 
"scripture" — because  they  hold  simply  to  the  letter  of  scripture,  not  ad- 
mitting the  authority  of  the  Talmud,  or  the  interpretation  of  the  rabbis. 
Like  all  Jews,  they  display  extraordinary  care  in  the  education  of  their 
children,  who  are  publicly  instructed  in  the  synagogues.  About  five  thou- 
sand Karaites  are  resident  in  Poland,  who  acknowledge  the  old  rabbi  of 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA  —  THE  CRIMEA. 


203 


Jewish  Fortress  of  Tchoufct  Kale. 


\ 


Tehoufut  Kale  as  their  spiritual  chief.  They  are  said  originally  to  have 
emigrated  from  the  Crimea. 

As  almost  all  the  Karaites  are  engaged  in  trade  or  manufacture,  and  as 
they  observe  the  most  scrupulous  lionesty  in  their  dealings,  it  has  naturally 
followed  tliat  they  are  a  prosperous  and  thriving  community ;  while,  as  if 
an  exception  had  been  made  in  favor  of  this  portion  of  that  interesting- 
people  whose  unhappy  destiny  has  been  so  wonderfully  accomplished,  prob- 
ably the  only  settlement  exclusively  Jewish  which  still  exists  is  the  fortress 
of  Tehoufut  Kale.  Its  population  has,  however,  dwindled  down  to  a  very 
small  remnant,  since  trade  has  increased,  and  additional  facilities  have 
been  afforded  for  settling  in  more  convenient  positions  than  upon  the  sum- 
mit of  one  of  the  highest  crags  in  the  Crimea.  Tlie  population  of  the  sea- 
port of  Eupatoria  is  composed  mainly  of  Karaites,  nearly  two  thousand  of 
whom  are  now  resident  there  —  and  some  of  these  are  wealthy  merchants. 

All  devout  Karaites  scattered  throughout  the  Crimea,  when  increasing- 
infirmities  warn  them  of  approaching  dissolution,  are  brought  to  Tehoufut 
Kale  to  die,  and  to  have  their  bones  repose  beside  those  of  their  forefathers 
in  the  lovely  vale  of  Jehoshaphat. 

There  are  only  two  entrances  to  the  fortress,  and  the  massive  gates  are 
locked  every  night.  Down  a  long  flight  of  steps  cut  out  of  the  living  rock 
is  a  well  of  delicious  water  which  supplies  the  inhabitants,  the  situation  of 
which,  at  the  bottom  of  a  valley,  and  far  below  the  walls,  would  render 
the  impregnable  position  of  the  fort  utterly  valueless  in  time  of  war.  At 
this  well  is  usually  stationed  a  man  who  fills  the  water-skins  borne  by  don- 
keys to  their  master  above,  neither  the  consigner  nor  the  consignee  accom- 
panying these  sagacious  animals  on  the  numerous  trips  which  are,  never- 
theless, so  essential  to  the  comfort  of  the  inhabitants. 

Following  the  bank  of  the  ravine,  the  monastery  of  the  Uspenskoi  (or 
the  "Assumption  of  the  Virgin  Mary")  is  reached,  where  galleries  are 


204  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

suspended  upon  the  face  of  a  lofty  precipice,  beneath  the  stupendous  rocks 
out  of  which  the  chambers  are  hewn,  and  out  of  which  also  are  cut  tlie 
flight  of  steps  by  Avhich  they  are  approached.  The  monastery  is  said  to 
have  originated  at  the  time  of  the  persecution  of  the  Greek  church  by  the 
Mohammedans,  when  its  members  were  not  allowed  to  worship  in  build- 
ings. In  some  places  the  windows  are  mere  holes  in  the  face  of  the  rock, 
while  in  others  the  front  is  composed  of  solid  masonry.  A  wooden  veran- 
dah before  the  church  is  supported  over  the  massive  bells. 

Ahout  twenty  thousand  pilgrims  resort  hither  annually  in  the  month  of 
August.  Altogether  it  is  a  curious  place,  and  harmonizes  well  with  the 
strange  scenery  in  which  it  is  situated ;  so  that  the  monks  deserve  some 
credit  for  adding  to  the  charms  of  a  spot  already  possessing  so  many  at- 
tractions ;  and  this  is  probably  the  only  benefit  their  presence  is  likely  to 
confer  upon  the  community. 

The  ruins  of  the  celebrated  fortress  of  Mangoiip  Kale,  a  view  of  which 
is  given  in  the  engraving  on  the  opposite  page,  crown  the  summit  of  a  hill 
that  terminates  the  vale  of  Balbeck,  on  the  route  from  Baktchiserai  to 
Yalta.  The  uncertainty  which  hangs  over  the  history  of  these  fragments 
of  former  greatness,  tends  to  invest  them  with  a  mysterious  interest  pecu- 
liar to  themselves.  They  are  strewn  so  extensively  over  the  surface  of 
the  rock  as  to  leave  no  doubt  of  the  magnitude  and  importance  Avhich  once 
distinguished  the  city  that  crowned  this  mountain-top.  They  bear  the 
traces  of  almost  every  race  which  has  inhabited  the  Crimea,  are  pervaded 
by  the  very  essence  of  antiquity,  and  are  regarded  by  the  Tartars  with  the 
profoundest  veneration.  And  they  are  worthy  of  it,  for  they  are  their  own 
historians ;  and  an  account  of  their  former  owners,  and  the  vicissitudes 
these  stones  have  undergone  since  they  were  first  hewn  from  the  solid  rock, 
may  at  a  future  time  be  extracted  from  them  by  some  antiquarian  who  has 
made  it  the  study  of  his  lifetime  to  worm  himself  into  the  confidence  of 
such  impenetrable  records. 

Meantime,  authorities  differ  very  widely  upon  this  matter.  The  name 
is  frequently  pronounced  Mangonte.  The  latter  syllable,  signifying  Goths, 
may  perhaps  lead  us  to  suppose  that  it  was  derived  from  the  possessors  of 
that  principality,  of  which  this  was  at  one  time  the  capital.  The  Goths 
were  expelled  from  the  lowlands  by  the  Huns  in  the  fourth  century,  and 
still  continued  to  live  in  an  independent  condition,  defending  themselves 
in  their  fastnesses  from  the  attacks  of  those  barbarians  who  successively 
possessed  themselves  of  the  remainder  of  the  Tauric  peninsula.  According 
to  some  authorities,  Mangoup  remained  the  capital  of  the  Gothic  princi- 
pality until  it  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  tlie  sixteenth  century ;  while 
others  suppose  that,  after  the  conquest  of  the  Crimea  by  the  Khazars,  it 
became  a  Greek  fortress,  and  so  remained  until  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Genoese,  at  the  same  time  with  the  Greek  colonies  on  the  coast.  This 
is  probably  the  correct  view,  as  the  greater  part  of  the  remains  are  Gre- 
cian.    Professor  Pallas  calls  Mangoup  "  an  ancient  Genoese  city,  which 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  —  THE   CRIMEA. 


205 


Mangoup  Kale. 


appears  to  have  been  the  last  resort  of  the  Ligurians  after  they  were  driven 
from  the  coast."  Still  the  chapel,  which  is  here  excavated  from  the  rock, 
and  the  images  of  saints,  which  he  describes  as  painted  on  the  walls,  may 
be  traces  of  the  Christian  Gotlis  no  less  than  of  the  Genoese ;  but  it  is 
extremely  improbable  that  such  is  the  case. 

In  1745,  Mangoup  was  occupied  by  a  Turkish  garrison  for  twenty  years, 
after  which  it  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  khan  of  the  Crimea.  It  had 
been  for  many  years  inhabited  almost  exclusively  by  Karaite  Jews.  These 
gradually  dwindled  away,  until  they  totally  disappeared  about  sixty  years 
ago,  and  have  left  nothing  behind  them  but  the  ruins  of  their  synagogue 
and  a  large  cemetery,  containing  tombs  similar  to  those  in  the  valley  of 
Jehoshaphat. 

There  is  very  little  left  of  the  massive  buildings  which  once  adorned  this 
famous  town,  except  the  foundations.  The  lofty  calcareous  promontory 
upon  which  the  fortress  is  perched,  is  about  a  mile  long,  and  a  quarter  of 
a  mile  broad.  Upon  three  sides  it  is  surrounded  by  frightful  precipices, 
while  that  by  which  alone  it  is  accessible  is  defended  by  castellated  towers, 
placed  at  intervals  in  the  massive  wall.  At  right  angles  with  it,  and  inter- 
secting the  narrow  promontory,  are  the  remains  of  another  wall ;  and  the 
most  perfect  building  now  existing  is  a  square  fort  built  into  it,  two  stories 
high,  and  pierced  with  loopholes  for  musketry.  The  upper  edge  of  the 
plateau  is  perforated  by  small  chambers  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  and  ap- 


206  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

proached  by  stairs  from  the  upper  surface.  Many  of  these  chambers  are 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  square,  and  connected  by  stairs  ;  but  the  work 
of  exploring  requires  nerves  rather  stronger  than  people  who  inhabit 
houses  instead  of  eagles'  nests  usually  possess ;  and  the  steps  hewn  out  of 
the  face  of  the  giddy  cliff,  Oliphant  thought,  were  more  picturesque  to  look 
at  than  agreeable  to  traverse.  Who  the  dwellers  in  these  singular  cells 
can  have  been,  it  is  difficult  to  conjecture  ;  but  they  were  probably  inhab- 
ited before  the  town  was  built  upon  the  rock  above. 

If  the  ruins  of  Mangoup  Kale  possessed  no  other  merit,  they  serve  at 
least  as  an  attraction  to  mount  the  cliffs  upon  which  tliey  are  situated,  and 
tlie  labor  of  the  ascent  is  amply  repaid  by  the  view  alone.  A  correct  idea 
of  the  configuration  of  this  part  of  the  Crimea  is  also  obtained  from  the 
fortress  of  Mangoup  Kale.  A  precipitous  limestone-range  extends  nearly 
east  and  west,  parallel  to  the  sea-range  ;  and  upon  the  edge  of  the  stupen- 
dous cliffs  are  perched  the  forts  of  Tchoufut  Kale  and  Mangoup  Kale. 
The  whole  of  the  country  intervening  between  these  ranges  is  intersected 
by  lovely  valleys,  and  watered  by  clear  mountain-streams  ;  their  banks  arc 
highly  cultivated,  and  frequent  tufted  groves  betray  the  existence  of  the 
villages  which  they  conceal.  This  tract  is  inhabited  solely  by  Tartars, 
who  seem  to  cling  to  their  highland  glens  with  the  tenacity  characteristic 
of  mountaineers.  They  are  a  hardy,  hospitable  race,  totally  difi'erent  from 
their  lowland  brethren. 

No  Tartar  ever  dreams  of  walking  from  one  village  to  another ;  but 
when  he  wants  to  pay  a  visit  to  his  neighbor,  like  a  true  country-gentleman 
he  rides  over  to  him ;  and  if  he  has  not  so  good  a  horse  as  the  squire,  he 
has  scenery  at  least  which  the  other  might  covet,  and  can  beguile  the  way 
with  a  contemplation  of  its  beauties,  if  competent  so  to  enjoy  himself.  To 
the  traveller  furnished  with  a  government  order,  the  Tartars  are  bound  to 
provide  horses  at  any  village  where  it  may  be  produced.  These  are  often 
poor-looking  animals,  but  active  and  sure-footed,  and  admirably  adapted 
for  the  rocky  passes  which  they  are  obliged  to  traverse ;  indeed,  they  de- 
serve great  credit  for  the  way  in  which  they  seem  to  cling  to  a  mountain- 
side, for  they  are  shod  with  a  flat  plate  of  iron,  with  a  hole  at  tlie  frog, 
which  may  be  useful  in  stony  deserts  for  protecting  the  hoof,  but  must 
cause  many  a  slip  over  the  smooth  rock.  Not  content  with  shoeing  their 
horses  in  this  fashion,  the  Tartars  treat  their  oxen  in  like  manner.  Their 
singular  process  of  shoeing  these  animals  is  well  illustrated  in  the  engra- 
ving at  the  close  of  the  chapter,  on  the  following  page.  The  animal  is 
placed  upon  the  broad  of  his  back,  and  there  secured — a  man  sitting  upon 
the  head.  The  four  legs,  tied  together,  thus  point  straight  up  in  the  air, 
and  the  smith  hammers  away  at  his  leisure,  enabled  by  his  convenient  po- 
sition to  operate  all  the  more  skilfully.  There  is  something  excessively 
ludicrous  in  the  operation  ;  though,  to  judge  from  the  scene  presented  in 
the  engraving,  with  the  assistant  seated  upon  its  head,  in  all  probability 
the  poor  brute  finds  it  no  laughing  matter. 


SOUTHERN   KUSSIA THE    CIlIMEA.  207 

"  It  was  melancholy  to  think,"  remarks  Oliphant,  "  that  the  inliabitants 
of  these  lovely  valleys  were  gradiiall}'-  disappearing  under  the  blighting 
influence  which  Russia  appears  to  exercise  over  her  moslem  subjects.  Of 
late  years  the  Tartars  have  been  rapidly  diminishing,  and  now  number 
about  a  hundred  thousand,  or  scarcely  half  the  entire  population  of  the 
Crimea.  Their  energy,  too,  seems  declining  with  their  numbers.  Whole 
tracts  of  country  susceptible  of  a  high  state  of  cultivation,  and  once  pro- 
ducing abimdantly,  are  now  lying  waste  ;  their  manufactures  deteriorating, 
their  territorial  wealth  destroyed,  their  noble  families  becoming  extinct, 
their  poor  ground  down  by  Russian  tax-gatherers,  and  swindled  out  of 
their  subsistence  by  dishonest  sub-officials. 

"  Ere  long  the  flat-roofed  cottages,  now  buried  amid  the  luxuriant  vege- 
tation of  clustering  fruit-trees,  will  crumble  into  dust,  and  with  them  the 
last  remains  of  that  nation  Avho  once  occupied  an  important  position  among 
European  nations.  Is  the  only  Mohammedan  state  still  existing  in  the 
West  to  share  the  same  fate  as  the  kingdom  of  Crim  Tartary  ?" 


Shoeing  a  BuLLOGt 


208  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 


CHAPTER   YIII. 

THE    STEPPES    OF    SOUTHERN    RUSSIA. 

THE  STEPPES  of  southern  Russia  (or  at  least  portions  of  them)  have 
been  casually  noticed,  in  the  descriptions  which  have  been  given  in 
the  immediately  preceding  chapters  on  the  governments  of  this  divis- 
ion of  the  empire.  But  they  form  so  characteristic  and  so  interesting  a 
feature  in  the  physical  aspect  of  the  country  —  as  much  so  as  the  prairies  of 
our  western  states,  and  which,  in  fact,  they  much  resemble  —  that  we  will 
give  place  to  a  general  description  of  them  here,  even  though  it  may  involve 
a  slight  repetition  of  what  is  incidentally  presented  in  other  chapters. 

The  steppes,  as  they  are  generally  called,  extend  from  the  borders  of 
Hungary  to  those  of  China.  They  constitute  an  almost  uninterrupted 
plain,  covered  in  spring  and  autumn  by  a  luxuriant  herbage ;  in  winter  by 
drifting  snows,  heaped  up  in  some  places,  and  leaving  the  ground  bare  in 
others  ;  and  in  summer  by  clouds  of  dust  so  excessively  fine,  that  even  on 
the  calmest  day  they  hang  suspended  in  the  air,  having  the  appearance 
rather  of  a  vapor  exhaled  from  the  ground,  than  of  earthy  particles  raised 
by  the  agitation  of  the  atmosphere.  The  slight  undulations  that  occur 
assume  but  rarely  the  character  of  hills,  but  artificial  hillocks  or  tumuli 
are  frequently  met  with,  the  origin  of  which  it  is  impossible  to  trace 
through  the  darkness  of  bygone  ages.  The  most  singular  characteristic, 
however,  of  the  steppe,  is  the  absence  of  trees,  on  a  soil  remarkable  for  its 
richness  and  the  luxuriance  of  its  herbage.  For  hundreds  of  miles,  a  trav- 
eller may  proceed  in  a  straight  line  without  encountering  even  a  bush, 
unless  he  happen  to  be  acquainted  with  the  few  favored  spots  known  to  the 
Tartar  sportsmen,  to  whom  they  answer  the  purpose  of  game-preserves. 
Countless  herds  of  cattle  roam  over  these  noble  pasture-grounds,  on  which 
a  calf  born  at  the  foot  of  the  Great  Chinese  Wall,  miglit  eat  his  way  along, 
till  he  arrived  a  well-fattened  ox  on  the  banks  of  the  Dniester,  prepared 
to  figure  with  advantage  at  the  Odessa  market !  The  poor  animals  suffer 
much  during  the  hot  and  dry  summers,  when  every  blade  of  grass  is  parched 
up  ;  but  the  careful  herdsman,  who  has  provided  himself  with  an  abundant 
stock  of  hay,  is  able  to  keep  his  beasts  alive  till  autumn  returns  to  gladden 
them  with  fresh  abundance. 

Wherever  a  ridge  of  hills  occurs,  of  sufficient  height  to  afi"ord  protection 
against  the  northern  blasts  that  come  sweeping  in  an  unbroken  course  from 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  —  THE  STEPPES.  209 

tlie  shores  of  the  Arctic  ocean,  the  character  of  the  country  is  changed.  In 
tlie  Crimea,  for  instance,  though  the  northern  portion  partakes  of  all  the 
rude  characteristics  of  the  steppe,  the  south  coast,  slieltered  by  the  central 
mountains,  enjoys  a  climate  equal  to  that  of  Italy,  and  allows  the  vine  and 
the  olive  to  be  cultivated  with  as  much  success  as  in  Provence. 

A  country  constituted  by  nature  as  are  the  Russian  steppes,  is  evidently 
destined  rather  for  a  wandering  and  pastoral  people,  than  for  a  settled  and 
agricultural  population ;  for  in  regions  where  but  few  prominent  objects 
occur,  there  is  but  little  to  attach  man  to  any  particular  spot.  The  Russian 
government,  however,  has  undertaken  the  task  of  converting  the  nomadic 
tribes  into  settled  agriculturists,  and  the  steppe  itself  into  one  vast  grain- 
field.  German  and  Bulgarian  colonists  have  been  tempted,  by  the  offer  of 
peculiar  privileges,  to  establish  themselves  in  different  parts  of  the  country, 
in  the  hope  that  their  example  might  gradually  wean  tlie  native  tribes  from 
their  roving  habits.  Where  the  colonists  have  been  located  in  the  vicinity 
of  large  towns,  the  plan  has  been  attended  with  partial  success ;  but  the 
foreigners  soon  discover  the  capabilities  of  the  country,  and  in  proportion 
as  their  means  increase,  rarely  fail  to  invest  their  surplus  capital  in  the 
purchase  of  flocks  and  herds,  the  numerical  amount  of  which  constitutes 
the  customary  standard  by  which  wealth  is  estimated  throughout  the 
steppe. 

The  rivers  which  intersect  the  steppes,  and  which  in  spring  are  swollen 
by  the  rapid  thaw  of  the  accumulated  snows  of  winter,  cut  deep  furrows  in 
the  surface  ;  and  as  they  frequently  change  their  courses,  they  occasionally 
leave  dry  ravines  that  break  in  some  measure  the  uniformity  of  the  coun- 
try. Little  importance  would  be  attached,  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  to 
the  trifling  elevations  and  depressions  thus  formed ;  but  in  the  steppe,  the 
slightest  variation  of  surface  becomes  a  landmark  of  importance,  and  sepa- 
rate denominations  are  given  by  the  inhabitants  to  every  peculiarity  of 
shape  which  the  ground  is  made  to  assume  under  the  action  of  water. 

Many  of  the  rivers — indeed,  all  but  the  principal  streams  —  are  fed  only 
by  the  rain  and  snow,  and  their  beds,  consequently,  are  dry  in  summer. 
Each  of  these  ravines  terminates  in  a  w^aterfall,  formed  originally,  no  doubt, 
by  the  terrace  that  bounds  the  Black  sea,  and  which  in  some  places  rises 
to  the  height  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet  above  the  water  level ;  but  in 
proportion  as  the  water  wore  away  a  channel  for  itself,  the  waterfall  grad- 
ually receded,  and,  in  the  course  of  ages,  made  its  way  farther  and  farther 
into  the  interior  of  the  country. 

The  elevation  of  the  ground  being  so  nearly  alike  throughout  the  whole 
of  the  steppe,  the  ravines  formed  by  the  action  of  the  rain-water  are  of 
nearly  equal  depth  in  every  part  of  the  country.  They  are  seldom  less 
than  a  hundred  feet  deep,  and  seldom  exceed  a  hundred  and  fifty.  These 
ravines,  or  vuipolotsh,  with  their  lateral  branches  on  each  side,  as  their 
edges  are  at  all  times  exceedingly  abrupt,  offer  to  the  traveller,  as  well  as 
to  the  herdsman  driving  his  lowing  and  bleating  charge  across  the  plain, 

14    * 


210  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

an  impassable  barrier,  to  avoid  which  it  is  often  necessary  to  go  round  for 
many  miles.  The  consequence  is,  that  several  roads  or  tracks  are  always 
sure  to  meet  at  the  head  of  a  vuipololsh,  which  thus  becomes  a  spot  of  some 
importance  throughout  the  surrounding  country.  In  winter,  the  ravine  is 
usually  filled  by  the  drifting  snow,  and  is  then  extremely  dangerous  to 
any  one  not  well  acquainted  with  the  country.  Men  and  cattle  are  at  that 
season  often  buried  in  the  snow-drifts,  and  their  fate  is  ascertained  only 
when  the  melting  of  the  snow  leaves  their  bodies  exposed  at  the  foot  of 
the  precipice. 

The  foregoing  description  does  not,  of  course,  apply  to  the  larger  rivers 
that  are  supplied  with  water  throughout  the  year.  The  banks  of  these 
are  less  abrupt,  but  their  elevation,  though  more  gradual,  is  about  the 
same,  being  seldom  less  than  a  hundred  nor  more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  over  the  level  of  the  water.  The  beds  of  these  large  rivers  are  in 
general  remarkably  broad,  and  are  almost  always  fringed  with  a  belt  of 
reeds,  six  or  eight  feet  high,  that  forms  an  excellent  cover  for  every  de- 
scription of  water-fowl. 

While  the  action  of  the  rain  is  exercising  so  powerful  an  influence  in  the 
interior,  the  sea,  as  may  easily  be  supposed,  is  not  idle  on  the  coast.  A 
very  remarkable  characteristic  of  the  Black  sea  is,  that  at  the  mouth  of 
every  river  a  large  lake  is  gradually  formed  by  the  action  of  the  sea,  and 
some  of  them  are  unconnected  with  the  sea.  These  lakes  are  known  along 
the  coast  by  the  name  of  liman.  These  limans  are  supposed  to  have  been 
formed  by  the  action  of  the  sea  driven  into  the  mouth  of  the  river  by  the 
violence  of  the  prevailing  storms,  and  constantly  undermining  tlie  terrace 
of  the  overhanging  steppe.  During  tranquil  weather,  an  opposite  action 
is  going  on.  The  rivers  are  always  turbid  with  tlie  soil  of  the  steppe,  and 
their  water,  arrested  in  its  course  by  the  tideless  sea,  deposites  its  sedi- 
ment in  front  of  the  liman,  where  a  low  strip  of  land  is  gradually  formed. 
This  natural  mound,  by  which  every  liman  is  in  course  of  time  protected 
against  the  further  encroachment  of  the  sea,  is  called  a  peressip.  Wlicre 
i\\Q  supply  of  water  brought  down  by  a  river  is  tolerably  large,  the  peressip 
is  never  complete,  but  is  broken  by  an  aperture  called  a  gheerl,  that  forms 
a  communication  between  the  liman  and  the  sea.  Many  limans,  however, 
are  fed  by  streams  that  bring  down  so  feeble  a  volume  of  water,  that  the 
mere  evaporation  is  suflacient  to  carry  off  the  whole  surplus,  and  the  peres- 
sip in  such  cases  becomes  perfect,  forming  a  barrier  that  completely  cuts 
off  all  communication  between  the  river  and  the  sea.  Limans  so  circum- 
stanced exercise  a  baneful  influence  upon  the  country,  in  consequence  of 
the  offensive  effluvia  that  arise  from  the  stagnant  Avater  in  summer. 

Occasionally  in  passing  over  the  steppe,  the  traveller  perceives  a  slight 
depression  of  the  surface,  as  if  a  mighty  giant  had  laid  his  hand  upon  the 
plain  and  pressed  it  down.  In  such  natural  basins,  called  stavoks  by  the 
natives,  the  rain  collects,  and  though  the  soil  soon  absorbs  the  water,  the 
place  generally  retains  some  moisture  long  after  the  rest  of  the  country 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  —  THE   STEPPES.  211 

has  been  parched  up  by  the  summer  heats.  The  stavok,  it  may  easily  be 
supposed,  is,  at  such  a  time,  an  object  of  no  trifling  importance  to  the  herds- 
man, and  is  carefully  guarded  against  the  intrusion  of  strangers.  A  belief 
prevails  upon  the  steppe  that  the  stavoks  are  holes  formed  by  the  ancient 
Mongolians,  who  dug  out  the  earth  to  form  their  tumuli ;  but  there  is  no 
good  reason  to  suppose  that  the  depression  has  originated  otherwise  than 
by  a  slight  sinking  of  the  subjacent  strata. 

The  climate  of  the  steppes  is  one  of  extremes.  In  summer,  the  heat  is 
as  intense  as  the  cold  is  severe  in  winter,  the  waters  of  the  Black  sea  exer- 
cising apparently  but  little  influence  in  tempering  the  atmosphere.  This 
is  accounted  for  by  the  abrupt  rise  of  the  coast,  which  arrests  the  strata 
of  air  immediately  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  leaves  a  free  course 
only  to  those  portions  of  the  air  that  fly  at  a  higher  level.  The  steppe, 
therefore,  has  usually  an  arctic  winter  and  a  tropical  summer,  and  enjoys, 
only  during  spring  and  autumn,  short  intervals  of  that  moderate  tempera- 
ture to  which  its  geographical  positron,  in  the  temperate  zone,  would  appear 
to  entitle  it. 

The  core  or  substance  of  the  long  winter  of  the  steppe  is  formed  by  the 
three  months  of  December,  January,  and  February,  during  which  all  the 
energies  of  nature  appear  sunk  in  an  unbroken  sleep  ;  but  though  unbroken, 
it  is  by  no  means  a  quiet  sleep  that  Dame  Nature  is  allowed  to  enjoy  during 
this  period  of  the  year,  for  the  snow-storms  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  and 
so  excessively  violent,  that  even  the  most  seasoned  veterans  of  the  steppe 
stand  in  awe  of  them.  Every  road  or  track  is  frequently  altogether  eff"aced, 
the  ravines  are  filled  up,  and  cases  even  occur  where  men  and  cattle  are 
suddenly  caught  by  a  drift  of  snow,  and  completely  buried  under  its  accu- 
mulating mass.  The  emperor  Nicholas  once,  in  travelling  in  a  sledge 
across  the  steppes,  was  capsized  in  a  steep  ravine,  and  was  taken  up  with  a 
broken  cla^dcle.  To  the  more  violent  of  these  storms  no  traveller  attempts 
to  expose  himself ;  and  even  the  government  couriers  are  excused  if,  during 
the  three  days — their  usual  duration — they  remain  closely  housed  at  the 
station  which  they  happen  to  have  reached. 

The  winter  of  the  steppe,  in  intensity  of  cold,  frequently  surpasses  the 
severest  seasons  known  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  ;  and  the  cutting  blasts 
from  the  north,  sweeping  huge  masses  of  snow  into  the  Black  sea,  often 
cover  it  with  a  thick  coating  of  ice  for  many  leagues  from  the  shore.  The 
steppe,  accordingly,  participates  in  all  the  severity  of  a  Russian  winter,  but 
enjoys  few  of  the  advantages  which  to  the  northern  Russian  go  far  to 
redeem  the  intensity  of  the  cold.  In  northern  Russia,  and  even  in  the 
Ukraine,  the  snow  remains  on  the  ground  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
winter,  and  the  sledges  quickly  wear  the  surface  of  the  road  into  a  smootli 
mass  of  ice,  over  which  the  heaviest  goods  may  be  transported  with  a  speed 
and  facility  surpassed  only  by  a  railroad.  The  Russian,  therefore,  usually 
prefers  the  winter  months,  not  only  for  travelling,  but  also  for  the  convey- 
ance of  heavy  goods  from  one  place  to  another.     To  the  denizen  of  the 


212 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 


Wintek-Travelling  on  the  Steppes  —  Sledges. 


Steppe  this  natui'al  railroad  is  unknown.  The  storms  that  prevail  through- 
out the  greater  part  of  the  winter  keep  the  snow  in  a  constant  state  of  agi- 
tation, and  prevent  it  from  "  caking"  on  the  ground.  The  snow,  in  conse- 
quence, never  uniformly  covers  the  steppe,  but  seems  to  lie  unequally  scat- 
tered over  it  in  drifts,  according  as  the  wind  may  have  wafted  it  about. 

When  the  snow  melts  on  the  steppe,  the  spring  may  be  said  to  commence. 
This  usually  takes  place  in  April,  but  May  is  sometimes  far  advanced  be- 
fore the  mass  of  water  has  had  time  to  find  its  way  into  the  rivers.  During 
this  melting  season^  the  whole  surface  of  the  steppe  is  converted  into  a  sea 
of  mud,  through  which  neither  man  nor  beast  can  wade  without  positive 
danger.  Through  every  ravine  rushes  a  torrent  of  the  dirtiest  water  that 
can  well  be  imagined,  and  about  the  dwellings  of  men  the  accumulated  filth 
of  the  winter  is  at  once  exposed  to  view,  by  the  disappearance  of  the  snowy 
mantle  that,  for  a  season,  had  charitably  covered  a  multitude  of  sins.  This 
operation  is  frequently  interrupted  by  the  return  of  frost,  and  the  descent 
of  fresh  masses  of  snow — for  there  is  no  country,  perhaps,  where  Winter 
makes  a  harder  fight  for  it,  before  he  allows  himself  to  be  beaten  out  of 
the  field.  When  at  last  boisterous  old  Hyems  has  really  been  forced  to 
beat  his  retreat,  a  most  del>^ghtful  period  of  the  year  succeeds,  and  the 
steppe,  covered  with  a  beautiful  and  luxuriant  herbage,  smiles  like  a  lovely 
oasis  between  the  parched  desolation  of  the  summer  and  the  dreary  waste 
of  the  winter.  The  whole  earth  now  seems  clad  in  the  color  of  Hope, 
while  the.  sky  assumes  that  of  Truth ;  and  though  it  is  certainly  monoto 
nous  enough  to  behold  nothing  but  blue  above  and  green  below,  yet  the 
recollection  of  past  hardships,  and  the  consciousness  of  present  abundance, 
make  the  season  one  of  rejoicing  to  the  native,  and  even  excite  for  a  while 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA THE   STEPPES.  213 

the  fidmiration  of  the  stranger.  The  latter,  however,  is  certain,  before 
long,  to  grow  weary  of  a  spring  unadorned  by  a  single  flowering  shrub, 
unvaried  by  a  single  bubbling  brook. 

Thunder  and  lightning  are  frequent  throughout  May,  but  the  thunder- 
storm on  the  steppe  is,  comparatively,  but  a  poor  kind  of  spectacle,  there 
being  neither  trees  nor  rocks  for  the  lightning  to  sliow  his  might  upon,  nor 
mountains,  by  their  reverberating  echoes,  to  give  increased  majesty  to  the 
pealing  artillery  of  heaven  ;  but  these  discharges  of  atmospheric  electricity, 
though  they  want  the  grandeur  of  the  Alpine  tempest,  are  dear  to  the  peo- 
ple of  the  steppe,  where  they  are  always  accompanied  by  either  showers 
or  night-dews,  so  that  as  long  as  it  thunders  tliere  is  no  lack  of  fodder  for 
the  cattle. 

In  June,  the  lightning  ceases  to  play,  and  the  periodical  drought  an- 
nounces its  approach,  the  whole  month  passing  frequently  away  without 
depositing  a  particle  of  moisture  on  the  ground.  The  consequences  of  this 
begin  to  manifest  themselves  in  July,  when  the  heated  soil  cracks  in  every 
direction,  opening  its  parched  lips  in  supplication  for  a  few  drops  of  water 
that  are  not  vouchsafed.  HeaA'y  and  tantalizing  clouds,  it  is  true,  sweep 
over  the  steppe,  but,  instead  of  showering  their  blessings  on  the  thirsty 
land,  hurry  away  to  the  Carpathian  mountains  or  to  the  sea.  The  sun  at 
this  season  rises  and  sets  like  a  globe  of  fire,  but  the  evaporations  raised 
from  the  earth  by  the  mid-day  heat  seldom  fail  to  give  a  misty  appearance 
to  the  sky  toward  noon.  The  heat,  meanwhile,  is  rendered  intolerable  by 
its  duration,  for  anything  like  a  cool  interval  never  occurs,  and  shade  is 
not  to  be  thought  of  in  a  country  where  hills  and  trees  are  alike  unknown. 

This  season  is  one  of  great  suftering  to  all  living  beings  on  the  steppe. 
Every  trace  of  vegetation  is  singed  away,  except  in  a  few  favored  spots ; 
the  surface  of  the  ground  becomes  browner  and  browner,  and  at  last  com- 
pletely black.  Men  and  cattle  assume  a  lean  and  haggard  look,  and  the 
wild  oxen  and  horses,  so  fierce  and  ungovernable  in  May,  become  as  tame 
as  lambs  in  July,  and  can  scarcely  crawl  in  August.  Ponds  dry  up,  wells 
cease  to  furnish  water,  and  the  beds  of  lakes  are  converted  into  sandy 
hollows.  Water  now  rises  in  price,  and  becomes  an  article  which  it  is 
worth  a  thief's  while  to  steal.  The  few  springs  that  continue  to  yield 
must  have  a  guard  set  upon  them  night  and  day,  or  the  legitimate  owner 
will  scarcely  keep  enough  to  slake  his  own  thirst.  At  this  season  tliou- 
sands  of  cattle  perish  on  the  steppe  of  thirst ;  while,  as  if  to  mock  their 
sufferings,  the  horizon  seems  laden  with  humid  clouds,  and  the  parched  soil 
assumes  to  the  cheated  eye  in  the  distance  the  appearance  of  crystal  lakes 
and  running  streams ! 

In  many  respects  the  summer  on  the  steppe  is  more  cruel  even  than  in 
the  Sahara  of  Africa,  or  in  the  Llanos  of  South  America,  for  in  neither  of 
these  does  the  moisture  so  completely  disappear  from  the  soil,  and  in  the 
African  desert,  wherever  there  is  water,  a  little  terrestrial  paradise  of 
date-trees  and  flowering  shrubs  is  certain  to  be  grouped  around ;  but  in 


214  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

the  steppe,  even  the  rivers  flow  only  between  grass,  and  reeds  are  the  only- 
shrubs  by  which  the  banks  are  fringed,  while  from  the  parched  and  gaping 
earth  not  even  a  cactus  or  an  aloe  peeps  forth,  into  which  a  thirsty  animal 
might  bite  to  moisten  its  lips  with  the  juice. 

In  August,  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  reaches  the  extreme  point : 
but,  before  the  end  of  the  month,  the  night-dews  set  in,  and  thunderstorms 
are  occasionally  followed  by  rain.  The  leaden,  dusty  sky  becomes  clear 
and  blue  again,  and  everything  reminds  you  that  the  delights  of  autumn 
are  approaching.  The  temperature  of  September  is  mild  and  refreshing, 
and  the  detestable  black  dust  of  the  steppe,  kept  down  by  frequent  show- 
ers, no  longer  gives  to  every  creature  the  complexion  of  a  negro.  A  fresh, 
green  heritage  quickly  covers  the  whole  plain,  and  man  and  beast  in  a  short 
time  recover  their  strength  and  spirits. 

Delightful  the  autumn  of  the  steppe  unquestionably  is,  but  short  and 
fleeting  are  its  charms,  for  October  is  already  a  gusty  Scythian  month, 
marked  by  cold  rains  and  fogs,  and  usually  closing  amid  violent  storms ; 
and  as  to  November,  that  is  set  down  as  a  winter  month  even  by  the  most 
seasoned  Russian. 

Every  plant  or  herb  on  the  steppe,  on  which  the  cattle  will  feed,  is 
known  by  the  general  name  of  trava;  and  every  woody,  wiry  stem,  from 
which  they  turn  away,  is  ruthlessly  classed  in  the  condemned  list  of  burian. 
The  thistle  deserves  the  first  place  among  the  hurian  of  the  steppe.  We 
have  but  little  notion  in  this  country  of  the  height  to  which  the  thistle  will 
often  grow  in  southern  Russia,  where  it  not  unfrequently  assumes  the  form 
and  size  of  a  tree,  overshadowing  with  its  branches  the  low-sunken  dwel- 
lings of  the  troglodytes  of  the  steppe.  In  places  peculiarly  favored  by  the 
thistle,  this  description  of  burian  will  sometimes  grow  in  such  abundance, 
as  to  form  a  little  grove,  in  which  a  Cossack  on  his  horse  may  completely 
hide  himself ! 

Another  description  of  weed  that  stands  in  very  bad  odor  in  the  steppe, 
has  been  aptly  denominated  ivind-ivitch  by  the  German  colonists.  This  is 
a  worthless  plant  that  expends  all  its  vigor  in  the  formation  of  innumera- 
ble threadlike  fibres,  that  shoot  out  in  every  direction,  till  the  whole  forms 
a  light  globular  mass.  The  little  sap  to  be  obtained  from  this  plant  is  bit- 
terer than  the  bitterest  wormwood,  and  even  in  the  driest  summer  no  animal 
will  touch  the  wind-witch.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  three  feet,  and  in 
autumn  the  root  decays,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  plant  becomes  com- 
pletely dry.  The  huge  shuttlecock  is  then  torn  from  the  ground  by  the 
first  high  wind  that  rises,  and  is  sent  dancing,  rolling,  and  hopping  over  the 
plain,  with  a  rapidity  which  the  best-mounted  rider  would  vainly  attempt 
to  emulate.  The  Germans  could  not  have  christened  the  plant  more  aptly  ; 
and,  in  bestowing  on  it  the  expressive  name  by  which  it  is  known  among 
them,  they  no  doubt  thought  of  the  national  legends  long  associated  witli 
the  far-famed,  witch-haunted  recesses  of  the  Blocksberg.  The  wild  dances 
with  which  fancy  has  enlivened  that  ill-reputed  mountain  are  yearly  imitated 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  —  THE  STEPPES.  215 

by  the  vnnd-ivUches  on  the  steppe.  Sometimes  tlicy  may  be  seen  skipping 
along  like  a  herd  of  deer  or  Avild  horses  ;  sometimes  describing  wide  circles 
in  the  grass,  sometimes  rolling  madly  over  one  another,  and  sometimes 
rising  by  hundreds  into  the  air,  as  though  they  were  just  starting  to  par- 
take in  the  diabolical  festivities  of  the  Blocksberg  itself !  They  adhere  to 
each  other  sometimes  like  so  many  enormous  burs,  and  it  is  not  an  uncom- 
mon sight  to  see  some  twelve  or  twenty  rolled  into  one  mass,  and  scouring 
over  the  plain  like  a  giant  in  his  seven-league  boots.  Thousands  of  them 
are  yearly  blown  into  the  Black  sea ;  but  with  this  salto  mortale  ends  the 
ivitch^s  career,  who  loses  in  the  water  all  the  fantastic  graces  'that  distin- 
guished her  while  ashore. 

As  next  in  importance  among  the  hurian  of  the  steppe,  the  bitter  worm- 
wood must  not  be  forgotten.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  six  feet,  and  some- 
times, in  a  very  dry  summer,  the  cattle  will  not  disdain  to  eat  of  it.  All 
the  milk  and  butter  then  become  detestably  bitter,  and  sometimes  particles 
of  the  dry  wormwood  adhere  to  the  wheat,  in  which  case  the  bitter  flavor 
of  the  plant  is  imparted  to  the  bread. 

Botanists  reckon  about  five  hundred  species  of  plants  as  native  to  the 
steppe,  and  each  species  usually  grows  in  large  masses.  For  leagues  to- 
gether the  traveller  will  see  nothing  but  wormwood ;  and,  on  leaving  so 
bitter  a  specimen  of  vegetation,  he  will  come  to  a  tulip-bed,  covering  many 
thousands  of  acres ;  and,  at  the  end  of  that,  to  an  equal  extent  of  wild 
mignionette,  to  which  cultivation  has  not,  however,  imparted  the  delicious 
perfume  which  recommends  it  to  the  horticulturist  of  more  civilized  lands. 


Summeb-Tbavelling  on  the  Steppes  — a  Takantasse. 

For  days  together  the  tarantasse  will  then  roll  past  the  same  description  of. 
coarse  grass,  ungainly  to  look  upon,  but  on  which  the  sheep  thrive  admi- 
rably, and  which  is  said  to  give  to  Tartar  mutton  a  delicious  flavor  that 
the  travelled  epicure  vainly  looks  for  in  the  gorgeous  restaurants  of  Paris, 
or  in  that  joint-stock  association  of  comfort  and  luxury,  a  London  or  New 
York  club. 

A  singular  phenomenon  of  the  steppe  manifests  itself  when  man  invades 
it  with  his  plough.     The  disturbed  soil  immediately  shoots  forth  every 


•216  ILLUSTRATED  DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

variety  of  burian,  against  which  the  farmer  must  exert  unceasing  vigilance, 
or  else  farewell  to  the  hope  of  a  productive  harvest.  If  the  same  land  is 
afterward  left  fallow,  the  burian  takes  possession  of  the  field,  and  riots  for 
a  few  years  in  undisturbed  luxuriance.  A  struggle  then  goes  on  for  some 
years  longer  between  the  weeds  and  the  grass ;  but  the  latter,  strange  to 
say,  in  almost  every  instance,  triumphs  in  the  end,  and  a  beautiful  pasture- 
ground  succeeds,  which  goes  on  improving  from  year  to  year,  till  it  attains 
its  highest  degree  of  perfection.  A  reaction  then  ensues :  a  species  of 
coarse  grass,  known  by  botanists  under  the  name  of  stipa  pinnata^  takes 
possession  of  the  ground,  which  it  covers  with  its  hard  and  woody  stems, 
till  the  farmer,  taking  advantage  of  the  first  dry  weather  in  spring,  clears 
away  the  whole  plantation  by  setting  fire  to  it. 

The  burning  of  the  steppe  is  the  only  kind  of  manuring  to  which  it  is 
ever  subjected,  and  is  generally  executed  in  spring,  in  order  that  a  fresh 
crop  of  grass  may  immediately  rise,  like  a  young  phoenix,  from  the  ashes. 
This  department  of  Tartar  husbandry  is  usually  managed  with  much  cau- 
tion, and  the  conflagration  rarely  extends  beyond  the  limits  intended  to  be 
assigned  to  it ;  but  sometimes  a  fire  rises  by  accident,  or  in  consequence 
of  a  malicious  act  of  incendiarism,  and  then  the  conflagration  rages  far  and 
wide,  sweeping  along  for  hundreds  of  leagues,  destroying  cattle  and  grain- 
fields,  and  consuming  not  only  single  houses,  but  whole  villages  in  its  way. 

These  fires  are  particularly  dangerous  in  summer,  owing  to  the  inflam- 
mable condition,  at  that  season,  of  almost  every  description  of  herbage. 
The  flaming  torrent  advances  with  irresistible  force,  towering  up  among 
the  lofty  thistles,  or  advancing  with  a  stealthy,  snakelike  step  througli  the 
parched  grass.  Not  even  the  wind  can  always  arrest  its  destructive  course, 
for  a  fire  of  this  kind  will  go  streaming  in  the  very  teeth  of  the  wind,  now 
slowly  and  then  rapidly,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  fuel  that  supplies 
its  forces.  At  times  the  invader  finds  himself  compressed  between  ravines, 
and  appears  to  have  spent  his  strength ;  but  a  few  burning  particles  blown 
across  by  a  gust  of  wind  enable  him  to  make  good  his  position  on  new 
ground,  and  he  loses  no  time  in  availing  himself  of  the  opportunity.  A 
well-beaten  road,  a  ravine,  or  a  piece  of  sunk  ground  in  which  some  rem- 
nant of  moisture  has  kept  the  grass  green,  are  the  points  of  which  advan- 
tage must  be  taken  if  the  enemy's  advance  is  to  be  stopped.  At  such 
places,  accordingly,  the  shepherds  and  herdsmen  post  themselves  :  trenches 
are  hastily  dug,  the  flying  particles  are  carefully  extinguished  as  they  fall, 
and  sometimes  the  attempt  to  stop  the  course  of  such  a  conflagration  is 
attended  with  success.  Often,  however,  the  attempt  fails  ;  and  the  despair- 
ing husbandmen  see  one  wheatfield  after  another  in  a  blaze,  their  dwellings 
reduced  to  ashes,  and  the  aifrighted  cattle  scouring  away  over  the  plain 
before  the  advancing  volumes  of  smoke  ! 

The  course  of  one  of  these  steppe-fires  is  often  most  capricious.  It  will 
leave  a  tract  of  country  uninjured,  and  travel  for  eight  or  ten  days  into 
the  interior,  and  the  farmer  whose  land  has  been  left  untouched  will  begin 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA — THE   STEPPES.  217 

to  flatter  himself  with  the  belief  that  his  grain  and  his  cattle  are  safe  ;  but 
all  at  once  the  foe  returns  with  renewed  vigor,  and  the  scattered  farm- 
houses, with  the  ricks  of  hay  and  grain  grouped  in  disorder  around,  fall  a 
prey  to  the  remorseless  destroyer.  The  farmer,  however,  is  not  without 
his  consolation  on  these  occasions.  The  ashes  of  the  herbage  form  an 
excellent  manure  for  the  ground,  and  the  next  crops  invariably  repay  him 
a  portion  of  his  loss.  Indeed,  so  beneficial  is  the  effect,  that  many  of  the 
large  proprietors  subject  their  land  regularly  every  four  or  five  years  to 
the  process  of  burning ;  but  the  operation  is  then  performed  with  much 
caution,  wide  trenches  being  first  dug  around  the  space  within  which  it  is 
intended  that  the  fire  should  remain  confined. 

To  the  same  process  likewise  are  subjected  the  forests  of  reeds  by  which 
all  the  rivers  of  the  steppe  are  fringed ;  but  this  is  deemed  so  dangerous, 
that  the  law  imposes  banishment  to  Siberia  as  the  penalty  of  the  offence. 
Nevertheless,  there  are  few  places  where  the  reeds  are  not  regularly  burnt 
away  each  returning  spring  —  at  which  season,  during  the  night,  the 
Dnieper  and  Dniester  appear  to  be  converted  into  rivers  of  fire.  There 
are  two  motives  for  setting  fire  to  the  reeds,  and  these  motives  are  power- 
ful enough  to  completely  neutralize  the  dread  of  Siberia :  in  the  first  place, 
the  reeds  serve  as  a  cover  to  multitudes  of  wolves,  which,  when  driven  by 
fire  either  into  the  water  or  into  the  open  plain,  are  easily  destroyed  by 
their  remorseless  enemies  the  shepherds  and  herdsmen.  The  second  mo- 
tive is,  the  hope  of  obtaining  a  better  supply  of  young  reeds  by  destroying 
the  old  ones.  The  reeds,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  are  of  great  value 
in  the  steppe,  where,  in  the  absence  of  timber  and  stones,  they  form  the 
chief  material  for  building. 

The  animal  is  not  more  varied  than  the  vegetable  kingdom  ;  and  both, 
to  the  naturalist,  seem  poor,  though  to  the  less  scientific  observer  the  steppe 
appears  to  be  teeming  with  life.  Uniformity,  in  fact,  is  more  or  less  the 
distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  country,  and  the  same  want  of  variety 
that  marks  its  outward  features  prevails  throughout  every  class  of  its  ani- 
imate  and  innaimate  productions ;  but  though  few  the  species,  the  masses 
in  which  each  presents  itself  are  surprising.  Eagles,  vultures,  hawks, 
and  other  birds,  that  are  elsewhere  rarely  seen  except  singly,  make  their 
appearance  on  the  steppe  in  large  flights.  The  reed-grounds  fairly  teem 
with  ducks,  geese,  and  pelicans ;  the  grass  is  alive  with  swarms  of  little 
earth-hares  ;  larks,  pigeons,  thrushes,  rooks,  and  plovers,  are  met  with 
everywhere  ;  and  even  butterflies,  and  other  insects,  appear  in  formidable 
masses.  Among  the  latter,  the  locust  (of  which  we  shall  have  more  to  say 
b)'-and-by)  plays  a  very  important  part.  Few  of  these  animals  can  be  said 
to  be  peculiar  to  the  steppe  ;  but,  though  found  in  other  lands,  they  are  not 
found  there  under  similar  circumstances,  and  the  peculiar  character  of  the 
country  exercises  a  powerful  influence  in  modifying  the  habits  and  instinct 
of  animals. 

The  traveller  has  no  sooner  crossed  the  Dnieper,  at  Krementchoug,  in 


218  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

the  government  of  Poltava,  than  he  sees  a  little  animal  gliding  about  every- 
where through  the  grass,  and  even  along  the  high-road.  This  little  animal 
is  called  by  the  Russians,  sooslik;  by  the  German  colonists,  earth-hare; 
and,  by  the  scientific,  Cytillus  vulgaris.  It  is  a  graceful  little  creature, 
and  quite  peculiar  to  the  steppe,  never  found  in  woody  regions,  and  rarely 
even  in  the  vicinity  of  a  bush.  It  is  particularly  fond  of  the  bulbous  plants 
that  abound  in  the  steppe,  and  multiplies  astonishingly.  In  manner  and 
appearance  it  is  something  between  a  marmot  and  a  squirrel,  smaller  than 
the  former,  and  differing  from  the  latter  in  the  color  of  the  fur  and  the 
shortness  of  its  tail.  The  soosliks  burrow  under  the  ground,  and  hoard  up 
a  stock  of  food  for  the  winter.  Their  holes  have  always  two  entrances, 
and  it  is  easy  to  drive  them  from  their  cover  by  pouring  water  in  at  one 
end,  for  to  water  they  have  so  great  an  aversion,  that  they  are  always 
observed  to  decrease  in  numbers  in  wet  seasons,  and  multiply  astonishingly 
in  dry  ones.  The  lively  and  frolicsome  character  of  the  sooslik  is  a  con- 
stant source  of  amusement  to  a  stranger.  The  little  creatures  are  seen  in 
every  direction  ;  sometimes  gamboling  together  in  the  grass,  at  others  sit- 
ting timidly  at  the  doors  of  their  houses,  to  watch  the  approach  of  an 
enemy.  If  a  man  or  other  strange  object  draws  near,  they  rise  upon  their 
hind  legs,  like  miniature  kangaroos,  and  stretch  their  little  heads  up  so 
high,  that  one  miglit  almost  fancy  they  had  the  power  of  drawing  them- 
selves out  like  a  telescope.  Their  little  furs  are  used  by  the  women  as 
edgings  for  their  dresses,  and  entire  cloaks  and  di-essing-gowns  are  often 
made  of  them.  Of  all  the  quadrupeds  of  the  steppe,  the  sooslik  is  by  far 
the  most  abundant ;  it  affords  the  chief  article  of  food  to  the  wild  dogs, 
and  is  a  constant  object  of  chase  to  wolves,  foxes,  eagles,  hawks,  and  other 
animals  of  prey. 

The  next  in  importance  among  the  quadrupeds  of  the  steppe  is  the 
mouse,  which  frequents  the  granaries  in  immense  numbers ;  so  much  so, 
that  the  farmers  will  sometimes  set  fire  to  a  whole  rick  of  grain,  for  the 
mere  purpose  of  destroying  the  mice.  , 

The  wolf  of  the  steppe  is  a  smaller  animal  than  the  forest-wolf,  and  dis- 
tinguishes himself  from  the  wolves  of  other  countries  by  his  subterranean 
propensities.  Natural  caverns  become  elsewhere  the  refuge  of  the  wolf, 
but  on  the  steppe  he  burrows  like  a  rabbit,  and  it  is  there  by  no  means  an 
uncommon  thing  to  find  a  nest  of  young  wolves  several  fathoms  deep  in  the 
ground.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Odessa,  and  the  other  large  towns,  these 
four-footed  sheep-stealers  are  but  seldom  met  with ;  but  in  no  part  of  the 
world  do  they  abound  more  than  in  the  woodland  districts  by  which  the 
steppe  is  skirted,  and  from  these  haunts  they  sally  forth  in  countless  num- 
bers, to  prowl  around  the  flocks  and  herds  of  the  open  country.  Every 
farmhouse  in  the  steppe  is  surrounded  by  fences  twelve  or  fourteen  feet 
high  to  protect  them  against  the  inroads  of  the  wolves,  yet  these  banditti 
of  the  plain  are  incessant  in  their  attacks,  and  cases  are  by  no  means  un- 
common of  their  carrying  off  even  infants  from  the  cradle. 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA  —  THE  STEPPES.  210 

The  dogs  of  the  steppe  are  the  most  vulgar  and  "worthless  of  all  the  curs 
ill  the  world.  They  are  long-haired,  long-legged,  long-headed,  and  long- 
tailed,  and  have  evidently  more  wolfish  than  doggish  blood  in  their  veins. 
Their  prevailing  color  is  a  dirty  grayish-brown,  and,  though  little  cared 
for  by  the  southern  Russian,  their  number  is  incredible,  and  fully  equal  to 
what  it  can  be  in  any  part  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  Yet  the  southern  Rus- 
sian never  tolerates  a  dog  in  his  house,  nor  ever  admits  him  to  that  famil- 
iarity which  the  race  enjoys  with  us,  and  to  which  the  cat  and  the  cock 
are  constantly  courted  by  the  tenants  of  the  steppe.  Still,  whether  as  a 
protection  against  the  wolf,  or  whether  in  consequence  of  that  carelessness 
which  allows  the  breed  to  multiply  unchecked,  every  habitation  on  the 
steppe  is  sure  to  be  surrounded  by  a  herd  of  dogs,  that  receive  neither 
food  nor  caresses  from  the  hands  of  their  owners,  but  must  cater  for  them- 
selves as  well  as  they  can.  In  spring,  the  season  of  abundance,  when  all  the 
cattle  and  horses  of  the  steppe  run  wild,  the  dog  likewise  wanders  forth 
from  the  habitation  of  his  master,  and  the  puppies  born  at  that  period  of 
the  year  are  not  a  bit  tamer  than  the  wolves  themselves,  until  the  samjots 
of  winter  drive  them  back  to  the  farmyards  and  villages.  In  summer,  the 
dogs  hunt  the  mice,  rats,  and  soosliks,  suck  the  eggs  of  birds,  and  learn 
even  to  catch  a  bird  upon  the  wing,  if  it  venture  too  near  the  ground ;  but 
in  winter  they  are  certain  to  congregate  about  the  towns  and  villages,  where 
swarms  of  shy,  hungry,  unowned  dogs,  are  seen  lurking  about  in  search  of 
any  kind  of  garbage  that  may  be  thrown  away.  Dozens  of  them  may  often 
then  be  seen  gathered  about  the  body  of  a  dead  animal,  and  gnawing  away 
eagerly  at  its  frozen  sinews. 

In  the  country,  the  dogs  are  a  subject  of  complaint  with  every  one,  and 
with  none  more  than  with  those  who  devote  some  care  to  the  cultivation 
of  their  gardens.  The  dog  of  the  steppe  is  passionately  fond  of  fruit,  and 
will  not  only  devour  the  grapes  in  the  vineyards,  but  will  even  climb  into 
the  trees  in  search  of  pears  and  plums !  The  better  the  dog  is  fed,  the 
more  eager  he  will  be  after  fruit,  which  is  supposed  to  cool  his  blood,  after 
too  free  an  indulgence  in  animal  food. 

Like  the  wolves,  the  dogs  of  the  steppe  burrow  in  the  ground,  where 
they  dig  roomy  habitations,  with  narrow  doors  and  spacious  apartments,  in 
which  they  find  shelter  against  the  heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  of  winter. 
The  half-savage  state  in  which  the  dogs  live,  leads  them  often  to  pair  with 
the  wolves,  and  a  kind  of  cross-breed  ensues.  These  mongrels  are  useful 
in  hunting  wolves,  whom  they  attack  with  greater  animosity  than  any  other 
dogs  will  do ;  and,  when  old,  they  are  usually  destroyed,  their  skins  being 
nearly  of  the  same  value  as  those  of  genuine  wolves. 

Among  birds,  none  abounds  more  on  the  steppe  than  the  bustard,  or 
drakhva,  as  the  Russians  call  it,  which  may  be  seen  grazing  in  every  direc- 
tion. It  migrates  from  northern  Russia  on  the  approach  of  winter ;  but 
near  Odessa,  and  about  the  mouths  of  the  Dniester  and  Dnieper,  it  gener- 
ally remains  all  the  year  round.     Bustards  are  usually  seen  in  parties  of 


220 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 


H,IIOS£RlS.iC 

Bird-Hunting  on  the  Steppes. 


from  twelve  to  twenty,  but  their  gregarious  habits  increase  in  proportion 
as  the  winter  advances,  when  from  eighty  to  a  Imndred  will  often  be  found 
together.  Tliis,  however,  arises  not  so  much  from  the  sociable  propensi- 
ties of  the  bird,  as  from  the  more  limited  extent  of  pasture  to  whicli  it  is 
then  obliged  to  confine  itself.  If,  terrified  by  the  approach  of  a  real  or 
supposed  enemy,  one  of  these  large  flocks  rises,  the  birds  do  not  remain 
together,  but  fly  away  in  different  directions  to  their  several  nests.  In 
June  or  July,  they  may  be  observed  feeding  with  their  young,  and  on  those 
occasions  the  male  bird  is  usually  seen  anxiously  watching  over  the  secu- 
rity of  his  mate  and  little  ones,  whom  he  never  fails  to  apprize  of  any  dan- 
ger that  may  seem  to  be  drawing  near.  His  vigilance  is  so  great,  that  it 
is  extremely  difficult  to  get  a  shot  at  them.  The  Russians  maintain  that 
the  bustard  knows  exactly  how  far  a  gun  will  carry,  and  never  gives  the 
alarm  a  moment  sooner  or  later  than  is  really  necessary !  Nevertheless, 
the  Cossacks,  who  are  the  chief  sportsmen  on  the  steppe,  contrive  to  out- 
match the  bustard  in  cunning.  Sometimes  they  creep  like  snakes  through 
the  long  grass,  and  come  unobserved  upon  their  prey  ;  sometimes  they  lure 
the  male  birds  by  means  of  a  little  instrument  made  out  of  the  windpipe  of 
an  ox,  on  which  the  treacherous  hunter  contrives  to  imitate  with  astonish- 
ing accuracy  the  cry  of  the  female.  The  most  remarkable  kind  of  bustard- 
hunting,  however,  takes  place  in  winter.  The  birds  at  that  season  creep 
under  the  thistles  and  other  high  weeds  in  search  of  some  shelter  against 
the  severity  of  the  cold.  While  in  this  position,  if  a  hoar  frost  comes  on, 
their  wings  become  so  incrusted  with  ice,  that  they  lose  the  power  of  flying, 


f 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA THE   STEPPES.  221 

and  they  tlicn  fall  an  easy  prey  to  foxes,  wolves,  and,  above  all,  to  man. 
The  Cossacks,  on  horseback,  run  them  down  with  ease,  and  kill  them  with 
the  blow  of  a  whip.  If  the  hunter  has  chosen  his  time  well,  and  is  nimble 
in  the  chase,  he  may  expect  good  sport.  Indeed,  there  are  men  among 
the  peasantry  of  the  steppe  who  have  become  comparatively  rich  by  a  few 
successful  bustard-hunts.  One  man,  it  is  said,  killed  a  hundred  and  fifty 
bustards  in  one  morning  with  his  whip,  and  sold  them  at  Odessa  for  four 
hundred  and  fifty  roubles.  In  the  north,  ten  or  fifteen  roubles  are  often 
given  for  one  of  these  birds. 

Eagles,  vultures,  and  other  birds  of  prey,  are  sufficiently  abundant,  and 
have  probably  always  been  so ;  but  of  late  years,  since  a  portion  of  the 
steppe  has  been  brought  under  the  plough,  a  number  of  granivorous  birds 
have  made  their  appearance  that  were  formerly  altogether  unknown  there, 
and  others  that  were  formerly  rare  have  multiplied  in  a  striking  manner. 
Of  singing-birds,  the  lark  is  the  only  one  known  on  the  steppe ;  but  in  the 
gardens  about  Odessa,  the  nightingale  is  occasionally  heard. 

Of  reptiles  there  is  no  lack  ;  frogs,  toads,  and  snakes,  abounding  in  every 
part  of  the  country,  notwithstanding  the  dryness  of  the  soil.  Toads,  par- 
ticularly, display  their  ugly  forms  in  every  direction  ;  and  after  a  shower 
of  rain  they  sometimes  show  themselves  in  such  numbers,  that  it  is  difficult 
to  walk  a  dozen  paces  without  becoming  the  involuntary  instrument  of  de- 
struction to  several  of  them.  Sometimes  a  remarkable  phenomenon  occurs 
in  the  summer  months,  known  as  the  toad-shower.  In  June  or  July,  and 
sometimes  even  in  August,  after  a  short  but  heavy  shower  of  rain,  the 
ground  is  suddenly  covered  with  myriads  of  small  toads,  and  no  one  can 
say  whence  they  come,  or  whither,  after  a  little  while,  they  go.  Of  the 
numbers  of  these  toads,  strange  stories  are  told.  Millions  and  millions 
are  seen  covering  the  ground,  like  an  army  of  locusts.  It  is  quite  disgust- 
ing to  walk  among  them,  for  in  stepping  on  the  ground  a  man  may  crush 
forty  or  fifty  of  them  at  once.  The  wheels  of  a  cart  would  1)e  saturated 
with  the  juices  of  the  dead  toads,  and  incrusted  with  their  loathsome  bodies  ! 
In  size  they  are  stated  to  be  all  extremely  diminutive,  about  as  large  as 
the  young  toads  that  appear  early  in  the  spring,  but  much  more  lively  and 
active.  Immediately  after  the  shower,  they  are  seen  in  the  greatest  num- 
bers ;  but  they  soon  disappear,  and  on  the  following  day  not  a  trace  is  to 
be  found  of  them,  nor  is  it  observed  that,  after  one  of  these  showers,  the 
number  of  toads  by  which  the  rivers  and  ponds  are  peopled  is  ever  mate- 
rially increased. 

Lizards  are  also  numerous,  and  sometimes  not  less  than  eighteen  inches 
long.  A  Cossack  looks  upon  them  with  great  dread  ;  but  a  Cossack  stands 
in  awe  of  every  animal  formed  differently  from  his  horse,  his  ox,  or  his  dog. 

Of  all  reptiles,  however,  the  snake  is  the  most  abundant,  though  much 
less  so  in  those  parts  of  the  country  that  are  most  thickly  settled,  particu- 
larly in  those  where  the  German  colonists  haVe  been  located,  for  the 
southern  Russian  is  generally  too  much  afraid  of  a  snake  to  kill  it,  even 


222  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 

though  it  take  up  its  abode  under  the  same  roof  with  him.  "  Let  a  snake 
alone,"  says  the  Russian,  "  and  he  will  let  you  alone  ;  but  if  you  kill  it,  its 
Scheie  race  will  persecute  you !"  They  believe  in  the  existence  of  some- 
thing of  a  corporation  spirit  among  the  snakes,  and  maintain  that  the 
relatives  of  a  dead  snake  will  never  rest  till  they  have  avenged  his  death. 
The  snake,  they  believe,  is  in  the  habit  of  dispensing  poetical  justice  tow- 
ard murderers  in  general,  but  more  particularly  toward  those  worst  of 
murderers,  the  killers  of  snakes  ! 

The  largest  snake  of  the  steppe  is  the  Coluber  trabalis,  which,  according 
to  some,  has  been  seen  of  the  length  of  eighteen  feet,  but  instances  of  nine 
or  ten  feet  long  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  Legends  are  not  wanting 
among  the  Cossacks  of  gigantic  serpents  that,  at  no  very  remote  period, 
infested  the  reed-grounds  of  the  Dniester,  whence  they  sallied  forth  to  kill 
men  and  oxen,  and  now  and  then  to  amuse  themselves  by  running  down  a 
rider  and  his  steed,  no  horse  being  fleet  enougli  to  effect  its  escape,  if  one 
of  these  ogre  snakes  had  once  fairly  started  in  chase  of  it ;  but  these  fabu- 
lous embellishments  were  hardly  wanting,  the  plain  truth  being  often  for- 
midable enough.  The  colonists  of  two  adjoining  villages  noticed  for  sev- 
eral weeks  that  large  tracks  were  continually  made  through  their  grain- 
fields,  as  though  a  sack  of  flour  had  been  dragged  through  them.  They 
were  at  a  loss  to  think  who  the  trespasser  could  be,  till  one  day  a  young 
foal  was  found  half  killed  in  the  field,  and  from  the  appearance  of  the 
wounds  it  was  immediately  suspected  that  a  large  snake  must  be  prowling 
aliout  the  villages.  A  few  days  afterward  these  suspicious  were  confirmed 
by  the  arrival  of  four  or  five  carts  that  came  galloping  into  the  village.  It 
was  hard  to  say  wliether  the  drivers  or  the  hoi'ses  were  most  friglitened. 
They  had  been  camping  out  during  the  whole  night  on  the  steppe,  as  is 
commonly  done  by  agricultural  laborers,  the  great  distance  of  the  grain- 
fields  from  the  farmer's  house  making  it  often  impossible  for  his  men  to 
return  home  every  day ;  indeed,  during  the  busy  season,  they  often  remain 
on  the  steppe  from  Monday  morning  till  Saturday  night,  and  spend  only 
the  Sunday  at  home.  They  gave  so  formidable  an  account  of  the  huge 
snake  by  which  they  and  their  horses  had  been  scared,  that  the  schulze 
(the  first  magistrate  of  the  village)  thought  it  his  duty  to  order  a  levy  en 
masse,  and  invited  the  neighboring  colonists  to  join  in  the  snake-hunt. 
About  a  hundred  young  men  were  got  together,  who  sallied  forth,  armed 
with  guns  and  clubs,  and  spent  the  whole  day  in  beating  every  corner 
where  the  insidious  game  was  likely  to  lie  concealed.  They  found  nothing, 
however,  and  were  quizzed  and  laughed  at  on  their  return.  But  the  schulze 
kept  his  party  on  the  alert,  and  the  next  day  the  snake  was  again  seen  by 
some  shepherds,  who  had  fled  with  their  flocks  in  dismay,  but  not  before 
the  huge  reptile  had  killed  one  of  their  horses  before  their  faces.  The 
schulze  and  his  posse  comitatus  took  the  field  again,  and  this  time  they 
succeeded  in  getting  sight  of  the  enemy.  ScA^eral  shots  were  fired.  The 
snake  was  wounded,  and  immediately  took  to  flight,  leaving  a  track  of 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA  —  THE   STEPPES.  223 

blood  to  mark  its  course,  whicli  was  pursued  for  some  time  till  lost  in  the 
reed-grounds  of  the  Dniester,  where  the  creature  probably  died,  for  it 
was  never  heard  of  afterward.  The  length  of  the  animal  was  estimated  to 
be  at  least  twenty  feet. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  German  colonies,  few  snakes  are  now  seen ;  but  in 
the  more  remote  parts  of  the  steppe  there  are  still  districts  in  wliich  they 
abound  to  such  a  degree,  that  no  herdsman  will  venture  to  drive  his  cattle 
there. 

The  snake,  however,  is  an  enemy  of  little  moment  when  compared  to  a 
small  insect  that  visits  the  steppe  from  time  to  time,  and  often  marks  its 
presence  by  the  most  fearful  devastation.  This  insect  is  the  locust.  It  is 
sometimes  not  heard  of  for  several  years  in  succession,  and  then  again  it 
shows  itself,  more  or  less,  every  season  for  four  or  five  years  together. 
When  the  German  colonists  first  came  into  the  country,  about  forty  years 
ago,  the  locusts  had  not  been  heard  of  for  many  years.  There  were  two 
species  of  them  known  to  exist,  but  they  lived  like  other  insects,  multiplied 
with  moderation,  and  were  never  spoken  of  as  objects  of  dread.  About 
1820  it  was  first  observed  that  the  locusts  had  become  decidedly  more  nu- 
merous. In  1824  and  1825  they  began  to  be  troublesome ;  but  in  1828 
and  1829  they  came  in  such  enormous  clouds,  that  they  obscured  the  sun, 
destroyed  the  harvests,  and  in  many  places  left  not  a  trace  of  vegetation  be- 
hind tliem  !  The  poor  colonists  were  in  despair,  and  many  of  them  thought 
the  day  of  judgment  must  be  at  hand.  They  applied  for  advice  as  to  what 
they  ought  to  do,  but  their  Russian  and  Tartar  neighbors  could  suggest 
nothing,  the  oldest  among  them  having  no  recollection  of  such  scenes  of 
devastation,  though  they  remembered  to  have  heard  of  similar  calamities 
as  having  occurred  in  the  days  of  their  fathers.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, the  Germans  set  their  wits  to  work,  and  devised  a  system  of  oper- 
ation, by  means  of  which  many  a  field  was  rescued  from  the  devouring 
swarms. 

The  colonists  established  for  themselves  a  kind  of  locust-police.  Who- 
ever first  sees  a  swarm  approaching  is  bound  to  raise  an  immediate  alarm, 
and  give  the  earliest  possible  information  to  the  scJmlze,  who  immediately 
orders  out  the  whole  village,  and  every  man,  woman,  and  child,  comes 
forth,  armed  with  bells,  tin-kettles,  guns,  pistols,  drums,  whips,  and  what- 
ever other  noisy  instruments  they  can  lay  their  hands  on.  A  frightful  din 
is  then  raised,  which  often  has  the  eflfect  of  scaring  away  the  swarm,  and 
inducing  it  to  favor  some  quieter  neighborhood  with  its  presence. 

If  the  locusts  have  an  aversion  to  noise,  they  are  still  greater  enemies 
to  smoking,  against  which  King  James  I.  of  England  himself  did  not  enter- 
tain a  more  pious  horror.  The  colonists,  accordingly,  on  the  first  appear- 
ance of  a  fresh  swarm,  get  together  as  much  straw,  vine-branches,  and  dry 
dung,  as  they  can,  and  with  these,  fires  are  lighted  al^out  the  fields  and 
grounds  which  it  is  thought  most  desirable  to  protect.  This  expedient, 
however,  is  often  a  complete  failure ;  for  when  one  of  these  countles.s 


224  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

swarms  lias  dropped  upon  the  ground,  and  proceeds  grazing  along  in  the 
direction  of  the  fire,  the  mere  weight  of  the  general  mass  forces  the  fore- 
most ranks  into  the  flames,  where  a  few  thousands  of  them  perish,  perhaps, 
but  their  bodies  extinguish  the  fire,  and  leave  a  free  field  for  the  advancing 
enemy. 

Sometimes  the  colonists  succeed  by  means  of  smoke  in  scaring  a  swarm, 
and  making  it  take  to  the  air  again,  and  then  great  skill  is  shown  in  ma- 
king it  fly  away  from  the  fields  which  it  is  wished  to  preserve.  If  a  lake 
or  the  sea  be  near  at  hand,  it  is  thought  a  great  point  to  drive  the  locusts 
into  the  water,  into  which  they  fall  in  such  enormous  masses,  that  their 
liodics  form  at  last  little  floating  islands  :  upon  these  their  more  fortunate 
companions  establish  themselves,  to  the  height  of  twenty  or  thirty  inches ! 
If  a  strong  wind  blow  from  the  shore,  these  pyramids  of  locusts  are,  of 
course,  driven  out  to  sea,  and  nothing  more  is  heard  of  them ;  but  if  the 
wind  be  not  strong,  they  work  their  way  back  to  the  shore,  where  they 
soon  dry  their  wings  and  prepare  themselves  for  fresh  depredations.  The 
millions,  meanwhile,  that  have  found  a  watery  grave,  give  a  blackened  hue 
to  the  foam  of  the  breakers,  and  lie  scattered  along  the  coast  in  long  lines, 
that  look  like  huge  masses  of  seaweed  thrown  up  by  the  waves.  The  cun- 
ning of  the  locusts  on  these  occasions  is  surprising.  A  swarm  that,  with 
the  aid  of  a  strong  wind,  has  been  driven  out  to  sea,  will  often  return  to 
shore,  not  attempting  to  fly  in  the  wind's  teeth,  but  beating  to  windward, 
with  a  succession  of  tacks,  in  regular  seamanlike  style ! 

The  locusts  appear  to  be  aware  that,  in  the  village-gardens,  they  will 
find  many  things  to  please  their  palates ;  and,  accordingly,  they  seldom 
fail  to  go  a  little  out  of  their  way  when  they  see  a  village  to  the  right  or 
left  of  their  line  of  march.  The  terror  of  a  village  attacked  by  one  of 
these  swarms  may  be  more  easily  imagined  than  described.  Fancy  a  heavy 
fall  of  snow,  each  flake  a  little  black,  voracious  insect,  and  these,  as  they 
fall,  covering  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  inches,  while  the  air 
still  continues  obscured  by  the  myriads  that  remain  fluttering  about !  The 
roofs  of  the  houses,  and  every  inch  of  ground  about  them,  are  covered  by 
a  thick  mass  of  crawling  vermin,  crackling,  hissing,  and  buzzing !  Every 
aperture  of  the  house  may  be  carefully  closed,  yet  they  come  down  the 
chimney  by  thousands,  and  beat  against  the  windows  like  hail !  During 
the  locust-years,  many  of  these  swarms  settled  upon  Odessa,  covering  the 
streets  and  public  places,  dropping  by  hundreds  into  the  kettles  and  sauce- 
pans in  the  kitchens,  invading  at  once  the  ballroom  and  the  granary,  strut- 
ting in  the  public  walks  by  millions,  and  displaying  their  ugly  antics  alike 
in  the  hovel  of  the  beggar  and  the  fine  lady's  boudoir. 

The  locusts  of  southern  Russia  are  divided  into  two  species  :  the  Rnssaki, 
or  Russians  QGryllus  migratorius),y\'\\\c\\  are  about  an  inch  and  a  half, 
and  the  Saranni  {Gri/llus  vastator'),  which,  are  about  two  inches  long. 
Both  are  equally  voracious  and  equally  dreaded,  and  both  are  equally  pro- 
duced from  eggs  deposited  in  the  earth  in  August  and  September,  by  means 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  —  THE  STEPPES. 


227 


of  a  piercing-tube  or  oviduct  with  which  the  female  is  provided.  Tlie  ani- 
mal does  not,  however,  bore  merely  witli  its  piercer,  but  thrusts  its  whole 
body  into  the  ground,  in  order  that  the  eggs  may  be  deposited  as  deeply 
as  possible.  There  the  eggs  continue  through  the  autumn  and  winter,  and 
it  is  not  till  the  end  of  April  or  the  beginning  of  May  that  the  young  locusts 
begin  to  creep  out  of  their  holes. 


Egyptian  Locust. 


The  millions  of  mothers  that  in  autumn  sank  under  the  load  of  their 
eggs,  now  start  up  sixty-fold  into  renewed  life.  They  have  no  wings  when 
first  born,  but  their  legs  immediately  acquire  vigor,  so  that  they  are  soon 
provided  with  the  powers  of  locomotion.  They  at  once  begin  to  eat,  and 
a  rich,  grassy  plain,  if  they  are  undisturbed,  will  perhaps  be  eaten  bare  in 
a  few  days ;  if  disturbed,  they  commence  their  peregrinations  forthwith, 
and  the  army  seems  to  increase  as  it  marches  along.  They  go  on  rustling 
and  crackling,  and  crawling  over  one  another  in  heaps.  They  almost 
always  proceed  in  a  straight  line,  scarcely  any  object  sufficing  to  impede 
their  course.  They  climb  over  the  roofs  of  the  low  houses,  over  fences 
and  walls,  march  through  the  streets  of  towns  and  villages,  not  avoiding 
either  man  or  beast,  so  that  the  wheels  of  a  cart  will  at  times  sink  several 
inches  deep  into  a  mass  of  locusts,  while  a  pedestrian  walking  through 
them  will  often  have  them  up  above  his  ankle !  Enormous  quantities  of 
them  fall  down  into  the  ravines,  and  are  carried  away  by  the  streams, 
which  are  sometimes  so  thickly  covered  with  the  black  carcasses,  that  the 
water  is  completely  lost  to  sight !  The  march  of  these  young  locusts  is 
more  dreaded  even  than  the  flight  of  the  old  ones  :  not  having  yet  got  their 
wings,  they  are  not  to  be  frightened  away  either  by  guns  or  drums ;  and 
to  attempt  to  destroy  them  were  hopeless,  on  account  of  their  numbers  — 
a  few  hundred  thousand,  more  or  less,  making  but  little  difference.  They 
are  most  greedy,  too,  when  young ;  and,  as  the  grass  and  grain  are  just 


228  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

then  most  tender,  the  devastation  is  the  more  difficult  to  repair.  It  is  true 
that,  while  in  this  state,  their  ravages  are  confined  within  narrower  limits, 
on  account  of  the  slow  rate  at  which  they  advance,  an  army  of  young  locusts 
being  seldom  alile  to  march  more  than  two  miles  in  a  day. 

In  three  or  four  weeks  they  attain  tlieir  full  size.  In  the  fifth  week  their 
wings  are  formed,  and  they  begin  to  fly.  From  this  time  on,  they  cruise 
about  the  country  in  huge  swarms,  till  about  the  middle  of  September, 
when,  after  an  existence  of  four  months,  they  all  perish,  but  not  before  due 
provision  has  been  made  for  their  multiplication  in  the  ensuing  year.  The 
largest  swarms  appear  in  the  steppe  about  the  middle  of  August,  when 
they  are  supposed  to  be  joined  by  considerable  reinforcements  from  the 
south.  Their  flight  is  clumsy,  and  always  accompanied  by  a  rustling  noise, 
which,  when  a  swarm  of  them  flies  along,  is  as  loud  as  that  made  by  a 
strong  wind  blowing  through  a  grove  of  trees.  They  can  not  fly  against 
the  wind,  but,  as  has  already  been  observed,  they  know  how  to  work  their 
way  to  windward,  in  true  nautical  fashion.  The  height  to  which  they  rise 
depends  much  upon  the  state  of  the  weather.  On  a  fine  day  they  will  raise 
themselves  nearly  two  hundred  feet  above  the  ground.  In  gloomy  weather 
they  fly  so  near  the  ground,  that  a  man  walking  through  a  swarm  will 
often  be  unable  to  endure  the  blows  inflicted  by  tliem  as  they  fly  up  against 
his  face,  but  will  be  obliged  to  crouch  together  and  turn  liis  back  to  the 
current  till  it  has  passed  away.  When  flying  at  a  great  height,  if  they 
discover  a  fresh  piece  of  pasture-ground,  they  sink  slowly  down  till  they 
are  about  six  or  seven  feet  from  the  surface,  when  they  drop  like  a  shower 
of  stones.  As  soon  as  it  rains,  they  always  drop  to  the  ground.  They  are 
rakish  in  their  hours,  for  tliey  often  fly  about  merrily  till  near  midnight, 
and  seldom  leave  their  roosting-places  till  eight  or  nine  in  the  morning. 
A  cloud  of  locusts  is  mostly  of  an  oval  form,  some  three  liundred  yards 
broad,  and  about  two  miles  long.  Sometimes  a  cloud  will  be  seen  to  sepa- 
rate into  two  or  three  parties,  that  afterward  unite  again.  What  the  thick- 
ness of  such  a  cloud  may  be,  it  is  difficult  to  say  ;  but  it  must  be  consider- 
able, for  not  a  ray  of  sunshine  can  pierce  the  mass,  and  the  shadow  cast 
on  the  ground  is  so  dense,  that,  on  a  hot  summer's  day,  it  diffuses  an  agree- 
able coolness  around.  The  sudden  darkness  occasioned  by  the  appearance 
of  a  swarm  of  locusts  on  a  fine  day,  is  quite  as  great  as  that  which  would 
be  caused  by  a  succession  of  black,  rainy  clouds.  In  calm  weather  a  cloud 
of  locusts  will  fly  about  fourteen  miles  in  eight  hours. 

The  ground  honored  by  the  visit  of  one  of  these  swarms  always  assumes 
the  appearance  of  a  field  of  battle.  In  their  eagerness  to  feed,  they  often 
bite  each  other ;  and,  when  falling  down,  many  break  tlieir  wings,  and  are 
unable  to  rise  again  with  the  rest  of  the  swarm.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate 
the  numbers  of  one  of  these  winged  armies.  The  people  of  the  country 
maintain  that,  when  a  large  cloud  of  locusts  falls,  it  will  cover  a  piece  of 
ground  nearly  three  miles  long  and  one  broad,  and  in  many  places  the 
creatures  will  lie  three  and  four  deep,  and  scarcely  an  inch  will  remain 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  —  THE  STEPPES.  229 

uncovered  !  If  there  happen  to  be  a  tree  near  the  place,  it  will  seem  ready 
to  break  under  the  sudden  load.  Now,  allowing  for  each  insect  a  surface 
of  two  inches  by  one,  and  making  no  account  of  the  patches  where  they 
lie  three  or  four  deep,  it  would  follow  that  a  small  swarm,  covering  only 
one  square  mile,  must  consist  of  not  much  less  than  two  thousand  millions 
of  locusts  !  And  every  one  of  them,  as  the  Russians  say,  has  the  bite  of  a 
horse,  the  greediness  of  a  wolf,  and  a  power  and  rapidity  of  digestion  un- 
equalled by  any  other  animal  on  the  face  of  the  globe ! 

Though  there  are  some  descriptions  of  food  for  which  the  locust  shows  a 
partiality,  the  creature  is  seldom  difficult  in  its  choice,  but  eats  up  every 
green  plant  that  comes  in  its  way.  The  leaves  and  young  branches  vanish 
from  the  trees  in  a  trice  ;  a  rich  meadow  is  presently  converted  into  a  tract 
of  black  earth  ;  the  bank  of  a  river  is  stripped  with  magical  rapidity  of  its 
reedy  fringe  ;  and  not  a  particle  of  stubble  is  left  to  mark  the  place  where 
the  green  grain  was  waving  but  an  hour  before  !  The  sound  of  the  little 
animal's  bite  as  it  grazes,  joined  to  the  rustling  of  its  wings,  which  it  always 
keeps  in  motion  while  feeding,  may  be  distinctly  heard  at  a  considerable 
distance  :  to  any  one  near  the  spot,  the  noise  is  quite  as  great  as  that  made 
by  a  large  flock  of  sheep  eagerly  cropping  the  grass.  If  the  grain  is  quite 
ripe,  the  locust  can  do  it  little  harm  ;  but  whatever  is  still  green  is  certain 
to  be  devoured.  Sometimes  a  farmer,  on  seeing  the  enemy's  approach,  will 
try  to  save  a  field  of  nearly  ripe  grain  by  cutting  it  down  and  carrying  the 
sheaves  home  immediately,  but  the  attempt  rarely  succeeds,  for  the  inva- 
ding host  advances  its  line  of  march,  undismayed  by  tlie  mowers,  and  will 
cat  away  the  blades  faster  than  the  scythe  can  cut  them. 

There  are  few  things  locusts  are  fonder  of  than  Indian  corn,  and  it  is  said 
to  be  a  curious  sight  to  behold  a  field  of  it  vanishing  before  their  ravenous 
teeth.  The  maize  grows  to  a  great  height  on  the  steppe,  and  makes  a  very 
imposing  appearance  as  it  approaches  maturity.  A  small  number  of  locusts, 
however,  are  able,  in  a  few  seconds,  to  perforate  the  plant  like  a  honey- 
comb, and  in  a  few  minutes  not  a  trace  of  it  is  left.  Each  plant  is  quickly 
covered  witli  insects,  while  others  are  industriously  working  away  at  the 
root.  Blade  falls  rapidly  on  blade,  and  at  each  fall  a  little  swarm  rises, 
to  settle  quickly  down  again  with  renewed  voracity.  If  the  corn  was 
nearly  ripe,  the  farmer  has,  perhaps,  the  consolation  of  seeing  a  yellow 
stubble-field  remaining,  to  tantalize  him  with  the  recollection  of  the  hoped- 
for  abundance. 

In  the  costly  gardens  of  the  Odessa  merchants,  the  locust  is  particularly 
destructive.  It  does  not  touch  the  melons,  cucumbers,  nor  the  growing 
fruit  on  the  trees,  but  it  ruthlessly  devours  the  leaves  and  the  stalks,  leav- 
ing the  fruit  scattered  on  the  ground,  to  witlier  with  the  bodies  of  the  slain 
destroyers.  The  leaves,  tendrils,  and  young  branches  of  a  vine,  will  be 
completely  eaten  away,  but  the  grapes  will  be  found  scattered  like  so  many 
berries  below.  Every  tree  in  the  garden,  meanwhile,  is  bending  under  the 
unwelcome  load ;  while  the  crackling  of  the  branches,  the  tearing  of  the 


230  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

bark,  and  the  rustling  of  the  wings,  raise  a  din  quite  as  loud  as  that  of  a 
carpenter's  workshop,  in  which  a  score  or  two  of  men  are  sawing,  boring, 
and  planing ;  and  when  at  length  the  swarm  takes  its  departure,  it  leaves 
behind  it  a  scene  of  such  perfect  desolation  as  no  other  animal  in  the  world 
can  equal.  Even  the  dung,  of  which  it  leaves  an  enormous  quantity  behind, 
is  injurious  to  the  soil  on  which  it  falls  ;  and,  for  a  long  time  after  a  field 
has  been  visited  by  a  swarm  of  locusts,  the  cattle  manifest  the  greatest 
aversion  to  the  place. 

"  Here  we  are  in  the  land  of  the  tshabawns,''^*  is  a  common  expression 
with  Russian  travellers  on  entering  the  steppe,  where  the  first  objects  that 
usually  present  themselves  to  the  stranger  are  some  of  the  numerous  flocks 
of  sheep  belonging  to  the  wealthy  nobles  of  Russia,  some  of  whom  count 
their  woolly  treasures  by  hundreds  of  thousands !  To  their  owners,  these 
flocks  possess  an  interest  beyond  any  that  the  steppe  can  offer ;  but,  to  a 
stranger,  the  wild  and  exciting  life  of  the  tabuntshiks  is  certain  to  present 
more  attraction.  We  are  accustomed  to  speak  of  the  ivild  horses  of  the 
steppe,  but  the  expression  must  be  received  with  some  allowance ;  for,  in 
the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  wild  horses  have  long  ceased  to  inhabit  any 
part  of  the  steppe  subject  to  Russia,  nor  have  we  any  authentic  record  of 
the  time  when  this  noble  animal  ranged  free  and  uncontrolled  over  the 
plains  bordering  on  the  Euxine.  At  present,  every  taboon,  or  herd,  has 
its  owner,  to  whom  the  tabuntshik  has  to  account  for  every  steed  that  is 
lost  or  stolen ;  and  it  is  not  till  we  reach  the  heart  of  Tartary,  or  the 
wastes  that  stretch  along  the  sea  of  Aral,  that  we  meet,  for  the  first  time, 
the  horse  really  in  a  state  of  nature. 

Although,  in  a  statistical  point  of  view,  the  sheep  constitutes  a  more 
important  part  of  the  pastoral  population  of  the  steppe — ten  flocks  of 
sheep,  at  least,  occurring  for  one  herd  of  oxen  or  horses — yet  we  shall 
venture,  in  our  remarks  on  the  nomadic  life  of  this  part  of  the  empire,  to 
assign  the  prominent  place  to  the  taboons,  or  breeding-studs,  which  serve 
to  mount  nearly  the  whole  of  the  imperial  cavalry,  and  from  which,  in  a 
moment  of  emergency,  the  government  might  derive,  for  the  equipment  of 
an  invading  army,  resources  the  extent  of  which  are  but  little  dreamed  ©f 
in  the  more  civilized  regions  of  Europe. 

Many  of  the  Russian  nobles  possess  enormous  tracts  of  land  in  the  steppe. 
The  scanty  population  has  made  it  impossible  to  bring  any  very  consider- 
able portion  of  their  estates  under  the  plough ;  and  most  of  the  wealthy 
landowners  have,  consequently,  found  it  to  tlieir  interest  to  devote  their 
chief  attention  to  the  breeding  of  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses.  Even  at  a 
very  remote  period  it  appears  to  have  been  the  custom  of  the  lords  of  the 
steppe  to  follow  a  similar  course  of  practice.  The  horses,  more  light  of 
foot  than  either  sheep  or  oxen,  may  be  easily  made  to  range  over  a  larger 

*  Tskabawn  is  the  south  Russian  word  for  a  shepherd.  Tabuntshik  is  the  name  given  to  tht; 
man  charged  with  the  care  of  a  herd  of  horses. 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  —  THE  STEPPES.  231 

expanse  of  ground,  and  thus  obtain  support  from  land  too  poor  to  afford 
pasturage  to  any  other  description  of  cattle. 

A  small  number  of  horses,  placed  under  the  care  of  a  herdsman,  are  sent 
into  the  steppe,  as  the  nucleus  of  a  tahoon.  The  foals  are  kept,  and  the 
herd  is  allowed  to  go  on  increasing  until  the  number  of  horses  is  tliought 
to  be  about  as  large  as  the  estate  can  conveniently  maintain.  It  is  a  very 
rare  thing,  however,  for  a  taboon  to  contain  more  than  a  thousand  horses  ; 
but  there  are  landowners  in  the  steppe  who  are  supposed  to  possess  eight 
or  ten  such  taboons  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  only  when  the 
taboon  is  said  to  be  full,  that  the  owner  begins  to  derive  a  revenue  from  it, 
partly  by  using  the  young  horses  on  the  estate  itself,  and  partly  by  selling 
them  at  the  fairs,  or  to  the  travelling  horse-dealers  in  the  employ  of  the 
government  contractors. 

The  tabimtshik,  to  whose  care  the  taboon  is  intrusted,  must  be  a  man  of 
indefatigable  activity,  and  of  an  iron  constitution,  proof  alike  against  the 
severest  cold  and  the  most  burning  heat,  and  capable  of  living  in  a  con- 
stant exposure  to  every  kind  of  weather,  without  the  shelter  even  of  a  bush. 
When  on  duty,  he  scarcely  ever  quits  the  back  of  his  steed.  He  eats  there, 
and  even  sleeps  there  ;  but  he  must  beware  of  sleeping  at  the  hours  when 
other  men  sleep,  for,  while  grazing  at  night,  the  horses  are  most  apt  to 
wander  away  from  the  herd :  and  at  no  time  is  it  more  necessary  for  him 
to  be  on  his  guard  against  wolves,  and  against  those  adventurous  dealers 
in  horse-flesh  who  usually  contrive  that  the  money  which  they  receive  at  a 
fair  shall  consist  exclusively  of  profit  (a  characteristic  specimen  of  which 
gentry,  who  are  mostly  gipsies,  may  be  seen  in  the  engraving  overleaf). 
During  a  snowstorm,  the  poor  tabimtshik  must  not  think  of  turning  his  back 
to  the  tempest ;  this  his  horses  are  but  too  apt  to  do,  and  it  is  his  business 
to  see  that  they  do  not  take  fright,  and  run  scouring  before  the  wind. 

The  dress  of  a  tabimtshik  is  chiefly  composed  of  leather,  fastened  together 
by  a  leathern  girdle,  to  which  the  whole  veterinary  apparatus,  and  a  variety 
of  little  fanciful  ornaments,  are  usually  appended.  His  head  is  protected 
by  a  high,  cylindrical  Tartar  cap,  of  black  lambskin,  and  over  the  whole 
he  throws  his  sreeta,  a  large,  brown,  woollen  cloak,  with  a  hood  to  cover 
his  head.  This  hood,  in  fine  weather,  hangs  behind,  and  often  serves  its 
master  at  once  for  pocket  and  larder. 

The  tabuntsliik  has  a  variety  of  other  trappings,  of  which  he  never  divests 
himself  Among  these,  his  harabnik  holds  not  the  least  important  place. 
This  is  a  whip,  with  a  short,  thick  stem,  but  with  a  thong  often  fifteen  or 
eighteen  feet  in  length.  It  is  to  him  a  sceptre  that  rarely  quits  his  hand, 
and  without  which  it  would  be  difficult  for  him  to  retain  his  riotous  sub- 
jects in  anything  like  proper  order.  Next  comes  his  sling,  which  he  uses 
like  the  South  American  lasso,  and  with  which  he  rarely  misses  the  neck 
of  the  horse  whose  course  he  is  desirous  of  arresting.  The  wolf-club  is 
another  indispensable  part  of  his  equipment.  This  club,  which  generally 
hangs  at  the  saddle,  ready  for  immediate  use,  is  three  or  four  feet  long, 


232  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

with  a  thick  iron  knob  at  the  end.  The  tahuntshiks  acquire  such  astonish- 
ing dexterity  in  the  use  of  this  formidable  weapon,  that,  at  full  gallop,  they 
will  hurl  It  at  a  wolf,  and  rarely  fail  to  strike  the  iron  end  into  the  prowl- 
ing bandit's  head.  The  club  skilfully  wielded  carries  almost  as  certain 
death  with  it  as  the  rifle  of  an  American  backwoodsman.  A  cask  of  water 
must  also  accompany  the  tabuntshik  on  every  ride,  for  he  can  never  know 
whether  he  may  not  be  for  days  without  coming  to  a  well.  A  bag  of  bread 
and  a  bottle  of  brandy  are  likewise  his  constant  companions,  besides  a  mul- 
titude of  other  little  conveniences  and  necessaries,  which  are  fastened  either 
to  himself  or  his  horse.  Thus  accoutred,  the  tabuntshik  sallies  forth  on  a 
mission  that  keeps  his  dexterity  and  his  powers  of  endurance  in  constant 
exercise.  His  thousand  untamed  steeds  have  to  be  kept  in  order  with 
no  other  weapon  than  his  harabnik,  and  this,  as  may  easily  be  supposed, 
is  no  easy  task. 

The  hardships  to  which  they  are  constantly  exposed,  and  the  high  wages 
wliich  they  consequently  receive,  make  the  tabnntshiks  the  wildest  "  dare- 
devils" that  can  be  imagined ;  so  much  so,  that  it  is  considered  a  settled 
point  tliat  a  man  who  has  liad  the  care  of  horses  for  two  or  three  years  is 
unfit  for  any  quiet  or  settled  kind  of  life.  No  one,  of  course,  that  can  gain 
a  tolerable  livelihood  in  any  other  way,  will  embrace  a  calling  that  subjects 
him  to  so  severe  a  life  ;  and  the  consequence  is,  that  it  is  generally  from 
among  the  scamps  of  a  village  that  recruits  are  raised  for  this  service. 
They  are  seldom  without  money,  and,  when  they  do  visit  the  brandy-shop, 
they  are  not  deterred  from  abandoning  themselves  to  a  carouse  by  the  finan- 
cial considerations  likely  to  restrain  most  men  in  the  same  rank  of  life. 
They  ought,  it  is  true,  never  to  quit  the  taboon  for  a  moment ;  but  they 
will  often  spend  whole  nights  in  the  little  brandy-houses  of  the  steppe, 
drinking  and  gambling,  and  drowning  in  their  fiery  potations  all  recollec- 
tions of  the  last  day's  endurance.  When  their  senses  return  with  the  re- 
turning day,  they  gallop  after  their  herds,  and  display  no  little  ingenuity 
in  repairing  the  mischief  that  may  have  accrued  from  the  carelessness  of 
the  preceding  night. 

The  tabuntshik  lives  in  constant  dread  of  the  horse-stealer,  and  yet  there 
is  hardly  a  tabuntshik  on  the  steppe  that  will  not  steal  a  horse  if  the  occa- 
sion present  itself.  The  traveller  who  has  left  his  horses  to  graze  during 
the  night,  or  the  villager  who  has  allowed  his  cattle  to  wander  away  from 
his  house,  does  well  to  ascertain  that  there  be  no  taboon  in  the  vicinity, 
or  in  the  morning  he  will  look  for  them  in  vain.  The  tabuntshik,  mean- 
while, takes  care  to  rid  himself,  as  soon  as  possible,  of  his  stolen  goods,  by 
exchanging  them  away  to  the  first  brother-herdsman  that  he  meets,  who 
again  barters  them  away  to  another :  so  that  in  a  few  days  a  horse  that 
was  stolen  on  the  banks  of  the  Dnieper,  passes  from  hand  to  hand  till  it 
reach  the  Boug  or  the  Danube  ;  and  the  rightful  owner  may  still  be  inqui- 
ring after  a  steed,  which  has  already  quitted  the  empire  of  the  czar,  to  enter 
the  service  of  a  moslem,  or  to  figure  in  the  stud  of  a  Hungarian  magnate ! 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA — THE  STEPPES. 


233 


ItINEBANT   IIORaii:-DEAl.EK. 

.  Accustomed  to  a  life  of  roguery  and  hardship,  and  indulging  constantly  in 
every  kind  of  excess,  the  tabuntshik  comes  naturally  to  be  looked  u])on  by 
the  more  orderly  classes  as  rather  a  suspicious  character ;  but  his  friend- 
ship is  generally  worth  having,  and  his  ill-will  is  much  dreaded.  At  the 
horse-fairs,  he  is  always  a  man  of  great  importance.  His  horses  are  driven 
mto  the  market  in  the  same  free  condition  in  which  they  range  over  the 
steppe,  for  if  tied  together  they  would  become  entirely  ungoverna]>lr 


234  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

When  driven  through  towns  and  villages,  the  creatures  are  often  fright- 
ened ;  but  that  occasions  no  trouble  to  their  drivers,  for  the  herd  is  never 
more  certain  to  keep  together  than  when  made  timid  by  the  appearance  of 
a  strange  place.  In  the  market-place,  the  taboon  is  driven  into  an  enclo- 
sure, near  which  the  owner  seats  himself,  while  the  tabuntshik  enters  along 
with  his  horses.     The  buyers  walk  round  to  make  their  selection. 

After  saying  so  much  of  the  tabuntshik,  it  will  be  but  fair  to  give  some 
account  of  tlie  life  led  by  the  riotous  animals  committed  to  his  charge. 
During  what  is  called  tlie  fine  season,  from  April  to  October,  the  taboon 
remains  grazing  day  and  night  in  the  steppe.  During  tlie  other  six  months 
of  the  year,  the  horses  remain  under  shelter  at  night,  and  are  driven  out 
only  in  the  day,  when  they  must  scrape  away  the  snow  for  themselves  to 
get  at  the  scanty  grass  underneath.  The  shelter  alluded  to  consists  of  a 
space  of  ground  enclosed  by  an  earthen  mound,  with  now  and  then  some- 
thing like  a  roof  toward  the  north,  to  keep  off  the  cold  wind.  There  the 
poor  creatures  must  defend  themselves  as  well  as  they  can  against  the  mer- 
ciless Boreas,  who  comes  to  them  unchecked  in  his  course  all  the  way  from 
the  pole.  The  stallions  and  the  stronger  beasts  take  possession  of  the  slied  ; 
while  the  timid  and  feeble  stand  in  groups  about  the  wall,  and  creep  closely 
together,  in  order  mutually  to  impart  a  little  warmth  to  each  other.  Nor 
is  it  from  cold  that  they  have  most  to  suffer  on  these  occasions.  Early  in 
winter  they  still  find  a  little  autumnal  grass  under  the  snow,  and  the  tor 
buntshik  scatters  a  little  hay  about  the  stable  to  help  them  to  amuse  the 
tedious  hours  of  night.  The  customary  improvidence  of  a  Russian  estab- 
lishment, however,  seldom  allows  a  sufficient  stock  of  hay  to  be  laid  in  for 
the  Avinter.  As  the  season  advances,  hay  grows  scarce,  and  must  be  re- 
served for  the  more  valuable  coach  and  saddle  horses,  and  the  tabuntshik 
is  obliged  to  content  himself  with  a  portion  of  the  dry  reeds  and  straw 
stored  up  for  fuel !  It  will  therefore  hardly  be  matter  of  surprise  to  any 
one  to  learn  that  the  winter  is  a  season  of  sickness  and  death  to  the  horses 
of  the  steppe.  After  the  mildest  winter,  the  poor  creatures  come  forth  a 
troop  of  sickly-looking  skeletons  ;  but  when  the  season  has  been  severe,  or 
unusually  long,  more  than  half  of  them,  perhaps,  have  sunk  under  their 
sufferings,  or  have  been  so  reduced  in  strength,  that  the  ensuing  six  months 
are  hardly  sufficient  to  restore  them  to  their  wonted  spirits. 

From  the  hardships  of  an  ordinary  winter,  the  horses  quickly  recover 
amid  the  abundance  of  spring.  A  profusion  of  young  grass  covers  the 
ground  as  soon  as  the  snow  has  melted  away.  The  crippled  spectres  that 
stalked  about  a  few  weeks  before,  with  wasted  limbs  and  drooping  heads, 
are  as  wild  and  mischievous  at  the  end  of  the  first  month  as  though  they 
had  never  experienced  the  inconvenience  of  a  six  months'  fast.  The  stal- 
lions liave  already  begun  to  form  their  separate  factions  in  the  taboon,  and 
ihe  neighing,  bounding,  prancing,  galloping,  and  fighting,  goes  on  merrily 
from  the  banks  of  the  Danube  to  the  very  heart  of  Mongolia. 

The  most  tremendous  battles  are  fought  when  two  taboons  happen  to 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA  —  THE  STEPPES.  235 

meet.  In  general,  the  tabuntshiks  are  careful  to  keep  at  a  respectful  dis- 
tance from  each  other ;  but  sometimes  they  are  away  from  tlieir  duty,  and 
sometimes,  where  a  right  of  pasturage  is  disputed,  they  bring  their  herds 
together  out  of  sheer  malice.  The  mares  and  foals  on  such  occasions  keep 
aloof,  but  their  furious  lords  rush  to  battle  with  an  impetuosity  of  which 
those  who  are  accustomed  to  see  the  horse  only  in  a  domesticated  state 
can  form  but  a  poor  conception.  The  enraged  animals  lash  their  tails  and 
erect  their  manes  like  angry  lions ;  their  hoofs  rattle  against  each  other 
with  such  violence,  that  the  noise  can  be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance  ; 
they  fasten  on  one  another  with  their  teeth  like  tigers ;  and  their  scream- 
ings  and  howlings  are  more  like  those  of  the  wild  beasts  of  the  forest  than 
like  any  sounds  ever  heard  from  a  tame  horse. 

The  spring,  though  in  so  many  respects  a  season  of  enjoyment  for  the 
horses,  is  not  without  its  drawbacks.  The  wolves,  also,  have  to  indemnify 
themselves  for  the  severe  fast  of  the  winter.  The  foals,  too,  are  just  then 
most  delicate,  and  a  wolf  will  at  any  time  prefer  a  young  foal  to  a  sheep 
or  a  calf.  He  is  therefore  constantly  prowling  about  the  taboon  during 
the  spring,  and,  as  the  weaker  party,  trusts  to  cunning  rather  than  strength. 
For  a  party  of  wolves  openly  to  attack  a  taboon  at  noonday  would  be  to 
rush  upon  certain  destruction ;  and,  however  severely  the  wolf  may  be 
pressed  by  hunger,  he  knows  his  own  weakness  too  well  to  venture  on  so 
absurd  an  act  of  temerity.  At  night,  indeed,  if  the  taboon  happen  to  be  a 
little  scattered,  and  the  wolves  in  tolerable  numbers,  they  will  sometimes 
attempt  a  rush,  and  a  general  battle  ensues.  An  admirable  spirit  of  coali- 
tion then  displays  itself  among  the  horses.  On  the  first  alarm,  they  come 
charging  up  to  the  threatened  point,  and  attack  the  wolves  with  an  impetu- 
osity that  often  puts  the  prowlers  to  instant  flight.  Soon,  however,  if  they 
feel  themselves  sufficiently  numerous,  they  return,  and  hover  about  the 
taboon  till  some  poor  foal  straggle  a  few  yards  from  the  main  body,  when 
it  is  seized  by  the  enemy,  while  the  mother,  springing  to  its  rescue,  is 
nearly  certain  to  share  its  fate.  Then  it  is  that  the  battle  begins  in  real 
earnest,  the  mares  forming  a  circle,  within  which  the  foals  take  shelter. 

The  horses,  when  they  attack  wolves,  charge  upon  them  in  a  solid  pha- 
lanx, tearing  them  with  their  teeth,  and  trampling  on  them  with  their  feet, 
till  it  becomes  hard  to  say  what  kind  of  an  animal  the  skin  belonged  to. 
With  one  blow  the  horse  often  kills  his  enemy  or  stuns  him.  If,  however, 
he  fail  to  strike  a  home  blow  at  the  first  onset,  he  is  likely  to  fight  a  losing 
battle,  for  eight  or  ten  hungry  wolves  fasten  on  his  throat,  and  never  quit 
him  till  they  have  torn  him  to  the  ground ;  and  if  the  horse  be  prompt  and 
skilful  in  attack,  the  wolf  is  not  deficient  in  sagacity,  but  watches  for  every 
little  advantage,  and  is  quick  to  avail  himself  of  it :  but  let  him  not  hope, 
even  if  he  succeed  in  killing  a  horse,  that  he  will  be  allowed  leisure  to 
pick  the  bones  ;  the  taboon  never  fails  to  take  ample  vengeance,  and  the 
battle  almost  invariably  terminates  in  the  complete  discomfiture  of  the 
wolves,  though  not,  perhaps,  till  more  than  one  horse  has  had  a  leg  perma- 


236  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP  RUSSIA. 

nently  disabled,  or  has  had  his  side  marked  for  life  with  the  impress  of  hia 
enemy's  teeth. 

The  wolf's  system  of  warfare,  however,  is  a  predatory  one,  and  his  policy 
is  rather  to  surprise  outposts  than  to  meditate  a  general  attack.  He  relies 
more  on  his  subtlety  than  his  strength.  He  will  creep  cautiously  through 
the  grass,  taking  especial  care  to  keep  to  leeward  of  the  taboon,  and  he 
will  remain  crouched  in  ambush  till  he  perceive  a  mare  and  her  foal  gra- 
zing a  little  apart  from  the  rest.  Even  then  he  makes  no  attempt  to  spring 
upon  his  prey,  but  keeps  creeping  nearer  and  nearer,  with  his  head  leaning 
on  his  fore  feet,  and  wagging  his  tail  in  a  friendly  manner,  to  imitate,  as 
much  as  possible,  the  movements  and  gestures  of  a  watch-dog.  If  the 
mare,  deceived  by  the  treacherous  pantomime,  venture  near  enough  to  the 
enemy,  he  will  spring  at  her  throat,  and  despatch  her  before  she  have  time 
to  raise  an  alarm  ;  then,  seizing  on  the  foal,  he  will  make  off  with  his  booty, 
and  be  out  of  sight  perhaps  before  either  herd  or  herdsman  suspect  his 
presence.  It  is  not  often,  however,  that  the  wolf  succeeds  in  obtaining  so 
easy  a  victory.  If  the  mare  detect  him,  an  instant  alarm  is  raised,  and, 
should  the  tabimtshik  be  near,  the  wolf  seldom  fails  to  enrich  him  with  a 
skin,  for  which  the  fur-merchant  is  at  all  times  willing  to  pay  his  ten  or 
twelve  roubles.  The  wolf's  only  chance,  on  such  occasions,  is  to  make  for 
the  first  ravine,  down  which  he  rolls  head  foremost,  a  gymnastic  feat  that 
the  tabuntshik  on  his  horse  can  not  venture  to  imitate. 

As  the  summer  draws  on,  the  wolf  becomes  less  troublesome  to  the 
taboon ;  but  a  season  now  begins  of  severe  suffering  for  the  poor  horses, 
who  have  more  perhaps  to  endure  from  the  thirst  of  summer  than  from  the 
hunger  of  winter.  The  heat  becomes  intolerable,  and  shade  is  nowhere  to 
be  found,  save  what  the  animals  can  themselves  create,  by  gathering  to- 
gether in  little  groups,  each  seeking  to  place  the  body  of  his  neiglibor 
between  himself  and  the  burning  rays  of  a  merciless  sun.  The  tabuntshik 
often  lays  himself  in  the  centre  of  the  group,  for  he  also  has  nowhere  else 
a  shady  couch  to  hope  for. 

The  autumn,  again,  is  a  season  of  enjoyment.  The  plains  are  anew  cov- 
ered with  green,  the  springs  yield  once  more  an  abundant  supply  of  water, 
and  the  horses  gather  strength  at  this  period  of  abundance,  to  prepare 
themselves  for  the  sufferings  and  privation  of  winter.  In  autumn,  for  the 
first  time  in  the  year,  the  taboon  is  called  on  to  work,  but  the  work  is  not 
much  more  severe  than  the  exertions  which  the  restless  creatures  are  daily 
imposing  upon  themselves  while  romping  and  rioting  about  on  the  steppe. 
The  work  in  question  is  the  thrashing  of  the  grain. 

A  thrashing-floor,  of  several  hundred  yards  square,  is  made  by  cutting 
away  the  turf,  and  beating  the  ground  into  a  hard,  solid  surface.  The 
whole  is  enclosed  by  a  railing,  with  a  gate  to  let  the  horses  in  and  out. 
The  sheaves  of  grain  are  then  spread  out  and  laid  in  strata  over  each  other. 
In  small  farms,  where  only  eight  or  ten  horses  are  disposable  for  this  kind 
of  work,  each  horse  is  expected  to  thrash  his  thirty  or  forty  sheaves ;  but 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  —  THE  STEPPES.  2^7 

in  larger  establishments,  where  half  a  taboon  can  be  set  to  work  at  once,  a 
score  of  sheaves  is  the  utmost  ever  allowed  for  each  thrasher.  On  such  a 
floor,  supposing  the  taboon  to  consist  of  a  thousand  horses,  five  hundred 
score  of  sheaves  will  be  laid  down  at  once.  The  taboon  is  then  formed 
into  two  divisions.  The  tabuntshik  and  his  assistants  drive  their  five  hun- 
dred steeds  into  the  enclosure,  and,  when  once  in,  the  more  riotous  they 
are  the  better  the  work  will  be  done.  The  gate  is  closed,  and  then  begins 
a  ball  of  which  it  requires  a  lively  imagination  to  conceive  a  picture.  The 
drivers  act  as  musicians,  and  their  formidable  harabniks  are  the  fiddles 
that  keep  up  the  dance  without  intermission.  The  horses,  terrified  partly 
by  the  crackling  straw  under  their  feet,  and  partly  by  the  incessant  crack- 
ing of  the  whip  over  their  heads,  dart  half  frantic  from  one  extremity  to 
the  other  of  their  temporary  prison.  Millions  of  grains  are  flying  about  in 
the  air,  and  the  laborers  without  have  enough  to  do  to  toss  back  the  sheaves 
that  are  flung  over  the  railing  by  the  prancing,  hard-working  thrashers 
within.  This  continues  for  about  an  hour.  The  horses  are  then  let  out, 
the  grain  turned,  and  the  same  performance  repeated  three  times  before 
noon.  By  that  time,  about  a  thousand  bushels  {sheffel)  of  grain  have  been 
thrashed,  after  a  fashion  that  looks  more  like  a  holyday  diversion  than  a 
liard  day's  work.  This  description,  of  course,  applies  only  to  an  agricul- 
tural establishment  on  a  very  large  scale ;  and  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  add 
that,  in  such  a  thrashing  operation,  more  grain  is  wasted  than  is  raised  on 
many  large  farms  in  this  country. 

Such  is  still  the  wild  and  chequered  life  of  the  horses  on  the  steppe,  and 
such  it  was  in  the  days  of  Mazeppa  ;*  but  such  scenes  are  becoming  scarcei 
in  southern  Russia,  in  proportion  as  the  population  becomes  denser,  and 
some  of  the  larger  estates  have  been  parcelled  out  among  a  greater  number 
of  owners.  Should  the  Russian  government  succeed  in  the  favorite  plan 
of  introducing  a  regular  system  of  agriculture  into  this  portion  of  the  em- 
pire, the  large  taboons  must  gradually  disappear,  or  recede  farther  and 
farther  toward  the  confines  of  Tartary.     Such  a  time,  however,  is  yet  com- 

*  JoHK  Mazeppa,  lietman  of  the  Cossacks,  whom  Lord  Byron  has  made  the  hero  of  a  poem,  was 
l)orn  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeentli  ccntui-y,  in  the  province  of  Podolia,  of  a  poor  but  noble 
Polish  family,  and  became  page  to  John  Casimir,  king  of  Poland.  In  this  situation,  Mazeppa  had 
an  opportunity  of  acquiring  various  useful  accomplishments;  but  an  intrigue  was  the  foundation  of 
his  future  elevation.  A  Polish  nobleman  having  surprised  Mazeppa  with  his  wife,  oi-dered  him  to 
be  tied  naked  upon  a  wild  horse,  and  committed  to  his  fate.  The  animal  had  been  bred  in  the 
Ukraine,  and  directed  his  course  thither,  where  some  poor  peasants  found  him  half  dead,  and  took 
care  of  him.  Their  warlike,  roving  life  suited  his  disposition;  he  made  himself  conspicuous  and 
beloved  by  his  dexterity,  bodily  strength,  and  courage;  his  knowledge  and  sagacity  procured  him 
the  post  of  secretary  and  adjutant  to  the  hetman  Samoilowitz;  and,  in  1687,  he  was  elected  in  his 
place.  He  gained  the  confidence  of  Peter  the  Great,  who  loaded  him  with  honors,  and  he  was 
finally  made  prince  of  the  Ukraine.  But  though  a  prince,  he  was  still  a  vassal,  and  his  restless 
spirit  made  him  resolve  to  throw  oflf  the  yoke  of  subordination.  He  joined  with  Charles  XII.,  who 
had  just  given  a  king  to  Poland,  and  aimed,  by  his  assistance,  to  throw  off  all  allegiance  to  Russia. 
For  a  long  time  the  intrigues  of  Mazeppa  against  Peter  were  disbelieved  by  the  latter;  but  at  length 
he  openly  joined  the  Swedish  monarch,  who,  by  his  advice,  fought  the  fatal  battle  of  Poltava.  Ha 
then  sought  refuge  at  Bender,  in  Turkey,  where  he  died,  in  1709. 


238  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

paratively  distant.  The  steppe  yields  grain,  indeed,  in  abundance,  when 
cultivated ;  but  the  difficulty  of  transport,  and  the  absence  of  all  material 
for  the  construction  of  good  roads,  oppose  serious  obstacles  to  the  growth 
of  grain,  except  in  favored  localities — as,  for  instance,  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  rivers  or  of  the  sea. 

The  life  of  the  tshabawn,  or  shepherd,  presents  a  singular  contrast  to 
that  of  the  rakish  tabnntshik;  but  the  shepherd's  quiet,  unobtrusive  course 
has  comparatively  little  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  stranger.  The  lords 
of  the  steppe,  indeed,  are  far  from  undervaluing  their  peaceful  flocks  ;  and 
when  the  wealth  of  one  of  the  princely  owners  is  spoken  of,  his  sheep  gen- 
erally serve  as  the  standard  l)y  which  the  amount  of  his  worldly  posses- 
sions is  measured.  There  are  individuals  in  the  steppe  who  are  said  to 
own  upward  of  one  hundred  thousand  woolly  subjects,  and  most  of  these 
flocks  have  increased  to  their  present  amount  within  the  last  thirty  or  forty 
years.  The  Wallachian  sheep  is  the  most  prevalent  race.  It  is  remarka- 
ble on  account  of  the  huge  size  of  its  tail,  which  consists  of  little  else  than 
a  lump  of  fat,  in  great  esteem  among  the  Russians  and  Tartars.  Merinos 
have,  of  late  years,  been  likewise  introduced,  and  are  rapidly  increasing  in 
numbers. 

The  tshabawn  is,  for  the  most  part,  a  quiet,  peaceable  being.  His  char- 
acter is  naturally  modified  by  the  habits  of  his  usual  associates,  and,  as 
he  is  not  obliged  to  range  over  so  wide  an  extent  of  the  country  as  tlie 
tabimtshik,  he  is  able  to  carry  about  with  him  a  multitude  of  comforts,  in 
which  the  guardian  of  the  horses  must  never  hope  to  indulge.  The  tsha- 
bawn has  usually  one  or  two  large  wagons,  drawn  by  oxen,  in  which  he 
carries  with  him  his  provisions  and  his  cooking-utensils,  together  with  the 
skins  of  the  sheep  that  die,  and  those  of  tlie  wolves  that  he  has  been  fortu- 
nate enough  to  slay :  for  the  tshabawn,  with  all  his  quietness,  is  as  zealous 
a  wolf-hunter  as  the  tabuntshik,  and  quite  as  willing  to  increase  his  lawful 
gainings  by  the  sale  of  a  score  of  shaggy  hides  in  the  course  of  the  season. 

Of  the  fat-tailed  sheep  there  are  two  distinct  races,  the  Wallachian  and 
the  Calmuck.  The  former  really  carries  its  fat  about  in  its  tail,  which 
grows  into  a  shape  something  similar  to  a  pear,  swelling  at  both  sides  to 
an  enormous  size,  and  tapering  to  a  point  at  the  extremity.  The  Calmuck 
sheep,  which  is  rarely  found  in  the  western  steppes,  does  not  really  carry 
its  fat  in  the  tail,  but  rather  in  two  huge  cushions,  from  thirty  to  forty 
pounds  in  weight,  that  strongly  remind  the  stranger,  who  sees  them  for 
the  first  time,  of  the  Hottenton  Venus.  With  both,  the  fat  in  or  about  the 
tail  is  considered  more  valuable  than  that  obtained  from  any  other  part  of 
the  animal. 

The  severe  cold  of  a  Pontine  winter,  and  the  parching  summer  by  which 
the  dance  of  the  seasons  is  so  strikingly  diversified,  are  replete  with  trials 
and  sufferings  for  all  the  animals  most  useful  to  man.  The  hurricanes  that 
sometimes  sweep  across  the  plain  are  frequently  attended  by  the  most  dis- 
astrous consequences  to  the  flocks.     These  make  not  the  least  attempt  to 


SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  —  THE   STEPPES.  239 

resist  the  violence  of  the  storm,  but  run  away  in  a  perfect  panic  before  tlie 
wind,  and  are  blown  by  thousands  into  the  streams  and  ravines  by  which 
the  steppes  are  intersected.  The  dull  Russian  shepherds,  on  these  occa- 
sions, are  of  little  value,  and  the  dogs  are  not  much  above  their  masters  in 
point  of  intelligence.  Tlie  most  sensible  members  of  these  communities  are 
generally  the  goats,  without  whom  a  Pontine  shepherd  would  never  be  able 
to  keep  his  woolly  charge  in  any  kind  of  order.  To  every  hundred  sheep, 
therefore,  three  or  four  goats  are  invariably  associated,  to  make  up,  by 
their  wit  and  sprightliness,  for  the  silliness  of  their  companions  !  Until 
the  autumnal  storms  are  no  longer  endurable,  the  sheep  remain  on  the 
steppe,  and  then  return  to  winter  in  the  miserable  enclosures,  where  a  little 
shelter  against  the  north  wind  is  mostly  the  only  protection  ever  consid- 
ered necessary. 

The  movements  of  an  ottara,  or  flock,  are,  of  course,  much  less  erratic 
than  those  of  a  taboon.  If  the  tshabaivn  comes  to  a  fine  pasture-ground, 
he  seldom  leaves  it  till  the  grass  has  been  eaten  away  ;  and  even  when  on 
the  march,  his  encampment  for  the  night  is  often  only  two  or  three  miles 
from  the  spot  whence  he  started  in  the  morning.  In  good  weather,  to 
guide  the  flock  is  an  easy  task.  The  tshabaivn  follows  his  wagon,  and  the 
sheep  follow  him,  his  men  hanging  upon  the  flanks  and  the  rear,  to  drive 
in  stragglers,  and  to  accelerate  the  progress  of  those  who  are  all  too  dila- 
tory in  their  movements.  Their  long  irliks  are  the  sceptres  with  which 
the  shepherds  occasionally  enforce  their  authority.  These  are  crooks, 
nearly  twelve  feet  in  length,  and  may  at  any  moment  be  converted  into 
most  formidable  weapons,  of  either  attack  or  defence.  The  wolf  who  has 
tasted  one  blow  from  the  irlik  of  a  tshabawn,  is  seldom  fated  to  experience 
a  second. 

In  bad  weather,  and  particularly  during  the  autumnal  storms,  matters 
wear,  as  we  have  already  hinted,  a  very  difierent  aspect.  The  wolves  in 
spring  are  a  constant  plague,  but  a  vigilant  tshabawn  may  be  on  his  guard 
against  these  rapacious  beasts ;  and,  besides,  the  more  the  wolves  show 
themselves,  the  greater  will  be  the  number  of  skins  to  be  disposed  of  at  the 
end  of  the  season.  Against  the  snowstorm  of  the  steppe,  however,  vigi- 
lance can  avail  but  little ;  and  whereas  the  wolf  can  but  rarely  succeed  in 
the  capture  of  even  a  single  sheep,  thousands  may  be  buried  in  the  snow- 
drift of  a  samjot,  or  blown  over  the  edge  of  a  precipice  into  a  ravine,  or 
into  the  yesty  waves  of  the  easily-agitated  Euxine.  Not  a  year  passes 
away  of  which  the  tshabaivn  has  not  to  recount  various  disasters  caused 
by  the  samjots. 

In  fair  weather,  the  scene  is,  of  course,  a  very  different  one.  In  his 
roomy  wagon  the  tshabaivn  carries  with  him  a  multitude  of  little  comforts  ; 
and  if  he  comes  upon  a  piece  of  good  grazing-ground,  he  establishes  him- 
self there  for  days  together.  His  little  kitchen  is  immediately  put  into 
order ;  one  kettle  simmers  away  for  himself  and  his  men,  and  another  for 
his  dogs — a  fierce  and  formidable  set  of  animals,  that  are  invaluable  in  a 


240  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

countn  swarming  with  wolves.  While  one  of  the  party  acts  as  cook,  the 
others  are  not  without  their  occupation.  One  has  perhaps  been  stripping 
the  skin  off  a  dead  sheep ;  another  has  been  acting  the  physician  toward 
the  sick  members  of  the  ottara;  while  several  have  found  ample  work  in 
milking — for  in  a  large  flock  tlicre  are  often  not  less  than  five  or  six  hun- 
dred sheep  to  be  milked  !  The  milk,  placed  in  wooden  vessels,  is  exposed 
to  the  sun,  and  converted  into  a  kind  of  cheese,  known  throughout  the 
steppe  under  the  name  of  brinse.  This  cheese,  as  soon  as  the  whey  has 
been  drained  off,  is  packed  into  goatskins,  with  the  fur  turned  inside.  The 
skin  gives  it  a  peculiar  flavor,  but  this,  according  to  the  opinion  of  the 
southern  Russians,  is  one  of  its  chief  recommendations.  Nor  are  the  she|> 
lierds  without  their  sports  while  the  mamalig-a  is  simmering  away  in  the 
sociable  kettle.  A  day  rarely  passes  away  without  a  wolf-chase  ;  a  hare 
may  frequently  be  run  down ;  and,  if  the  traps  are  attended  to,  many  a 
piece  of  feathered  game  may  be  made  to  vary  the  monotony  of  their  daily 
bill  of  fare.  Nor  are  they  without  frequent  guests  to  share  the  produce  of 
their  chase.  Parties  of  hunters  scouring  the  steppes  in  pursuit  of  game, 
peasants  from  Podolia  and  other  parts  in  search  of  work,  soldiers  on  fur- 
lough, deserters  from  the  army,  and  runaway  serfs  from  the  interior  of  the 
empire,  are  constantly  wandering  about  the  steppe ;  and  the  tshabaivn, 
with  that  ready  hospitality  seldom  found  wanting  in  any  nomadic  tribe, 
makes  every  stranger  welcome  to  his  frugal  meal.  The  poor  fugitive  may 
pass  the  night  securely  under  shelter  of  the  tshabaivri's  dogs,  whom  no 
uninvited  stranger  ever  ventures  to  approach,  and  in  the  morning  the  wan- 
derer will  seldom  be  dismissed  without  some  fresh  token  of  the  kindness 
of  his  host. 

When  the  evening  meal  is  done,  if  the  weather  is  fine,  and  no  wolf  in 
view,  men  and  dogs  are  sure  to  pass  an  hour  or  two  stretched  before  thei* 
blazing  fire  of  dry  reeds  and  grass.  There  the  tshabawns  confer  on  th 
politics  of  the  steppe,  or  discuss  tlie  relative  merits  of  the  grazing-ground 
to  which  it  will  be  most  expedient  to  direct  their  next  march.  The  council 
ended,  the  arrangements  for  the  night  remain  to  be  made.  The  wagon  is 
the  lodging  of  the  principal  tshabaivn — the  ataman  or  chief  of  the  ottara, 
as  he  is  frequently  called — and  here  also  the  guests  of  the  encampment 
are  usually  accommodated.  The  other  tshabaivns  drive  the  sheep  as  closely 
together  as  possible,  and  then  form,  with  their  dogs,  a  complete  circle 
round  the  flock.  Each  man  throws  his  furs,  that  serve  him  for  mattress 
and  coverlet,  on  the  spot  assigned  to  him,  and  between  every  two  beds  the 
same  measured  interval  occurs.  The  next  thing  is  to  make  the  beds  for 
the  dogs.  This  is  soon  done.  So  many  dogs  as  there  are,  as  many  rugs 
are  provided  ;  and  as  each  dog  knows  his  own  rug  by  the  smell,  all  that  is 
necessary  is  to  lay  the  rug  on  the  spot  where  it  is  wished  the  dog  should 
take  up  his  station  for  the  night,  and  a  complete  cordon  sanitaire  is  formed. 
A.  camp  thus  fortified  may  generally  defy  the  wolf ;  still  there  are  few 
nights  pass  away  without  an  alarm,  for  the  wolves  will  hover  for  many 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA  —  THE   STEPPES. 


241 


Hl'NTEBS    KNCAMPKD   OW  THE    StEPPE. 


successive  days  and  nights  around  a  flock,  in  the  hope  of  espying,  sooner 
or  later,  an  unguarded  point,  or  of  taking  advantage  of  the  panic  into 
which  the  ottara  is  sometimes  thrown  by  a  sudden  storm. 

The  wide,  unbounded  extent  of  the  steppe  makes  almost  everything  wild 
that  dwells  there  ;  and  as  the  horse  assumes  in  a  short  time  an  air  of  wild- 
ness,  so  also  the  ox  that  ranges  over  the  grassy  ocean  is  a  very  different 
kind  of  animal  from  the  ox  attached  to  a  well-ordered  farm.  On  the  steppe 
also  you  hear  of  house-oxen  and  steppe-oxen.  The  former  are  attached  to 
the  household,  work  for  their  owner,  and  graze  only  near  his  house. 

The  breed  of  cows  that  prevails  on  the  steppe  gives  but  little  milk.  The 
German  colonists  have,  in  consequence,  introduced  cattle  from  Germany, 
and  the  same  has  been  done  by  many  of  the  principal  landowners.  The 
cattle  of  foreign  breed,  however,  are  still  insignificant  in  numbers  compared 
to  the  original  race.  This  race,  which  extends  over  Southern  and  Western 
Russia,  and  a  part  of  Moldavia,  is  large,  long-legged,  with  long  horns,  and 
always  of  a  white  or  silver-gray  color,  differing  in  many  points  from  the 
Polish,  the  Hungarian,  or  the  Tartar  breeds. 

Such  a  herd  of  wild  oxen  is  called  a  tsherecla,  and  the  herdsman  who 
has  the  charge  of  it  is  called  the  tsherednik.  A  tsherecla  consists  of  from 
one  to  eight  hundred  head  of  cattle,  and  is  a  source  of  more  profit  to  its 
owner  than  a  taboon,  inasmuch  as  an  ox,  for  his  tallow,  will  always  com- 
mand a  purchaser  more  readily  than  a  wild,  vicious,  unbroken  horse. 

In  many  respects  the  life  of  a  tsherednik  bears  a  great  resemblance  to 
that  of  a  tahuntshik.     In  summer  the  cattle  are  out  in  the  plain,  and  in 

16 


242  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 

winter  they  are  scantily  protected  by  their  airy  sheds.  The  bulls  and  cows 
that  are  kept  for  breeding  are  never  sold,  but  live  and  die  on  the  steppe  ; 
but  the  young  beasts  are  sold  to  the  prekashtshiks,  the  commissioners  of  the 
St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow  cattle-dealers,  or  the  great  tallow-boiling  estab- 
lishments. These  men  are  continually  travelling  about  from  herd  to  herd, 
and,  as  soon  as  they  have  bought  a  sufficient  number  of  oxen,  send  them  off 
to  their  places  of  destination,  under  the  care  of  their  gontshiks,  or  drivers. 

The  tsheredniks,  like  the  tshabmvns,  serve  on  foot,  the  ox  being  less 
wild,  and  more  easy  to  manage,  than  the  horsok.  The  ox  is  more  choice, 
indeed,  in  his  food,  but  then  his  meal  is  more  quickly  despatched,  and  his 
afternoon  nap  lasts  all  the  longer.  He  bears  the  rain  but  ill,  and  is  very 
impatient  of  heat,  but  in  a  snowstorm  he  is  less  apt  to  get  frightened,  and 
pursues  his  course  regardless  whether  the  samjots  blow  from  the  front  or 
the  rear.  He  will  also  endure  thirst  much  better,  and  can  go  for  two  days 
together  without  drinking. 

With  the  wolf  the  ox  is  much  on  the  same  terms  as  the  horse,  though 
it  has  l)een  observed  that  a  wolf  attacks  a  tshereda  much  less  frequently 
than  a  taboon.  The  ox,  on  account  of  his  long  horns,  is  a  much  more  for- 
midable enemy  than  the  horse,  and  generally  pins  his  enemy  to  the  ground 
at  the  first  attack.  Nevertheless,  the  wolf  does  hover  occasionally  about 
the  herd,  and,  if  a  lame  or  sickly  ox  happen  to  lag  behind  his  companions, 
he  frequently  falls  a  victim  to  his  vigilant  and  remorseless  foe. 

The  markets  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow  are  supplied  with  beef  almost 
entirely  from  the  herds  of  the  steppe.  It  is  also  there  that  Russia  derives 
her  chief  supply  of  tallow  ;  and,  in  addition  to  the  home  consumption,  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  tons  of  tallow  arc  exported  annually  to 
other  countries,  while  Russia-leather  is  noted  and  in  demand  for  its  supe- 
rior quality  throughout  the  civilized  world. 

At  a  very  early  period  of  history  —  ^Tcrhaps  so  early  as  the  times  of 
Herodotus,  but  certainly  in  those  of  the  Milesians  —  tallow  was  an  article 
of  export  from  Scythia.  At  present  the  large  tallow-manufactories,  or 
saltans,  as  they  are  called,  are  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  natives  of 
Grreat  Russia,  who  have  their  establishments  in  all  parts  of  the  stepjie. 
They  buy  the  oxen  up,  as  above  remarked,  by  thousands,  and  after  fattening 
them  up  for  a  season,  drive  them  to  the  saltans  to  be  slaughtered.  If  the 
season  is  good  —  that  is  to  say,  tolerably  moist,  so  that  the  animals  may 
fatten  well — the  speculation  is  likely  to  turn  out  well,  but  a  long-continued 
drought  is  ruinous  in  its  consequences.  The  tallow-boilers  remain  empty, 
and  the  poor,  meager  ox  has  nothing  left  but  his  skin  with  which  to  pay 
the  price  of  his  board.  After  such  a  season,  the  owners  of  the  salgan^ 
usually  close  their  books,  and  declare  tliemselves  insolvent  for  they  are 
seldom  possessed  of  much  capital,  and  generally  carry  on  their  operations 
with  the  money  advanced  by  the  merchants  of  the  seaport  towns. 

Near  the  end  of  summer  the  tallow-boiler  begins  to  drive  his  oxen  in 
small  parties  toward  the  salgan,  a  spacious  courtyard,  surrounded  by  the 


SOUTHERN   RUSSIA THE   STEPPES.  243 

buiklings  necessary  for  the  inanufacture.  There  are  large  shambles  in 
which  to  slaughter  the  oxen,  and  houses  containing  enormous  boilers,  in 
which  to  boil  down  tlieir  meat.  Other  buildings  are  set  apart  for  the  salt- 
ing of  the  hides,  besides  which  there  are  countingliouses,  and  dwellings  for 
the  workmen.  In  summer  the  whole  establishment  is  untenanted,  save  by 
dogs  and  birds  of  prey,  Avho  hover  about  all  the  year  round,  being  attracted 
by  the  nauseous  smell  of  the  place ;  for  during  autumn  the  soil  becomes  so 
saturated  with  blood,  that  the  smell  continues  for  the  rest  of  the  year, 
despite  the  samjots  of  winter  and  the  northwest  storms  of  the  spring. 

To  get  the  oxen  into  the  salg-an,  neither  force  nor  blows  would  always 
suffice,  but  there  are  attaclied  to  every  place  of  the  kind  a  number  of  tame 
oxen,  who  are  taught  to  entice  their  bellowing  brethren  to  their  fate.  These 
traitors  are  brought  out  and  mingled  with  the  herd :  they  afterward  lead 
the  doomed  and  despairing  multitude  to  the  scene  of  slaughter ;  and  when 
once  the  victims  have  entered  the  courtyard,  the  gate  closes  upon  them, 
and  they  never  come  out  again  except  as  beef,  tallow,  and  leather. 

About  one  hundred  oxen  are  driven  into  the  yard  at  a  time,  and  of  these 
twenty  or  thirty  go  into  the  slaughterhouse,  in  which  six  or  eiglit  butchers 
are  kept  briskly  at  work,  who  are  spoken  of  as  liorrid-looking  ruffians  in 
sheepskin  jackets,  leathern  breeches,  and  high  boots,  unsmeared  by  aught 
save  the  gore  in  which  they  constantly  wade.  The  villanous  stench  and  the 
awful  spectacle  in  the  slaughterhouse  are  said  to  exceed  any  that  the  mind 
of  man  can  imagine.  The  business  is  usually  carried  on  in  the  wet  season, 
so  that  the  whole  salg-an  is  soon  converted  into*  a  swamp  of  blood  and  mud ! 

As  great  expedition  is  required,  the  business  of  the  slaughterhouse  is  per- 
formed hurriedly,  and  the  poor  animals  are  subjected  to  much  unnecessary 
suffering.  It  would  require  more  hands  and  more  time  than  can  be  afford- 
ed in  a  salgan,  to  put  an  ox  to  death  in  the  artist-like  manner  customary 
among  our  butchers.  In  the  salg-an  the  beasts  are  left  loose  :  the  big-booted 
murderers  enter  the  place  with  their  heavy  axes,  and,  striking  each  animal 
a  tremendous  blow  on  the  back,  break  its  spine,  and  so  bring  it  to  the 
earth.  Then  snorting  and  bellowing  the  poor  victims  lie  upon  the  ground, 
twenty  or  thirty  of  them  at  a  time,  helpless  and  unresisting,  and  a  consid- 
erable time  elapses  before  the  whole  of  them  can  be  put  out  of  their  pain. 

The  ox  has  but  little  fat  upon  his  loins  and  back ;  and,  therefore,  after 
the  skin  has  been  drawn  off,  three  or  four  p.oods  of  meat  are  cut  off,  to  be 
offered  afterward  for  sale  in  the  bazar.  None  but  the  poor,  however,  buy 
it ;  for  the  blow  on  the  spine  always  has  the  effect  of  injuring  the  meat. 
The  remainder  of  the  carcass  is  then  cut  up,  and  everything  cast  into  the 
boiler,  with  the  exception  of  the  intestines,  which  are  given  to  the  swine, 
of  whom  there  are  always  a  large  number  at  every  salg-an,  wallowing  in  the 
miry  gore,  and  undergoing  the  process  of  being  fattened  up  for  the  market. 

At  every  salg-an  there  are  usually  from  four  to  six  boilers,  each  large 
enough  to  contain  the  meat  of  ten  or  fifteen  oxen.  The  fat  collects  at  the 
top,,  and  is  skimmed  off  with  large  ladles ;  and,  before  it  has  quite  cooled. 


244  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

it  is  poured  into  the  casks  in  which  it  is  afterward  shipped.  This  first  fat 
is  the  best,  and  is  quite  white  ;  the  second  has  a  yellowish  tinge.  If  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  casks  is  not  at  hand,  the  hides  are  sewn  together,  and  the 
tallow  poured  into  them,  till  they  again  assume  a  form  something  like  that 
of  the  living  animal !  Of  these  tallow-stufibd  oxen  a  large  number  are  usu- 
ally seen  standing  about  the  saltans.  Another  harvest  of  fat  is  obtained 
by  afterward  subjecting  the  mash  of  bones  and  meat  to  huge  presses ;  but 
this  after-tallow  is  of  a  very  inferior  quality,  and  is  rarely  exported.  It  is 
used  for  greasing  wheels,  and  wherever  a  coarse  kind  of  grease  is  required. 
The  tallow  is  always  in  demand,  and  such  is  the  eagerness  to  obtain  it, 
that  not  only  is  a  part  of  the  price  often  paid  beforehand,  while  the  oxen 
are  still  grazing  on  the  steppe,  but  the  wealthy  merchants  of  Odessa  and 
their  clerks  are  constantly  parading  their  gay  habiliments  among  the  filthy 
abominations  of  the  saltan,  and  crying  out  incessantly  for  tallow,  tallow, 
and  more  tallow !  The  cashier,  meanwhile,  is  busy  in  the  countinghouse. 
The  steward  of  the  estate  comes  in  to  receive  the  rent  of  the  land  on  which 
the  herd  has  fattened  during  the  season ;  the  workmen  come  in  for  their 
wages  ;  cattle-dealers  come  in  to  contract  for  so  many  hundred  oxen  ;  while 
some  merchant  standing  by  is  ready,  in  his  eagerness  for  the  greasy  treas- 
ure, to  pay  in  advance  for  the  tallow  that  has  yet  to  be  grown  under  the 
hides  of  those  oxen ;  a  colonist  comes  in  to  bargain  for  the  fattening  up  of 
some  two  hundred  hogs,  which  he  afterward  receives  back  walking  masses 
of  hog's-lard,  too  yellow  and  coarse,  however,  for  the  market,  till  the  grunt- 
ers  have  been  a  little  refined  by  sundry  feeds  of  grain ;  Greeks  from  Con- 
stantinople come,  as  they  did  in  the  days  when  Olbia  flourished  ;  a  wealthy 
nobleman  perhaps  is  anxious  to  rent  the  whole  salgan  for  a  few  weeks,  hav- 
ing some  thousands  of  oxen  ready  for  the  kettle,  but  no  establishment  of  his 
own  to  boil  them  into  fat  and  silver  roubles  ;  a  swineherd  comes  in  to  buy 
sundry  wagon-loads  of  the  pressed  meat  wherewith  to  treat  his  interesting 
charges  on  the  steppe  ;  soap-boilers  are  there  to  bargain  for  the  fat,  turners 
to  buy  the  horns,  and  tanners  to  carry  away  the  hides ;  the  Turkish  cap- 
tains come  eagerly  to  obtain  the  tallow  in  its  greatest  purity  at  the  fountain- 
head,  for  tallow  is  too  much  esteemed  by  the  gourmands  of  Constantinople 
to  be  idly  wasted  in  enlightening  their  darkness :  in  short,  however  busily 
Death  may  be  at  work,  there  is,  meanwhile,  no  want  of  either  life  or  bustle 
in  the  saltan.  Nor  is  it  men  alone  that  are  eagerly  running  to  and  fro. 
The  shaggy,  long-haired  dogs  of  the  steppe  arrive  in  swarms  to  batten  on 
the  refuse,  or  to  lap  the  thickening  gore  in  the  loathsome  well  into  which 
it  has  been  drained.  Even  more  numerous  are  the  white  sea-gulls,  who, 
under  their  dovelike  plumage,  hide  the  hearts  of  vultures.  They  become  so 
tame  and  bold  in  the  sali;an,  that  they  walk  fearlessly  among  the  workmen, 
and  will  scarcely  rise  f'  om  their  meal  when  driven  with  a  stick.  Such  is 
the  hideous  scene  presented  by  one  of  these  dens  of  murder,  where,  in  addi- 
tion to  its  other  accoir/paniments,  the  air  is  heavy  with  myriads  of  insects, 
that  seem  to  have  be'jn  bred  by  the  soil,  soaked  as  it  is  with  blood ! 


EASTERN   RUSSIA  —  ASTRAKHAN. 


245 


EASTERN    RUSSIA. 

HE  governments  we  have  for  con- 
venience grouped  in  this  chapter, 
under  the  general  designation  of 

City  of  Astrakhan.  EASTERN  RuSSIA,  are  thoSC  Cover- 

ing principally  the  territory  of  the  ancient  Tartar  kingdoms  of  Astrakhan 
and  Kazan.  They  are  generally  known,  and  are  classed  in  the  table  on 
page  42,  under  those  more  distinctive  names.  By  a  ukase  of  December  18, 
1850,  a  new  government  was  formed  in  Eastern  Russia  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Volga,  and  named  Samara,  consisting  of  three  districts  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Orenburg,  two  districts  of  Saratov,  and  the  districts  of  Samara 
and  Stavropol  in  Simbirsk.  As  we  have  not  the  means  of  giving  its  bound- 
aries, or  of  ascertaining  the  proportions  of  its  area  and  population  contrib- 
uted by  each  of  the  above  governments,  its  lines  are  of  course  not  marked 
on  the  map,  and  its  description  is  included  in  that  of  those  governments. 

The  government  of  Astrakhan  lies  on  the  northwest  coast  of  the  Cas- 
pian sea,  between  the  forty-fourth  and  fiftieth  degrees  of  north  latitude  and 
the  forty-third  and  fifty-first  degrees  of  east  longitude,  having  the  Malaia 
Ouzen  for  its  northeastern  and  the  Manytch  for  its  southwestern  boundary. 
It  is  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  parts  by  the  Volga,  which  traverses  it 
from  northwest  to  southeast.  Its  coast-line,  including  minute  sinuosities, 
is  about  five  hundred  and  twenty  miles  in  length,  and  is  crowded  through- 


246  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

out  its  whole  extent  with  small  islands,  rocks,  and  shifting  sandbanks. 
The  entire  length  of  the  province  is  three  hundred  and  seventy  miles,  and 
its  greatest  breadth  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  containing  an  area  of  about 
forty-three  thousand  square  miles. 

This  government  consists  almost  wholly  of  two  vast  steppes  or  plains, 
separated  from  each  other  by  the  Volga,  the  greater  portions  of  which  are 
an  arid,  sterile  desert — forming,  in  fact,  a  portion  of  the  steppes  described 
in  the  last  chapter.  The  largest  tracts  of  this  description  are  the  deserts 
of  Naryn  and  Sedok :  the  former,  in  which  occur  hills  of  moving  sand,  is 
situated  on  the  northeast  side  of  the  Volga ;  the  other  on  the  southwest. 
The  whole  of  Astrakhan  was  at  one  period  submerged  by  the  Caspian,  as 
is  evident  from  the  saline  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  shells  it  contains ; 
and  as  both  are  upward  of  eighty  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea  of  Azov, 
should  any  convulsion  of  nature  cause  a  depression  of  the  intervening  land, 
Astrakhan  would  again  be  overwhelmed  by  the  ocean  ! 

The  soil  consists  generally  of  mud,  salt,  and  sand,  intermixed,  and  in 
some  parts  of  extensive  salt  marshes,  rendering  it  almost  wholly  one  wide 
and  sterile  waste,  destitute  of  wood  ;  the  few  trees  it  has  to  boast  of  being 
met  with  on  the  banks  of  its  rivers  only.  These  are  oaks,  poplars,  birches, 
and  some  mulberry-trees,  the  latter  of  which  are  found  in  greatest  numbers 
along  the  Aktuba.  Notwithstanding  the  general  sterility  of  the  country, 
a  few  fertile  tracts  are  met  with  on  the  skirts  and  delta  of  the  Volga,  in- 
cluding some  excellent  pastures.  Here  grain  is  grown,  but  not  in  sufScient 
quantity  to  maintain  the  population,  with  some  fruits,  herbs,  vines,  tobacco, 
and  cotton. 

Salt  lakes  and  ponds  are  numerous  throughout  the  proAince  ;  the  largest 
of  the  former,  Baskutchatsk,  is  situated  to  the  east  of  the  Volga,  and  is 
about  twelve  miles  in  length  and  five  in  breadth.  When  evaporated  in 
summer,  these  lakes  and  pools  leave  thick  crusts  of  culinary,  and,  in  some 
cases,  Epsom  salt.  In  this  district,  low  hills  of  gypsum  and  rock-salt  also 
occur ;  the  former  vary  in  size  and  elevation,  the  highest  rising  about  sixty 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  steppe :  they  are  mostly  of  semicircular  form, 
and  many  of  them  are  crater-shaped  at  the  top.  The  salt-hills  rise  to  about 
I'lO  same  height,  and  contain  gem-salt,  above  which  is  sandstone,  and  over 
that  the  common  yellow  sand  of  the  steppe.  The  salt  is  colorless,  firm,  and 
contains  clear  and  perfectly  transparent  cubes. 

The  principal  rivers  of  Astrakhan  are  the  Volga  (a  description  of  whicli, 
with  a  map  of  its  several  mouths,  is  given  on  a  previous  page),  the  Aktuba, 
which  runs  parallel  to  it  at  the  distance  of  two  or  three  miles,  and  the 
Sarpa.  The  Kouma,  which  once  formed  a  part  of  the  southern  boundary 
of  the  province,  and  represented  on  the  maps  as  falling  into  the  Caspian, 
does  not  now  reach  that  sea,  being  absorbed  by  the  sands  some  sixty  miles 
inland.  The  climate  is  extremely  hot  in  summer,  and  equally  cold  in  win- 
ter ;  and  is  unhealthy  to  all  but  natives,  from  the  quantity  of  saline  par- 
ticles with  which  the  atmosphere  is  impregnated. 


EASTERN   RUSSIA ASTRAKHAN. 


247 


Pasturafrc  and  fishing  constitute  the  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants: 
the  former  of  the  rural  and  nomadic  tribes  ;  the  latter  of  the  population  on 
the  coast  and  banks  of  the  Volga.  The  live  stock  consists  principally  of, 
sheep  of  the  Calmuck  or  broad-tailed  breed.  Cattle  and  goats  are  also 
reared,  the  latter  chiefly  for  their  skins,  from  which  Morocco-leather  is 
made.  The  breeding  of  horses  likewise  obtains  some  attention,  but  they 
are  diminutive  and  ill-conditioned.  Some  of  the  nomadic  tribes  have  also 
larsre  herds  of  Bactrian  camels. 

The  fisheries  of  the  Volga  are  of  great  value,  no  stream  in  the  world 
l>eing  more  abundantly  stocked  with  fish,  particularly  between  the  city  of 
Astrakhan  and  the  Caspian,  a  distance  of  about  twenty-five  or  thirty  miles. 
On  this  ground,  an  immense  number  of  vessels  and  boats,  and  many  thou- 
sand persons,  are  employed  in  spring,  autumn,  and  winter,  in  taking  fish, 
cliiefly  sturgeon,  from  the  roes  and  bladders  of  which  large  quantities  of 
isinglass  and  caviar  are  manufactured. 

The  population  of  Astrakhan  is  composed  of  a  great  variety  of  races, 
including  Russians,  Cossacks,  Tartars,  Calmucks,  Armenians,  Persians, 
Hindus,  &c.  The  most  numerous 
arc  the  Calmucks,  who  occu})y  large 
tracts  of  country  to  the  east  of  the 
Volga.  Of  all  the  inhabitants  of 
tlie  Russian  empire,  the  Calmucks 
are  the  most  distinguished  by  peculi- 
arity of  features  and  manners.  They 
are,  in  general,  raw-boned  and  stout. 
Their  faces  are  so  flat,  that  the  skull 
of  a  Calmuck  may  be  easily  known 
from  others.  They  have  thick  lips, 
a  small  nose,  and  a  short  chin,  with 
a  complexion  of  a  sallow  brown. 
Their  clothing  is  oriental,  and  their 
heads  are  almost  exactly  like  those 
of  the  Chinese.     Some  of  the  women 

wear  a  large  golden  ring  in  their  nostrils.  Their  principal  food  consists 
of  animals,  tame  and  wild ;  and  even  their  chiefs  will  feed  upon  cattle  that 
have  died  of  distemper  or  age,  though  the  flesh  may  be  putrid :  so  that  in 
every  horde  the  flesh-market  has  the  appearance  of  a  lay-stall  of  carrion ! 
They  eat  likewise  the  roots  and  plants  of  their  deserts.  They  eat  freely, 
but  can  abstain  from  food  for  a  long  time.  Both  sexes  smoke  continually. 
During  the  summer  they  remain  in  the  northern  and  in  the  winter  in  the 
southern  deserts.  They  sleep  upon  felt,  or  carpeting,  and  cover  themselves 
with  the  same. 

The  Calmucks  are  a  branch  of  the  Mogul  or  Mongol  nation,  which  origi- 
nally inhabited  the  country  to  the  north  of  China.  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  the  Torgot  and  Derbet  divisions  of  this  tribe 


Calmucks. 


248  ILl^USTEATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

descended  to  the  banks  of  the  Volga,  extending  their  wanderings  over  the 
country  of  the  Don  Cossacks  to  the  shores  of  the  sea  of  Azov.  About  this 
time  Ayuka  Khan  ruled  over  the  whole  nation.  Shortly  after  his  death, 
and  while  weakened  by  internal  dissensions,  the  Calmucks  fell  an  easy 
prey  to  the  designs  of  the  Russian  government,  and  remained  subject  to 
the  imperial  sceptre,  until,  in  the  winter  of  1770-'71,  offended  by  the  de- 
spotic measures  of  the  empress  Catherine  II.,  half  a  million  of  the  tribe 
wandered  rather  farther  than  usual,  and  ended  by  pitching  their  tents  in 
the  dominions  of  "  his  celestial  majesty"  the  emperor  of  China — a  warning 
to  despotic  governments  not  to  trouble  their  nomadic  subjects  with  the 
arrangements  of  the  "  home  department." 

It  was,  indeed,  as  remarkable  an  emigration  as  the  revenge  that  prompted 
it  was  signal ;  and  we  are  irresistibly  reminded  by  it  of  the  only  parallel 
instance  which  history  records,  of  those  wanderings  in  the  desert  of  Sinai, 
undertaken  under  somewhat  similar  circumstances  ;  and  if  the  sojourning 
in  the  wilderness  was  of  much  longer  duration  in  the  one  case,  the  distance 
travelled  in  the  other  was  immeasurably  greater.  Unfortunately,  a  large 
portion  of  the  Calmucks  were  left  behind,  having  been  prevented  by  an 
unusually  late  winter  from  crossing  the  Volga.  Those  who  reached  China, 
after  a  journey  of  eight  months,  were  most  cordially  welcomed  by  the  em- 
peror, who  allotted  for  their  occupation  the  Ily  country  in  the  province  of 
Soongaria,  and  granted  them  many  privileges,  in  consideration  of  their 
voluntary  submission  to  his  rule. 

To  judge  from  the  condition  of  the  Calmucks  who  remained  behind,  their 
brethren  in  China  probably  made  an  exchange  for  the  better ;  and  doubt- 
less those  who  were  left  suffered  for  the  independent  conduct  of  this  por- 
tion of  the  tribe.  They  are  in  a  great  measure  confined  to  the  province 
of  Astrakhan,  and  those  who  are  immediately  subject  to  the  crown  pay  a 
tax  amounting  to  seventy-five  roubles  a  family.  There  is  a  committee  for 
the  administration  of  Calmuck  affairs  at  Astrakhan,  the  president  and  some 
of  the  members  of  which  are  Russians. 

Besides  those  who  are  under  the  dominion  of  the  crown,  there  are  sev- 
eral divisions  of  the  tribe,  each  governed  by  separate  princes.  One  of  tlie 
most  celebrated  of  these  has  built  a  palace  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga,  not 
far  from  Astrakhan.  This  appears  to  be  the  nearest  approach  to  a  settled 
habitation  that  any  of  these  restless  beings  have  attained  to ;  and  so  great 
is  their  dread  of  a  more  composed  life  and  industrious  habits,  that,  when 
they  are  angry  with  a  person,  they  wish  "  he  may  live  in  one  place,  and 
work  like  a  Russian  !"  Their  principal  animal  food  is  horseflesh,  together 
with  koumiss^  or  churned  mare's  milk,  from  which  a  kind  of  spirit  is  dis- 
tilled. Camels  are  the  indispensable  attendants  of  their  wanderings. 
They  pay  the  greatest  respect  and  veneration  to  their  llamas,  or  priests, 
who,  like  their  Russiun  neighbors,  take  every  advantage  of  the  supposed 
character  for  sanctity  with  which  they  are  invested,  to  impose  upon  a  bar- 
barous and  superstitious  people ;  and  there  are  now  engrafted  on  their 


EASTERN   RUSSIA ASTRAKHAN  249 

original  Buddhistic  faith  a  number  of  mystic  rites  and  ceremonies,  which 
are  by  no  means  orthodox  additions.  Their  priesthood  is  in  a  measure 
subordinate  to  the  Grand  Llama  of  Thibet. 

The  Calmucks  and  Nogais  are  the  only  nomade  tribes  which  inhabit  the 
country  to  the  west  of  the  Volga.  They  share,  to  some  extent,  the  steppes 
to  the  eastward  of  that  river  with  the  Kirghiz,  who  profess  Moliammedan- 
ism,  and,  though  a  smaller  tribe,  occupy  the  territory  allotted  to  them  upon 
more  independent  conditions  than  do  the  Calmucks. 

The  city  of  Astrakhan,  the  capital  of  the  government  of  that  name,  is 
situated  on  an  elevated  island  in  tlie  Volga,  about  thirty  miles  from  its 
embouchure  in  the  Caspian  sea.  It  is  irregularly  built,  having  crooked 
streets,  which  are  mostly  unpaved  and  dirty,  being  covered  with  mud  in 
Avinter  and  with  sand  in  summer.  Some  of  the  houses  are  of  brick  or 
sandstone,  but  by  far  the  greater  number  are  of  wood.  There  are  in  all 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  streets,  fifty  squares  or  public  areas,  eight 
market-places,  eleven  wooden  and  nine  earthen  bridges. 

In  the  upper  part  of  the  town  stands  the  cathedral,  from  the  towers  of 
which,  says  Dr.  Gaebel,  "  a  fine  view  of  the  city  is  obtained,  with  its  broad 
streets  and  canals  bordered  by  trees,  the  haven  covered  with  ships,  and  of 
the  broad,  majestic  Volga,  with  its  beautiful  green  islands."  The  cathe- 
dral is  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  with  four  small  gilt  and  painted 
cupolas  on  the  roof,  and  a  large  one  in  tlie  centre  for  the  admission  of 
light.  Its  walls  inside  are  hung  with  coarsely-painted  pictures,  set  in  costly 
frames,  mostly  of  silver  filagrane-work.  There  are,  besides,  some  thirty 
stone  and  three  wooden  churches,  and  fifteen  mosques  ;  many  of  the  former 
are  richly  ornamented  and  gaudily  furnislied.  The  other  public  buildings 
of  note  are  the  archiepiscopal  palace,  the  government-offices,  and  the  three 
factory-halls  for  the  Russian,  Asiatic,  and  Hindu  dealers,  or  merchants. 
An  interesting  architectural  antiquity  is  a  small  disused  Moresco  church, 
in  the  fort  of  Peter  the  Great,  said  to  have  been  built  by  order  of  Ivan  IV. 

Astrakhan  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  and  Armenian  eparchy,  and  also  of 
Greek  and  Armenian  archbishoprics.  It  contains  a  high  court  of  civil  and 
criminal  jurisdiction ;  likewise  a  Greek  theological  seminary,  a  botanic 
garden,  a  gymnasium,  and  upward  of  twenty  superior  and  ordinary  schools, 
with  about  one  thousand  scholars  of  all  ranks.  The  manufactures  are  in- 
considerable, not  giving  employment  to  more  than  two  or  three  hundred 
work-people ;  they  comprise  silks,  cottons,  woollens,  shagreen-skins,  Mo- 
rocco-leather, and  soap.  The  fisheries  form  the  staple  trade  of  the  city, 
immense  quantities  of  fish,  caviar,  and  isinglass,  being  exported  to  foreign 
countries.  In  the  fishing-seasons,  from  twenty  to  thirty  thousand  persons 
connected  with  the  fisheries  resort  to  the  city. 

The  haven  of  Astrakhan  is  now  so  sanded  up  as  to  leave  only  about  six 
feet  depth  of  water ;  so  that  large  vessels  have  to  land  their  cargoes  on  an 
island  nearer  the  Caspian.  A  few  steam  tug-boats  are  employed  in  taking 
vessels  up  and  down  the  river.     In  1846,  three  iron  steamers  were  started, 


250 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OP    RUSSIA. 


'■^^^^^tS^VA^ 


'  ASTBAKHAN   FKOM   THE    Sea. 


to  ])ly  between  Astrakhan  and  the  other  ports  of  the  Caspian.  Previous 
to  that  period,  there  was  but  one  steamer  on  the  Volga,  and  it  was  of  only 
forty-horse  power. 

Fresh  water  being  scarce  in  the  city,  some  attempts  were  lately  made  to 
obtain  an  increased  supply  by  means  of  Artesian  wells,  but  none  was  found 
at  a  depth  of  four  hundred  feet.  From  some  of  the  borings,  however,  there 
issued  streams  of  carbonic  hydrogen  gas,  which  readily  burnt  with  a  clear 
flame.  The  population,  as  in  the  case  of  the  province  generally,  consists 
of  various  races  ;  but  most  of  the  trade  of  the  place  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
Tartars  and  Armenians,  the  latter  of  whom  are  also  the  chief  cultivators 
of  the  land  in  the  vicinity.  The  city  was  once  fortified  in  the  oriental 
manner  ;  and  many  vestiges  of  Tartar  residence  are  met  with  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, including  numerous  graves,  the  stones  of  which  have  been  taken 
by  the  inhabitants  to  form  ovens.  Several  of  the  old  embattled  towers, 
and  portions  of  dilapidated  walls,  still  remain.  In  summer,  when  the  ther- 
mometer seldom  falls  below  ninety-eight  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  the  daytime, 
the  air  is  filled  with  gnats  and  other  small  insects,  which  are  a  oource  of 
much  annoyance.  The  resident  population  of  Astrakhan  is  about  fifty 
thousand. 


Saratov  is  an  extensive  government  lying  between  the  forty-eighth  and 
fifty-third  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  forty-second  and  fifty-first  de- 
grees of  east  longitude ;  having  the  governments  of  Penza  and  Simbirsk 
on  the  north,  that  of  Orenburg  on  the  east,  of  Astrakhan  on  the  south  and 
southeast,  and  Tambov,  Yoronej,  and  the  country  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  on 
the  west.     Its  length  and  greatest  breadth  are  about  three  hundred  and 


EASTERN   RUSSIA  —  SARATOV.  251 

fifty  miles  each,  and  it  comprises  an  area  of  about  seventy-three  thousand 
square  jniles. 

The  Yolga  intersects  this  province  from  north  to  south,  dividing  it  into 
two  portions  of  nearly  equal  size,  but  diilering  considerably  in  general 
character.  The  eastern  division  is  a  wide  steppe,  destitute  of  wood,  and  cov- 
ered in  many  parts  with  salt-lakes,  from  one  of  which  about  two  hundred 
thousand  tons  of  salt  are  said  to  be  annually  obtained.  The  western  divis- 
ion is  in  part  hilly,  and,  though  stony  toward  the  south,  has  some  tolerably 
fertile  tracts  in  the  north,  where  agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
inhabitants.  Rye,  wheat,  oats,  millet,  and  peas,  are  raised,  and  in  ordi- 
nary years  the  produce,  after  supplying  the  demand  for  home  consumption, 
leaves  a  considerable  quantity  for  exportation.  Potatoes,  flax,  and  hemp, 
are  also  produced ;  and  the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  hops,  and  wood,  has 
been  introduced  by  German  and  otlier  colonists.  The  climate,  in  some 
situations,  is  sufficiently  mild  for  tlie  culture  of  the  melon,  grape,  and  mul- 
berry. The  principal  forest-trees  are  oaks,  poplars,  Siberian  acacias,  and 
firs.  The  woods  are  mostly  in  the  northwest,  and  those  belonging  to  the 
crown  are  estimated  at  about  eighteen  hundred  square  miles ;  but  the  sup- 
ply of  timber  is  not  adequate  to  the  home  demand. 

The  rearing  of  live  stock  is  conducted  on  a  large  scale  in  Saratov;  and 
the  more  wealthy  proprietors  are  endeavoring  to  improve  the  breed  of 
slieep  by  the  introduction  of  merino  flocks.  In  addition  to  the  common 
breeds,  Oliphant  mentions  having  seen,  near  the  city  of  Volsk,in  this  prov- 
ince, "  an  immense  herd  of  slieep,  wliich 
seemed,  from  their  conformation  in  cer- 
tain quarters,  to  have  been  created  ex- 
pressly for  the  purpose  of  being  melted 
into  tallow,  as  tiieir  wool  —  of  a  very  in- 
ferior description  —  was  of  little  value. 
What  added  to  the  grotesqucness  of 
their  appearance,  was  their  perfect  in- 
nocence of  anything  like  tails  !     Nature    '^ 

seemed  to  have  compromised  this  ab-  v..-.?;--^-r;7.>3#>^=<^^^-;;.^^,,., 

sence  with  a  fleecy  '  bustle,'  which  sat       shef.p  from  the  steppes  of  the  Caspian. 
upon  them  in  the  most  ridiculous  and 

undignified  manner.  However,  to  these  bustles  does  Yolsk  owe  its  pros- 
perity ;  large  herds  of  sheep,  graced  by  this  peculiarity,  being  driven  up 
annually  from  the  steppes  of  the  Caspian  to  tlie  towns  on  the  Volga.  The 
consignee  of  the  flock  we  were  then  contemplating  was  said  to  be  the  rich- 
est merchant  on  the  river — the  countless  millions  of  roubles  which  he  was 
reputed  to  possess  throwing  Rothschild  far  into  the  shade !" 

The  rearing  of  bees  and  of  silkworms  is  on  the  increase  in  this  govern- 
ment. The  fisheries  in  the  Volga  furnish  large  supplies  of  fish,  especially 
sturgeon,  for  both  home  consumption  and  exportation.  Next  to  salt,  mill- 
stones and  a  little  iron  are  the  chief  mineral  products. 


252  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP  RUSSIA. 

The  population  of  Saratov  is  very  mixed,  including  Tartars  and  Kirghiz, 
and  on  the  Volga  are  numerous  colonies,  founded  principally  by  German 
and  other  immigrants  from  western  Europe  —  originally  attracted  thither 
by  grants  of  land  and  privileges  conferred  by  the  empress  Catherine  11. ,  in 
1763.  The  colonists  are  free,  and  in  most  respects  subject  only  to  their 
own  jurisdiction.  They  conduct  the  most  important  manufactures  of  the 
government,  which  consist  of  linen,  cotton,  and  woollen  fabrics,  hosiery, 
iron-ware,  leather,  and  earthenware.  There  are  numerous  flour-mills  and 
distilleries. 

This  government  is  favorably  situated  for  commerce :  it  communicates, 
by  the  Volga,  with  Nijnei-Novgorod  aijd  the  Caspian  sea ;  and,  by  the 
Medvayditsa  and  Don,  with  the  sea  of  Azov.  The  Tartars  have  a  large 
trade  in  sheepskins,  and  the  Calmucks  in  horses  of  a  very  fleet  though  weak 
breed.  About  five  thousand  merchants,  trading  in  grain,  salt,  fish,  caviar, 
cattle,  tallow,  tobacco,  and  fruits,  had  a  few  years  since  an  aggregate  cap- 
ital of  about  twelve  millions  of  roubles.  The  imperial  government  derives 
a  greater  revenue  from  this  province,  in  proportion  to  its  population,  than 
from  any  other  in  the  empire.  It  is  divided  into  ten  districts.  The  pop- 
ulation are  mostly  of  the  Greek,  protestant,  and  Mohammedan  religions. 
Education,  except  in  the  schools  of  the  colonists,  and  of  the  capital  town, 
is  at  a  very  low  ebb.  A  recent  traveller  states  that  drunkenness  is  very 
common  among  all  ranks  of  the  inhabitants,  and  that  the  lower  classes  in 
the  towns  on  the  Volga  are  more  generally  degraded  and  immoral  than 
the  people  of  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe  which  he  has  visited. 

Saratov,  the  capital  of  this  government,  and  called  by  tlie  Russians  the' 
"  Queen  of  the  Volga,"  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  that  river,  three 
hundred  and  thirty-five  miles  south-southeast  of  Nijnei-No»v-gorod,  and  three 
hundred  and  sixty  north-northwest  of  Astrakhan.  The  population  (inclu- 
ding military),  according  to  the  official  accounts,  exceeds  forty  thousand. 
It  consists  of  an  upper  and  lower  town ;  but,  though  founded  so  late  as 
1665,  it  is  neither  regularly  laid  out  nor  well  built.  It  has  some  good  and 
even  handsome  stone  residences ;  but  most  of  its  houses  are  of  wood,  and 
it  has  frequently  been  in  great  part  destroyed  by  fire.  There  are  about  a 
dozen  Greco-Russian  churches,  some  convents,  a  protestant  and  a  Roman 
catholic  church,  a  mosque,  and  a  g-ostmdi  dvor,  or  bazar,  a  large  stone 
building  for  the  warehousing,  exhibition,  and  sale  of  merchandise.  Since 
1833,  a  new  and  handsome  archbishop's  palace  has  been  constructed ;  and 
there  are  several  hospitals,  a  gymnasium,  and  an  ecclesiastical  seminary, 
established  in  1828,  and  having  about  five  hundred  students.  The  inhab- 
itants manufacture  cotton  fabrics,  cotton  and  silk  stockings,  clocks  and 
watches,  leather,  wax-candles,  tallow,  vinegar,  beer,  &c. 

Owing  to  its  intermediate  situation  between  Astrakhan  on  one  hand,  and 
Moscow  and  Nijnei-Novgorod  on  others,  Saratov  has  an  extensive  trade, 
its  exports  being  principally  grain,  salt  fish,  hides,  cattle,  and  native  man- 
ufactured goods ;  and  its  imports,  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  iron,  glass  and  earth- 


EASTERN    RUSSIA ORENBURG.  253 

cnware,  woollen,  silk,  and  cotton  stuffs,  peltry,  <fcc.  It  has  tliree  large 
annual  fairs.  The  other  important  towns  of  the  province  are  Tzaritzin, 
Volsk,  Alexandrov,  Kamychin,  Petrovsk,  Atkarsk,  &c. 

The  government  of  Orenburg  lies  mostly  in  Europe,  but  partly  in  Asia. 
It  is  situated  chiefly  between  the  forty-seventh  and  fifty-seventh  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  and  the  forty-eighth  and  sixtieth  degrees  of  east  longitude. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  government  of  Perm  ;  on  the  northwest 
by  Yiatka ;  on  the  west  by  Kazan,  Simbirsk,  and  Saratov  ;  on  the  south- 
west by  Astrakhan  ;  on  the  south  by  the  Caspian  sea  ;  on  the  southeast  and 
east  by  the  steppes  of  the  Kirghiz  ;  and  on  the  northeast  by  Tobolsk.  Its 
greatest  length  from  northwest  to  southeast  is  eight  hundred  miles,  and  its 
breadth  about  four  hundred  and  fifty,  containing  an  area  of  about  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-eight  thousand  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  this  province  is  greatly  diversified,  consisting  partly  of 
lofty  mountain-ranges,  partly  of  elevated  plateaux  or  table-lands,  and  partly 
of  low  and  marshy  plains.  The  principal  mountain-chain  is  that  of  the 
Ural,  which,  entering  the  government  in  the  north,  traverses  it  in  a  south- 
ern but  somewhat  circuitous  direction,  and  divides  it  into  two  unequal  por- 
tions. The  eastern  portion,  by  far  the  smaller  of  the  two,  belongs  wholly 
to  the  basin  of  the  Arctic  ocean.  Its  principal  rivers  are  the  Tobol,  Abuga, 
Oufa,  and  Mijas.  It  contains  numerous  lakes  —  all,  however,  of  small 
dimensions ;  and  is  extensively  occupied  by  swamps  and  morasses.  The 
western  portion  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Caspian,  which  receives  its 
waters  partly  through  the  Biela,  Samara,  and  other  tributaries  of  the 
Volga,  but  to  a  much  larger  extent  directly  by  the  Ural,  and  its  tributaries 
Or,  Sakmara,  Ilek,  &c. 

A  considerably  part  of  the  government  is  densely  wooded,  but  a  still 
larger  part  is  occupied  by  immense  steppes,  on  which  trees  are  rare  ;  and 
natural  pastures  are  roamed  over  by  vast  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep.  The 
best  agricultural  districts  are  on  the  northwest,  where  the  surface  is  com- 
posed of  hill  and  valley  ;  and  the  soil  consists  generally  of  a  black,  fertile 
loam,  capable  of  raising  all  kinds  of  grain,  and  actually  raising  it  in  such 
abundance,  notwithstanding  the  very  imperfect  culture  it  receives,  that  a 
considerable  export  into  the  neigliboring  governments  takes  place. 

The  minerals  are  extremely  valuable,  and  furnish  a  large  source  of  rev- 
enue to  the  state.  They  include  the  precious  metals,  particularly  gold, 
which  abounds  along  the  chain  of  the  Urals ;  and  in  the  plains  on  either 
side  of  it,  but  especially  on  the  east,  copper,  iron,  and  salt.  The  working 
of  these,  and  the  different  operations  connected  with  them,  employ  a  great 
number  of  hands ;  but  manufactures,  properly  so  called,  have  made  little 
progress,  though  many  home-made  articles  are  very  beautiful,  especially 
light  worsted  shawls,  and  other  fabrics  made  by  the  females,  similar  to 
those  wrought  in  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  islands  of  Scotland.  The  trade, 
however,  particularly  with  the  nomadic  and  other  tribes,  is  very  extensive. 


254  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA, 

The  principal  articles  are  grain,  liorses,  cattle,  sheep,  hides,  furs,  honey, 
wax,  metals,  salt,  tallow,  and  fish. 

Orenburg,  the  principal  town  of  this  government,  is  situated  on  a  slope 
above  the  right  bank  of  the  Ural.  It  is  fortified,  and  has  spacious  and 
regular  though  miserably-paved  streets.  The  houses,  though  only  a  few 
are  of  stone,  and  the  far  greater  number  are  of  wood,  are  of  a  lively,  pleas- 
ing appearance.  It  has  a  protestant,  a  Roman  catholic,  and  eight  Greek 
churches,  all  built  of  stone ;  two  mosques,  governor's  house,  and  public 
offices  ;  an  exchange,  a  merchant-house,  and  a  customhouse  ;  a  Bashkir  car- 
avansary, a  handsome  building,  with  two  turrets,  where  the  business  con- 
nected with  the  Bashkirs  is  managed,  but  no  trade  is  carried  on ;  an  agri- 
cultural school,  and  the  district  and  military  schools,  &c. 

The  manufactures  of  Orenburg  consist  chiefly  of  woollen  cloth  (part  of  it 
army-clothing),  leather,  and  soap ;  and  there  are  very  extensive  establish- 
ments for  smelting  tallow.  The  trade  with  the  Kirghiz,  and  other  inhab- 
itants of  the  interior,  is  very  extensive.  It  is  not,  however,  carried  on 
within  tlie  town,  but  about  two  miles  from  it,  to  the  east  of  the  left  bank 
(_if  the  Ural,  where  the  caravans  from  Bokhara  and  Khiva  stop ;  and  a  car- 
avansary, usually  called  the  tew^cA/iq/"  (exchange  court),  or  menovoi-dvor, 
iias  been  erected,  the  whole  being  protected  by  a  camp  of  Cossacks.  In 
the  vicinity  of  the  tauschhof  are  the  immense  smelting-houses  referred  to 
above,  in  which,  in  the  course  of  a  summer,  the  tallow  of  more  than  fifty 
thousand  sheep  is  melted  down.  The  population  of  Orenburg  is  about 
fourteen  thousand. 

Perm  (with  the  governments  yet  to  be  described  in  this  chapter,  com- 
prising the  Kazan  provinces)  lies  between  the  fifty-sixth  and  sixty-second 
degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  fifty-third  and  sixty-third  degrees  of 
east  longitude ;  and  is  bounded  on  the  northwest  and  north  by  Vologda 
and  Tobolsk,  on  the  east  by  Tobolsk,  on  the  south  by  Orenburg,  and  on 
the  west  by  Yiatka.  Its  greatest  length  from  northwest  to  southeast  is 
five  hundred  and  twenty  miles,  and  its  breadth  about  four  hundred,  con- 
taining an  area  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  thousand  square  miles. 

This  government,  being  traversed  from  north  to  soutli  by  the  Ural  chain, 
is  divided  into  two  unequal  portions,  a  western  and  an  eastern  —  the  for- 
mer, of  course,  in  Europe,  and  the  latter  in  Asia.  The  Asiatic  portion,  the 
lesser  of  the  two,  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Arctic  ocean,  which  receives 
its  waters  through  tributaries  of  the  Obi.  Of  these,  the  most  important 
are  the  Sosna,  Lobva,  Tura,  Neiva,  Irbit,  Pishma,  and  Iset.  In  the  south 
it  contains  several  lakes,  of  which  the  largest  is  the  Majan, 

The  European  portion  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Caspian,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  small  portion  in  the  northwest,  drained  by  the  Petchora,  and 
of  course  belonging,  like  the  eastern  portion,  to  the  basin  of  the  Arctic 
ocean.  By  far  the  most  important  river  in  the  European  portion  is  the 
Kama,  which,  entering  the  government  on  the  northwest,  proceeds  through 


EASTERN    RUSSIA  —  PERM.  25o 

it  in  a  very  circuitous  direction,  receiving  numerous  tributaries  on  either 
bank :  of  these,  the  largest  are  the  Yishera,  Kosa,  Kosva,  Obva,  and  Tchy- 
sovaia,  with  its  affluent  the  Silva. 

From  the  principal  Ural  cliain,  the  surface  descends  in  a  succession  of 
parallel  terraces.  On  the  loftiest  summits  snow  and  ice  continue  for  nine 
months  in  the  year,  and  hence  the  climate,  naturally  rigorous,  from  its  high 
latitude  and  inland  position,  has  its  rigor  greatly  increased.  Beyond  the 
sixtieth  degree,  regular  culture  becomes  impossible,  and  the  far  greater 
part  of  the  surface  is  occupied  with  forests  and  marshes.  Extensive  for- 
ests also  stretch  far  into  the  south,  and  the  soil  being  generally  not  very 
fertile,  large  tracts  remain  uncleared. 

The  government  is  rich  in  minerals,  and  possesses  extensive  auriferous 
tracts,  on  which  vast  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  are  employed  in  collecting- 
gold,  and  there  are  also  apparently  inexhaustible  beds  of  both  iron  and 
salt.  The  immense  quantities  of  fuel  required  in  order  to  work  these  ex- 
tensively and  to  advantage,  give  a  great  adventitious  value  to  the  timber 
of  the  forest,  and  make  the  surface  covered  by  it  of  far  greater  value  than 
it  could  be  in  any  other  form.  Game,  botli  large  and  small,  is  common  in 
tlie  forests,  and  many  of  the  inhabitants  gain  a  livelihood  by  hunting ;  fish, 
including  both  sturgeon  and  salmon,  abound  in  the  rivers. 

With  the  exception  of  several  branches  of  industry  immediately  connected 
with  the  mines,  there  are  few  manufactures.  The  chief  are  soap,  leather, 
tallow-candles,  potash,  and  glass.  The  trade  derives  great  facilities  from 
the  Kama  and  other  navigable  streams,  and  has  acquired  some  importance. 
The  principal  articles  are  metals,  marble,  wood,  salt,  fur,  tallow,  and  tar. 

Nearly  three  fourths  of  the  inhabitants  are  Russians,  and  belong  to  the 
Greek  church ;  the  rest  consist  of  Tartars,  Tcheremisses,  Bashkirs,  &c. ; 
and  though  many  of  them  have  nominally  embraced  Christianity,  not  a  few 
are  Mohammedans,  and  among  others  different  forms  of  paganism  are  said 
to  prevail.  The  governments  of  Perm  and  Kazan  are  under  one  military 
governor.  Some  exertions  have  been  made  to  extend  education,  but  the 
number  of  scholars  to  the  population  is  only  one  in  nearly  three  hundred. 
For  administrative  purposes,  Perm  is  divided  into  twelve  circles. 

The  city  of  Perm,  and  the  capital  of  this  government,  is  situated  on  the 
right  l)ank  of  the  Kama,  below  the  confluence  of  the  Tchysovaia,nine  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  east  by  south  of  St.  Petersburg.  It  is  built  with  consider- 
able regularity,  in  straight  and  spacious  streets,  and  is  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishopric. It  has  two  churches  ;  several  other  public  edifices,  surmounted 
by  spires ;  a  gymnasium,  theological  seminary,  a  civil  and  a  military  hos- 
pital ;  extensive  copper  and  iron  smelting  and  refining  works,  which  give 
employment  to  the  greater  part  of  the  population  ;  and  a  considerable  trade 
with  the  inland  districts.     The  inhabitants  number  about  ten  thousand. 

Ekaterinburg,  lekaterincnbw-g- ,  or  Yekaterinburg'  (Catherine's  borough), 
capital  of  the  Ural  mining  district,  is  situated  on  the  xVsiatic  slope  of  the. 
fral  mountains,  in  the  government  of  Perm,  and  one  hundred  and  seventy 


256  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

miles  southeast  of  its  capital  city,  on  both  banks  of  the  Iceth  or  Isct,  at  an 
elevation  of  nearly  nine  hundred  feet  above  the  sea  level.  The  general 
external  appearance  of  Ekaterinburg  very  much  resembles  that  of  one  of 
the  manufacturing  towns  of  Europe.  The  streets  are  long  and  straight, 
but  unj^aved,  having,  however,  planks  or  logs  laid  on  each  side  for  foot- 
passengers.  The  principal  street  runs  parallel  with  the  river,  and  is  inter- 
sected by  numerous  smaller  streets,  leading  directly  to  the  bank  of  the  Iset. 
A  number  of  the  houses  are  of  wood,  but  there  are  also  a  great  many  of 
stone,  built  in  a  handsome  and  substantial  style,  and  possessing  as  much 
internal  comfort  as  exterior  elegance.  On  the  southeast  bank  of  the  river 
the  buildings  are  spread  over  an  extensive  plain,  whicli  is  connected  with 
the  city  by  a  handsome  bridge ;  these  buildings  include  the  government 
magazines,  mills,  factories,  &c.,  and  enclose  an  extensive  square  or  mar- 
ket-place. 

The  principal  part  of  the  town,  however,  is  on  the  opposite  side.  Here 
the  streets  are  spacious  and  elegant,  and  the  stone  edifices,  the  habitations 
of  merchants  and  mine-proprietors,  exceedingly  handsome.  In  this  quar- 
ter there  are  a  public  granary,  a  public  sale-room,  a  convent,  and  several 
churches. 

The  cutting,  polishing,  and  engraving  of  precious  stones,  forms  a  princi- 
pal branch  of  industry  in  Ekaterinburg,  and  the  art  is  here  brought  to  the 
greatest  perfection.  Men,  women,  and  children,  are  met  with  at  every 
step,  offering  bargains  of  these  tempting  valuables,  consisting  chiefly  of 
topazes,  amethysts,  crystals,  jasper,  &c.  "  The  greatest  neatness,"  says 
Mr.  Erman,  "  is  observable  in  the  dwellings  of  those  who  work  in  these 
gems,  who,  even  when  in  possession  of  considerable  wealth,  retain  their 
native  simplicity  of  dress  and  manners."  The  in-door  dress  of  the  women 
is  the  ancient  sarafan,  and  a  covering  for  the  head,  called  a  kakoshnik, 
having  a  broad,  staring  border,  and  sometimes  covered  Avith  jewels.  This 
head-dress  is  worn  by  married  women  alone  ;  long,  plaited  tresses  forming 
the  distinction  of  the  unmarried,  who  do  not  cover  the  head.  The  young 
men  delight  in  flowing  locks. 

Ekaterinburg  was  founded  by  Peter  the  Great,  in  1723,  and  named  in 
honor  of  his  empress,  Catherine  I.  It  is  regularly  fortified,  and,  being  sit- 
uated on  the  great  road  leading  from  Perm  to  Tobolsk,  is  regarded  as  the 
key  of  Siberia.  Parties  of  exiles  frequently  pass  through  the  town,  num- 
bering annually,  it  is  stated,  about  five  thousand.  The  women  are  gener- 
ally in  wagons ;  the  men  following,  in  couples,  on  foot.  The  population 
is  fi'om  fifteen  to  eighteen  thousand. 

The  government  of  Viatka  lies  between  the  fifty-sixth  and  sixtieth  de- 
grees of  north  latitude,  and  the  forty-sixth  and  fifty-fourth  degrees  of  east 
longitude,  having  the  government  of  Vologda  on  the  north,  Perm  on  the 
east,  Orenburg  and  Kazan  on  the  south,  and  Nijnei-Novgorod  and  Kostro- 
ma on  the  west.     It  contains  about  fifty-three  thousand  square  miles. 


EASTERN   RUSSIA VIATKA.  257 

The  slope  of  the  country  is  toward  the  west  and  south,  in  which  direc- 
tions the  Viatka,  a  tributary  of  the  Kama,  flows,  traversing  the  govern- 
ment nearly  in  its  centre.  The  Kama,  which  forms  part  of  its  eastern  and 
sontliern  boundaries,  also  rises  in  this  government.  The  surface  is  gener- 
ally undulating,  and  even  mountainous  toward  the  east,  where  it  consists 
of  the  lower  Uralian  ranges.  The  soil  is  mostly  good,  though  encumbered 
in  parts  with  extensive  marshes.  The  climate  is  severe  in  winter,  but  not 
usually  unhealtliy. 

Agriculture  is  the  principal  occupation  of  the  inhabitants,  particularly 
along  the  banks  of  the  large  rivers ;  and  in  ordinary  years  more  grain  is 
grown  than  is  required  for  home  consumption.  Rye,  barley,  and  oats,  are 
the  principal  grains  ;  very  little  wheat  is  raised,  but  peas,  lentils,  and  buck- 
wheat, are  grown,  with  large  quantities  of  hemp  and  flax.  The  surplus 
produce  goes  chiefly  to  the  northern  provinces  of  the  empire.  Potatoes  are 
not  much  cultivated.  Fruit  is  not  plentiful ;  apples  scarcely  ripen.  The 
forests  are  very  extensive :  they  consist  mostly  of  firs,  intermixed  with 
oak,  elm,  alder,  lime,  birch,  and  other  trees.  Cattle-breeding,  though  a 
secondary  branch  of  industry,  is  still  of  importance ;  and  a  good  many 
small  but  robust  horses  are  reared.  Sheep  are  few.  Furs,  tar,  iron,  and 
copper,  are  among  the  chief  products. 

Manufactures,  though  not  extensive,  appear  to  be  on  the  increase  :  there 
are  factories  for  woollen  cloths,  linen  and  cotton  stuffs,  paper,  soap,  pot- 
ash, copper  and  iron  wares,  &c.,  employing  eight  or  ten  thousand  hands. 
About  two  million  yards  of  woollen  (and  perhaps  nearly  double  that  quan- 
tity of  linen)  cloth  are  supposed  to  be  annually  made  in  the  houses  of  the 
peasantry  ;  and  large  quantities  of  spirits  are  distilled.  Near  Sarapoul  is 
an  extensive  manufactory  of  arms  ;  and  at  Yotka,  anchors,  gun-carriages, 
and  iron  machinery  of  various  kinds,  are  made  on  a  large  scale.  The  gov- 
ernment exports  grain,  flax,  linseed,  honey,  tallow,  leather,  furs,  silk  goods, 
iron,  and  copper,  to  Archangel,  and  grain  and  timber  to  Saratov  and  As- 
trakhan. It  receives  manufactured  goods  from  Moscow  and  Nijnei-Novgo- 
rod,  tea  from  Irbit,  and  salt  from  Perm.  Viatka,  tlie  capital,  is  the  great 
emporium  of  the  trade.  The  government  is  subdivided  into  eleven  districts. 
Viatka,  Slobodoskoi,  Malmych,  and  Sarapoul,  are  the  chief  towns. 

The  inhabitants  consist  of  various  races  —  Russians,  Votiaks  (of  a  Fin- 
nish stock,  and  from  whom  the  province  has  its  name),  Tartars,  Bashkirs, 
Teptiars,  &c.,  professing  many  diflerent  religions.  The  Mohammedans  are 
estimated  at  about  fifty  thousand,  and  the  Shamanists  and  idolaters  at  some 
three  or  four  thousand.  In  1831,  there  were  only  nine  public  schools,  in 
which  about  eleven  hundred  and  fifty  pupils  were  receiving  instruction ; 
but  the  number  has  since  materially  increased.  This  government  is  united 
under  the  same  governor-general  with  Kazan ;  but  the  Tartars  and  Finns 
are  subordinate  to  the  jurisdiction  of  their  own  chiefs. 

Viatka,  the  capital  of  this  government,  is  situated  on  the  river  of  that 
name,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Teheptsa,  two  hundred  and  thirty  miles 

17 


258  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

west  by  north  of  Perm,  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  northeast  of  Nijnei-Nov- 
gorod.  Its  population  is  about  eight  thousand.  It  has  several  churches 
of  stone,  one  of  which,  the  cathedral,  has  a  silver  altar  with  bas-reliefs, 
and  cost  one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  roubles.  Here  are  numerous 
convents,  with  an  episcopal  seminary,  gymnasium,  and  high-school,  founded 
in  1829.  The  city  was  annexed  to  the  Russian  dominions  by  the  grand- 
duke  Yassili-Ivanovich,  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  government  of  Simbirsk  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  Volga,  between 
the  fifty-third  and  fifty-sixth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  forty-fifth 
and  fifty-first  degrees  of  east  longitude  ;  having  on  the  north  the  government 
of  Kazan,  on  the  east  that  of  Orenburg,  on  the  south  Saratov,  and  on  the 
west  Penza  and  Nijnei-Novgorod.  It  contains  an  area  of  about  twenty-four 
thousand  square  miles. 

It  consists  mostly  of  a  gently-undulating  plain,  having  a  black  and  gen- 
erally very  fertile  soil.  The  Volga  passes  through  this  government,  and 
near  its  southern  border  it  takes  a  bend  to  the  eastward  for  a  distance  of 
a  hundred  and  twenty  miles,  enclosing  a  mountainous  peninsula,  and  form- 
ing an  isthmus  only  nine  miles  across.  The  view  on  the  opposite  page 
shows  the  majestic  Volga  at  this  point.  The  river  is  here  two  miles  wide, 
rapid  and  deep,  and,  for  the  first  time,  its  left  bank  entirely  changes  its 
character :  rising  to  a  height  of  seven  or  eight  hundred  feet,  the  beetling- 
crags  overhang  the  mighty  stream,  and  give  an  unusual  boldness  to  the 
scene.  Indeed,  nowhere  does  the  Volga,  throughout  its  entire  length, 
afford  such  striking  views  as  are  presented  at  this  divergence. 

Besides  the  Volga,  the  province  is  watered  by  the  Sura  and  other  afflu- 
ents of  the  former.  The  climate  is  in  extremes,  the  summer  being  very 
hot,  and  the  winter  equally  cold.  The  Volga  is  annually  frozen  over  for 
about  five  months.  Rye,  wheat,  and  other  grain,  are  raised  in  quantities 
more  than  sufficient  for  home  consumption.  Hemp  is  largely  cultivated, 
with  flax,  tobacco,  poppies,  etc.  Except  among  the  Calmucks,  the  rearing 
of  cattle  is  not  much  attended  to.  In  the  north,  the  forests  are  abundant. 
Distilleries  are  numerous,  the  Russian  grain-brandy  being  made  here  to 
perfection ;  and  besides  the  coarse  goods  manufactured  by  the  peasants, 
there  are  establishments  for  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  coarse  linen  and 
canvass,  and  coverlets,  with  glass-works,  soap-works,  candle-works,  &c. 

Simbirsk,  the  capital  of  this  government,  is  situated  on  an  istlnnus  be- 
tween the  Volga  and  the  Sviaga.  For  a  place  of  nearly  twenty  thousand 
inhabitants,  it  wears  a  meail  and  insignificant  appearence  —  its  situation, 
indeed,  being  its  chief  recommendation.  It  stands  partly  on  an  eminence, 
which  commands  a  fine  prospect,  and  partly  on  a  plain.  From  the  terrace, 
near  the  governor's  house,  a  magnificent  and  expansive  view  is  obtained 
over  the  basin  of  the  Volga,  which  here  spreads  itself  in  narrow  channels 
through  the  low  land,  beyond  which  the  high  hills  of  the  Jig-uulee  bound 
the  prospect  to  the  south,  while  in  every  other  direction  the  steppes  seem 


EASTERN   RUSSIA  —  SIMBIRSK  —  SAMARA. 


2o9 


View  on  the  Volga  at  Simbibsk  —  the  Jigoulee 

illimitable.  Immediately  at  your  feet  are  cottages  and  gardens,  and  on 
the  opposite  bank  of  the  river  are  some  large  villages.  The  white  sails  of 
many  pashaliks,  glistening  on  the  broad  surface  of  the  stream,  and  the 
occasional  passing  of  a  steamer,  complete  a  charming  picture. 

The  streets  of  Simbirsk  are  broad  and  straight.  The  houses  are  mostly 
of  wood,  but  neat  and  commodious  inside.  There  are  numerous  churches, 
which,  with  one  exception,  are  all  of  stone,  and  two  convents.  Near  the 
terrace  before  alluded  to,  and  in  the  centre  of  a  square  from  which  the 
principal  streets  diverge,  stands  a  statue  of  Karamsin,  the  celebrated  Rus- 
sian historian.  The  town  is  in  a  fertile  country  ;  and,  besides  large  quan- 
tities of  grain,  exports  the  produce  of  the  fisheries  on  the  Volga.  There 
is  an  annual  horse-fair  held  here ;  and  the  place  is  a  good  deal  resorted  to 
by  the  surrounding  nobility. 


The  new  government  of  Samara,  as  before  remarked,  has  been  formed 
out  of  three  districts  of  the  government  of  Orenburg,  two  districts  of  Sara- 
atov,  and  of  the  districts  of  Samara  and  Stavropol  in  Simbirsk.  It  com- 
prises an  area  of  nearly  forty  thousand  square  miles,  and  its  population 
may  be  estimated  at  about  one  million,  six  hundred  thousand. 

The  capital  of  the  government  is  the  city  of  Samara,  situated  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Samara  with  the  Volga,  five  hundred  and  fifty  miles  east- 
southeast  of  Moscow.  It  contains  two  wooden  and  three  stone  churches  ; 
has  manufactures  of  leather  and  soap ;  and  carries  on  an  extensive  trade. 
The  town  is  built  on  a  sloping  bank,  is  growing  with  great  rapidity,  and 
already  numbers  a  population  of  fifteen  or  twenty  thousand.  It  is  said  to 
be  the  busiest  port  on  the  Volga.  Backed  by  an  immense  grain-growing 
country,  it  supplies  a  great  part  of  the  interior  of  Russia  with  wheat.  No 
less  than  nine  millions  of  poods  are  shipped  here  annually,  and  carried 
down  either  to  Astrakhan,  and  so  across  the  CaspiaUj  -r.  on  '  .<e  backs  of 


260  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP  RUSSIA. 

camels,  from  Orenburg  to  the  adjacent  countries  ;  or  conveyed  by  water  to 
St.  Petersburg.  Much  of  the  sudden  growth  and  prosperity  of  the  city  is 
doubtless  owing  to  the  introduction  of  steam-navigation  on  the  Volga. 

At  the  great  annual  fair  held  here,  the  numerous  races  assembled  at  it 
are  said  to  be  even  more  diversified  than  at  Nijnei-Novgorod.  Situated 
only  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  the  Asiatic  frontier,  a  large 
trade  is  carried  on  with  the  inhabitants  of  those  distant  steppes,  who  flock 
hither  in  great  numbers,  the  representatives  of  each  tribe  wearing  a  differ- 
ent costume.  The  rapid  increase  of  the  population  of  this  town  is  but  in 
accordance  with  the  prospering  condition  of  the  new  government  of  which 
it  forms  the  capital.  There  is  not  a  more  highly-favored  region  through- 
out the  whole  Russian  empire  than  Samara ;  and  those  inhabitants  of  the 
neighboring  districts,  who,  belonging  to  the  crown,  have  been  allowed  to 
migrate  to  this  land  of  plenty,  have  done  so  to  such  an  extent,  that  the 
population  has  doubled  itself  within  the  last  few  years.  Where  the  Volga, 
more  capricious  than  usual,  reaches  the  most  easterly  point  of  its  whole 
course,  the  city  of  Samara  has  sprung  up ;  and,  forming  a  sort  of  port  for 
the  town  of  Orenburg,  which  is  situated  on  the  Tartar  frontier,  it  helps  to 
connect  the  distant  regions  beyond  with  the  Cis-Volgan  countries,  and 
thus,  as  it  were,  completes  the  last  link  of  European  civilization  in  this 
direction. 

The  government  of  Penza  lies  principally  between  the  fifty-third  and 
fifty-fifth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  forty-second  and  forty-seventh 
degrees  of  east  longitude ;  having  the  government  of  Nijnei-Novgorod  ou 
the  north,  Tambov  on  the  west,  Saratov  on  the  south,  and  Simbirsk  on  tlie 
east.  Its  greatest  length  from  east  to  west  is  one  hundred  and  seventy 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  one  hundred  and  forty-five,  comprising  an 
area  of  about  fourteen  thousand  square  miles. 

As  a  whole,  this  province  is  an  extensive  flat,  somewhat  monotonous,  but 
occasionally  intersected  by  small  hills,  which  in  tlie  southwest  form  the 
water-shed  between  the  basins  of  the  Volga  and  the  Don.  To  the  latter 
basin  only  a  very  small  portion  of  the  government,  drained  by  the  Khoper 
and  its  tributary  the  Vorona,  belongs  ;  the  affluents  of  the  Volga  are  the 
Soura,  Insara  Isa,  Moksha,  Vad,  and  Vicha.  The  climate  is  mild  and 
salubrious,  though  the  winter  cold  is  occasionally  severe. 

The  soil  is  fertile,  and  well  adapted  for  raising  all  kinds  of  grain  and 
roots.  Hemp  and  flax  are  extensively  cultivated,  and  tobacco  and  hops 
occasionally  grown.  The  principal  fruits  are  apples,  pears,  and  cherries. 
The  forests  are  extensive,  and  consist  chiefly  of  beech,  oak,  birch,  and 
alder.  Considerable  attention  is  paid  to  the  rearing  of  cattle,  particularly 
horses,  of  which  several  good  breeding-studs  are  kept.  The  rearing  of 
bees  is  so  general  as  to  form  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  rural 
economy.  All  kinds  of  game  abound,  but  fish  are  very  scarce.  The  prin- 
cipal mineral  is  iron,  of  which  valuable  mines  are  worked  in  the  vicinity 


EASTERN  RUSSIA  —  PENZA  —  KAZAN.  261 

of  Troitsk.  Millstones  are  also  quarried  extensively.  The  manufactures 
are  chiefly  confined  to  the  cottages  of  the  peasantry,  where  great  quanti- 
ties of  flax  and  wool  are  spun,  and  coarse  stufts  woven ;  but  there  are  sev- 
eral blast-furnaces  and  other  iron-works,  soap-works,  glass-works,  sugar- 
refineries,  tanneries,  and,  above  all,  distilleries,  which  are  both  numerous 
and  on  a  large  scale.  The  chief  exports  are  grain,  flour,  brandy,  leather, 
soap,  wax,  honey,  potash,  wool,  and  timber.  Education,  nominally  under 
the  superintendence  of  the  university  of  Kazan,  is  miserably  neglected ; 
and  the  only  printing-press  in  the  government  belongs  to  the  crown. 

Penza,  the  capital  of  this  government,  is  situated  on  a  height  near  the 
junction  of  the  Penza  and  Soura,  two  hundred  and  ten  miles  south-south- 
east of  Nijuei-Novgorod.  It  is  meanly  built  of  wood,  with  the  exception 
of  the  cathedral,  which  is  of  stone.  Besides  the  cathedral,  there  are  eleven 
parish-churches.  The  principal  manufactures  are  leather  and  soap,  and  in 
these  a  considerable  trade  is  carried  on.  Penza  is  the  residence  of  the 
governor ;  the  see  of  a  bishop  conjoined  with  Saratov ;  and  possesses  sev- 
eral courts  of  justice,  a  theological  seminary,  and  a  gymnasium.  The  pop- 
ulation is  about  twelve  thousand. 

The  government  of  Kazan  comprises  that  portion  of  the  territory  of  the 
former  kingdom  which  lies  between  the  fifty-fourth  and  fifty-seventh  degrees 
of  north  latitude,  and  the  forty-sixth  and  fifty-second  degrees  of  east  lon- 
gitude ;  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  government  of  Viatka,  east  by 
Orenburg,  south  by  Simbirsk,  and  west  by  Nijnei-Novgorod.  Its  average 
length  is  two  hundred  and  fifteen  miles,  and  its  breadth  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five,  containing  an  area  of  about  twenty-three  thousand  five  hun- 
dred square  miles. 

On  entering  the  government  from  the  west,  the  ground  descends  at  first 
gradually,  but  afterward  more  rapidly,  almost  to  the  level  of  the  Volga, 
and  spreads  into  a  plain  clothed  with  the  richest  green,  intersecting  an  ele- 
vated plateau  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Volga,  and  terminating  three  or 
four  miles  toward  the  east  in  a  range  of  hills.  From  this  point,  the  ground 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Volga  rises  rapidly,  and  strikingly  contrasts  with 
the  low  plains  on  the  opposite  side.  The  summit  of  this  table-land  is  cov- 
ered with  well-grown  oaks,  which  form  the  commencement  of  an  exten- 
sive forest.  Many  of  the  hills  consist  of  a  brilliant-white,  slaty  limestone, 
the  strata  of  which  have  a  considerable  dip,  and  are  occasionally  pierced 
by  natural  passages,  one  of  which,  about  two  hundred  and  tliirty  feet  in 
length,  terminates  in  an  alabaster  cavern  sixty  feet  wide.  Though  the 
surface  is  thus  occasionally  diversified  by  hills,  and  a  low  branch  of  the 
Ural  mountains  comes  in  upon  the  southeast,  the  general  appearance  is 
that  of  an  extensive  plain,  watered  by  large  navigable  rivers. 

The  Volga,  proceeding  from  the  west,  winds  along  in  a  tortuous  course 
for  nearly  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles ;  the  Kama,  from  the  east,  after  flow- 
ing nearly  one  hundred  miles,  joins  the  Volga,  whose  united  streams,  occu- 


262 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 


pying  a  channel  nearly  eight  hundred  yards  wide,  proceed  south.  In  ad- 
dition to  these,  are  numerous  smaller  tributaries  and  lakes,  which,  though 
individually  not  of  large  extent,  are  scattered  throughout  the  district.  The 
climate,  on  the  whole,  is  mild.  The  winter  is  keen,  but  not  protracted. 
Both  spring  and  summer  are  usually  serene,  and  in  autumn  all  tlie  vegeta- 
ble productions  of  the  same  latitude  come  freely  to  perfection.  Among 
others,  apples,  pears,  cherries,  plums,  and  apricots,  abound. 

Agriculture  is  extensively  carried  on,  but  not  in  a  very  perfect  manner. 
In  some  parts,  however,  the  Tartars  seem  to  be  careful  husbandmen,  and 
are  particularly  attentive  to  the  harvesting  of  their  grain.  Hemp  is  grown 
to  a  great  extent,  and  of  excellent  quality ;  and  the  oil  obtained  from  its 
seeds,  and  from  a  kind  of  pistachio-nut  which  abounds,  forms  an  important 
article  of  commerce.     Flax,  in  both  quantity  and  quality,  is  deficient. 

The  inhabitants  generally  seem  fond  of  horticulture.  Almost  every  cot- 
tage has  its  garden,  and  patches  of  tobacco  are  often  seen,  particularly  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Tartars,  who  raise  it  for  their  own  use.  The  rear- 
ing of  cattle  forms  a  profitable  employment  in  the  meadows  and  pastures 
of  the  rich  flats  which  border  the  numerous  streams.  There,  also,  much 
attention  is  paid  to  the  dairy  ;  the  cows  yielding  a  rich  milk,  of  which  large 
quantities  of  butter  and  cheese  are  made. 

The  Russians  form  nearly  a  half  of  the  Avhole  population.  The  greater 
part  of  the  remainder  are  Tartars,  Cheremisses,  and  Chuvasses.  The 
Cheremisses,  who  are  most  numerous  in  the  western  part  of  the  province, 
are  much  smaller  and  weaker  than  the  Russian  peasantry,  and  are  charac- 
terized by  a  peculiar  shyness  of  both  look  and  demeanor.  Their  dress, 
which  is  the  same  for  both  sexes,  consists  of  white  linen  trousers,  and  an 
upper  garment  of  the  same  material,  fastened  round  the  loins  with  a  girdle, 
and  generally  embroidered  in  various  colors  on  the  breast  and  shoulders. 
Strips  of  cloth,  which  they  wind  round  the  leg,  from  the  foot  to  the  knee, 
are  always  black.     Both  men  and  women  allow  their  long,  black  hair  to 


hang  about  them  in  the  wildest  disorder. 


i*.  f1oa£/i7 s.  sc. 


CnuvA5?SEs  OF  Kazan. 


wide  at  the  top  and  bottom,  like  an  hour-glass. 


Tlie  dress  of  the  Chuvasses  very 
much  resembles  that  of  the  Chere- 
misses, the  chief  difference  being 
in  the  females,  who  wear  a  plate 
of  copper  hanging  from  the  girdle 
behind,  and  strung  with  all  kinds 
of  metallic  ornaments,  which  keep 
tinkling  as  they  walk  ;  while  from 
their  necks  are  suspended  large  sil- 
ver breastplates,  about  eight  inch- 
es long  and  six  broad,  formed  of 
coins.  The  men  wear  high  black 
hats,  tapering  to  the  middle,  but 


The  above  engraving 


EASTERN   RUSSIA  —  KAZAN,  268 

represents  some  of  these  singular  people  bearing  fuel  at  a  wood-station  on 
the  Volga.  The  Chuvasses  are  remarkable  for  timidity.  This  quality, 
which  the  first  accounts  of  them  mention  as  their  most  striking  feature, 
teems  still,  notwithstanding  their  long  intercourse  with  Russia,  to  continue 
unimpaired.  They,  as  well  as  the  Cheremisses,  Votiaks,  and  other  tribes, 
are  supposed  to  have  sprung  from  a  combination  of  the  Finnish  and  Mon- 
golian races,  but  they  far  more  nearly  resemble  the  latter. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  the  city  of  Kazan  the  Tartars  predominate,  and 
are  easily  distinguished  from  the  Russians  by  the  dark  color  of  their  lean, 
muscular,  and,  as  it  were,  angular  visage ;  by  the  close-fitting  cap  on  their 
closely-shaved  skull ;  and  a  certain  smartness  of  gait  and  demeanor.  They 
have  made  considerable  progress  in  civilization,  and  often  contrast  favora- 
bly with  the  Russian  peasantry. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  government,  generally,  are  active  and  industrious. 
Besides  agriculture  and  wood-cutting,  fishing  in  the  numerous  lakes  and 
rivers  of  the  district  is  a  profitable  occu- 
pation, and  employs  a  great  number  of  ^'-vjjjnrW^f^^itv.  j^ 
hands.     The  province,  moreover,  posses-                  ^"'"^/^^•^^-^^^^i^ 
ses  numerous  manufactures,  the  inhabit-                    ,v''^^;'-■^'^'v■■•^^»w 
ants  excelling  in  leather-embroidery,  and           ^^.^'^W      '      XV-'i o - '-•'■^l^^l^ 
has  an  extensive  trade,  both  internal  and     ^^^            '     "    \^i'5ivv^i^r 
external,  wliich  the  large  navigable  rivers    m                   /^~\W'MMr 
greatly  facilitate.    Indeed,  boat  and  barge   1                J^ a^^jll^^ 
building,  for  the  traflic  of  the  Volga,  is    \^           ^^^^BjF 
not  an  unimportant  branch  of  trade.               ^^^  'j^^KsB 

The  city  of  Kazan,  the  ancient  capital  ^^^^  ''^^W 

of  the  Tartar  khans,  and,  next  to  St.  Pe-     leathkb  gloves  and  wooden  spoon. 
tersburg,  Moscow,  Warsaw,  and  perhaps 

Odessa,  the  most  important  city  in  the  empire,  is  situated  between  the  left 
bank  of  the  Kasanka  (about  four  miles  above  where  it  empties  into  the 
Volga)  and  its  tributary  the  Bulak,  occupying  a  tongue  of  land  whioli 
gradually  rises  like  an  island  to  a  considerable  height  above  low  plains 
subject  to  inundation.  It  is  four  hundred  and  sixty  miles  east  of  Moscow. 
Kazan  covers  a  space  nearly  six  miles  in  circuit,  and  consists,  like  most 
other  Russian  cities,  of  three  parts  —  the  Kremlin,  or  fortress,  on  a  con- 
siderable eminence ;  the  town,  properly  so  called ;  and  the  s/obodes,  or 
suburbs,  inhabited  principally  by  the  Tartar  population.  The  town  is  well 
built,  and  has  broad  and  spacious  squares  and  market-places ;  but  in  the 
suburbs  the  houses  are  principally  of  wood,  and  the  streets,  not  being 
paved,  are  consequently  in  spring  and  autumn  so  wet  and  muddy  as  to  be 
almost  impassable  to  pedestrians. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Tartar  houses  are  built  of  wood,  two  stories 
high.  Some,  however,  are  of  brick.  The  lower  story  of  each  serves  for 
a  barn,  storehouse,  &c.,  or  is  let  for  hire  ;  the  upper  Hoor  is  inhabited  by 
the  owner.     There  is  neither  porch  nor  portico  in  front,  the  entrance  to 


264 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 


Interior  of  a  Taktau  House. 

the  premises  being  through  a  gate,  leading  into  gardens  with  which  each 
house  is  surrounded.  The  above  engraving  shows  the  interior  of  one  of 
the  Tartar  houses  of  the  meaner  class.  On  the  left  Iiand  is  constructed 
the  petch^  or  fireplace,  which  serves  for  warming  the  ruom,  and  for  culi- 
nary purposes. 

Tlie  Tartars  of  Kazan  are  in  general  well  formed  and  handsome ;  their 
eyes  are  black  or  gray ;  they  have  a  keen,  piercing  look,  a  rather  length- 
ened 'orm  of  face,  a  long  nose,  lips  somewhat  thicker  than  those  of  Euro- 
peans, a  black  beard,  carefully  trinmied,  and  the  liair  entirely  shaven  from 
the  head,  which  is  covered  with  a  small  cap,  called  a  tebeteika;  their  ears 
are  large,  and  standing  out  from  the  head ;  they  have  a  long  neck,  very 
wide  shoulders,  and  a  broad  chest — such  is  the  description  Dr.  Fouks 
gives  of  their  form  and  physiognomy.  They  are,  moreover,  tall  and  erect , 
and  their  gait  is  manly  and  imposing.  Tlie  doctor  remarks  that  whenever 
he  entered  a  Tartar  mosque  he  was  always  struck  with  the  fine  and  noble 
features  of  their  elders,  and  he  asserts  his  belief  that  the  ancient  Italian 
artists  might  have  chosen  from  among  this  race  most  admirable  subjects 
for  their  sacred  pictures.  He  is  not  so  favorable,  however,  in  his  descrip- 
tion of  the  Tartar  women.  He  does  not  consider  them  good-looking ;  but 
then  he  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  only  the  wives  and  daughters  of  the 
poorer  classes.  In  general,  the  Tartar  women  are  middle-sized,  and  rather 
stout;  like  the  men,  they  stand  erect,  but  walk  badly  and  awkwardly,  a 
circumstance  principally  owing  to  the  heavy  dress  they  wear.  They  soon 
grow  old — so  much  so,  that  a  woman  of  twenty-seven  has  the  look  of  one 
of  forty :  this  is  owing  to  the  custom  they  have  of  painting  their  faces. 
Their  complexion  is  rather  yellow,  and  their  faces  are  often  covered  with 
pimples  and  a  rash,  which  proceeds  partly  from  the  habit  of  constantly 
lying  on  feather-beds,  and  partly  from  their  heavy  and  over-warm  clothing. 

The  same  authority,  in  a  few  words,  thus  describes  the  character  of  this 
race  :  "  They  are  proud,  ambitious,  hospitable,  fond  of  money,  cleanly,  tol- 
erably civilized  (taking  all  things  into  consideration),  intelligent  in  com- 


EASTERN   RUSSIA KAZAN.  2G7 

merce,  inclined  to  boasting,  friendly  to  each  other,  sober  in  every  way,  and 
very  industrious."  What  is  particularly  striking  is  the  tenacity  with  wliicli 
the  Tartars  here,  as  elsewhere  throughout  the  enij)ire,  have  retained  their 
national  characteristics,  customs,  and  manners,  although  nearly  three  cen- 
turies have  elapsed  since  this  race  was  subdued  by  the  Russians. 

The  dress  of  the  Tartars  of  Kazan  of  the  better  class  is  so  different  from 
that  of  every  other  nation,  that  it  deserves  a  description.  They  wear  a 
shirt  (koulmiack^  made  of  calico,  sometimes  white,  sometimes  red ;  their 
drawers  (^schtann')  are  worn  very  wide,  and  are  made  likewise  of  calico, 
or  occasionally  of  silk  ;  their  stockings,  called  youk,  are  of  cotton  or  linen. 
A  species  of  leather  stockings,  generally  of  Morocco-leather,  called  itchig-i, 
red  or  yellow,  are  worn  over  the  stockings,  or  sometimes  are  substituted 
for  them.  Their  slippers,  called  kalout,  are  made  of  black  or  green  leather. 
Over  the  shirt  they  wear  two  garments,  somewhat  in  the  shape  of  a  Euro- 
pean frock-coat  without  a  collar :  the  under  one,  having  no  sleeves,  is  made 
of  silk ;  the  upper,  with  sleeves  likewise  of  silk,  is  called  kasaki.  Over 
these  they  wear  a  long,  wide  robe,  generally  of  blue  cloth,  called  tchekmen, 
which  is  attached  to  the  body  by  a  scarf  (podci).  In  a  pocket  of  this  gar- 
ment they  keep  their  pocket-handkerchief,  called  tchaoulok.  Their  heads, 
which  are  shaven  to  the  skin,  are  covered  with  a  species  of  skullcap,  called 
takia :  this  is  covered,  when  they  go  out,  with  a  hat  (hourick^  made  of 
velvet  or  cloth,  and  ornamented  with  fur :  the  rich  Tartars  use  for  this 
purpose  beaver-skins  of  great  value. 

The  Tartars  get  their  heads  shaved  every  fortnight,  and  trim  their  beards 
once  a  week  ;  once  a  week  they  go  to  the  bath.  A  very  singular  predilection 
exists  among  the  lower  classes  —  that  of  finding  pleasure  in  being  bled. 
This  luxury  they  enjoy  at  least  once  a  year ;  the  spring  is  generally  chosen 
for  the  enjoyment.  A  barber  of  Kazan  (for  it  is  the  barbers  who  bleed 
there,  as  they  did  formerly  in  England  and  other  parts  of  Europe)  assured 
Turnerelli  that  he  had  let  blood  for  upward  of  five  hundred  Tartars  in  one 
day,  each  of  whom  had  paid  him  from  fifty  copecks  to  a  rouble  for  the  op- 
eration. He  had  in  this  manner  earned  upward  of  one  hundred  dollars 
for  blood-letting  alone  !  This  was  indeed  profiting  by  the  bloodshed  of  his 
fellow-creatures. 

The  costume  of  the  Tartar  Avomen  of  the  higher  classes  is  very  rich  and 
elegant.  They  wear  a  species  of  robe  of  rich  tliick  silk  or  satin,  the  sleeves 
being  very  large  and  long,  sometimes  even  falling  as  low  as  the  ground ; 
the  upper  part  of  these  robes  is  embroidered  in  front  with  gold.  Over 
this  they  wear  a  kind  of  capote,  very  wide,  and  generally  made  of  gold 
brocade  or  some  similar  stuff  gorgeously  embroidered.  They  wear  on  their 
head  a  silk  cap  bordered  witli  fur,  which  hangs  down  on  one  side  and  ends 
in  a  point  having  a  golden  tassel  attached  to  it ;  this  cap  is  also  sometimes 
adorned  with  precious  stones,  and  ancient  gold  and  silver  coins.  Their 
hair  falls  behind  in  long  tresses,  the  ends  of  which  are  tied  up  with  bows 
of  ribands.     Sometimes  these  tresses  are  covered  with  long  bands,  to  which 


208  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

are  attached  various  coins  and  ornaments.  The  Tartar  women  \voar,  more- 
over, a  profusion  of  pearLs,  necklaces,  gold  and  silver  bracelets,  finger- 
rings,  ear-rings,  chains,  &c.  The  dress  of  one  lady  of  rank,  including  her 
jewelry,  sometimes  costs  not  less  than  two  thousand  dollars ! 

The  Tartar  women,  as  in  all  Mohammedan  countries,  are  kept  secluded 
in  the  houses  and  harems  of  their  husbands  and  parents.  They  are  allowed 
to  remove  their  thick  veils  in  their  bedrooms  alone :  not  their  husbands' 
brothers,  nor  even  their  own  uncles  and  cousins,  are  permitted  to  behold 
their  features.  They  perform  no  labor  of  any  sort,  the  concerns  of  the 
household  being  confided  to  old  women  and  male  attendants ;  the  younger 
females  having  nothing  to  do  but  to  dress,  eat,  drink,  sleep,  and  please 
tlieir  husbands.  They  marry  very  early,  sometimes  in  tlieir  twelfth  year ! 
A  rich  Tartar  woman  has  hardly  left  her  bed,  when  she  begins  her  daily 
task  of  painting  her  face  red  and  white ;  then  she  clothes  herself  in  her 
gaudy  vestments  of  gold  and  silver  texture,  and  puts  on  her  various  orna- 
ments ;  and  then  throws  herself  on  the  soft  Turkish  sofa,  on  which  she  lies 
almost  buried.  The  somovar  (tea-urn)  is  then  brought  her.  She  makes 
the  tea  herself,  and  drinks  cup  after  cup  of  it  until  the  perspiration  flows 
down  her  face,  washing  away  at  the  same  time  all  the  paint  with  which 
she  had  adorned  her  face  ;  this  necessarily  requires  two  more  hours  at  the 
toilet,  when  she  is  ready  for  her  breakfast,  which  consists  of  a  variety  of 
greasy  dishes.  This  over,  she  again  throws  herself  o\\  the  sofa,  and  re- 
mains there,  half-sleeping,  half-waking,  till  a  female  friend  probably  drops 
in  to  see  her,  upon  which  the  somovar  again  makes  its  appearance,  and  our 
fair  Tartar  drinks  again  as  much  tea  as  she  did  in  the  morning — to  say 
the  least,  not  less  than  seven  or  eight  cups.  The  harmony  of  her  face  is 
again  destroyed  by  the  copious  flow  of  perspiration  that  ensues,  and  she  is 
forced  to  paint  her  face  afresh,  in  order  to  appear  at  dinner  in  all  her 
charms  in  the  presence  of  her  husband.  After  dinner,  tea  is  once  more 
presented:  indeed, this  beverage  seems  indispensable  to  the'Tartars;  they 
affirm  that  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  drink  it,  in  order  to  facilitate  diges- 
tion after  their  meals,  and  Dr.  Fouks  states  that  they  eat  three  times  as 
much  as  the  Russians.  Having  partaken  a  third  time  of  tea  to  her  heart's 
content,  our  Tartar  lady  then  enjoys  a  nap.  On  awaking,  she  sometimes 
takes  it  into  her  head  to  go  and  pay  a  visit  to  some  female  friend :  for  this 
purpose  she  changes  the  dress  she  wore  in  the  morning  for  a  still  more 
expensive  one  ;  she  then  gets  into  a  square,  prison-like,  two-horse  carriage, 
and  arrives  at  the  house  of  her  acquaintance,  where,  completely  buried  in 
the  thick  veils  which  cover  her  head  and  face,  she  makes  her  way  to  the 
apartment  of  her  friends,  scarcely  daring  to  show  the  point  of  her  nose  as 
she  passes  along.  The  Tartar  women  of  the  richer  class  do  not  even  enjoy 
the  privilege  of  breathing  the  fresli  air.  They  dare  not  go  into  their  small 
gardens  without  covering  themselves  from  head  to  foot,  lest  they  should 
meet  one  of  their  male  relations  living  in  the  same  house  !  They  hardly 
dare  to  look  from  their  windows  into  the  street,  lest  they  should  be  seen 


EASTERN    RUSSIA KAZAN. 


269 


hy  some  passer-by.  Sucli  is  tlie  life  of  the  higher  class  of  Tartar  women. 
Monotonous  and  tedious  as  it  is,  tliey  do  not,  however,  complain,  nor  even 
find  it  painful :  on  the  contrary,  they  look  upon  the  mode  of  living  among 
European  women  as  sinful  in  the  extreme ;  they  believe  that  a  European 
female  will  never  go  to  heaven,  and  give  thanks  to  God  that  he  created 
them  Mohammedans  ! 


The  Kkkmhn  of  Kazan. 


The  citadel  or  kremlin  of  Kazan  presents  a  very  picturesque  appearance. 
It  is  still  surrounded  by  a  stone-wall  of  great  height,  which  was  built  by 
the  Tartars,  and  is  flanked  by  fourteen  towers.  There  were  also,  at  the 
period  of  the  Tartar  dominion,  twelve  different  entrances  ;  these  have  been 
reduced  to  tliree.  One  of  them,  the  Spaskie  vorota  ("  Gateway  of  the 
Savior"),  passes  through  the  lower  portion  of  an  ancient  and  curious  tower, 
which  has  a  claim  to  notice  from  the  originality  of  its  architecture.  The 
interior  of  this  tower  has  been  recently  converted  into  a  military  church, 
and  is  the  fashionable  place  of  prayer.  Above  the  gateway  is  suspended 
a  miraculous  image  of  the  Savior,  before  which  hangs  a  silver  lamp,  lighted 
on  holydays  and  days  of  devotion. 

Near  the  Spaskie  vorota  stands  a  small  yet  singularly-constructed  church, 
dedicated  to  St.  Cyprian  and  St.  Justin.  It  was  founded  by  Ivan  the  Ter- 
rible, on  the  very  day  that  Kazan  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Russians : 
Prince  Kourbsky,  in  his  annals,  informs  us  that  it  was  commenced  in  the 
morning,  and  finished  before  the  setting  of  the  sun.  It  formerly  possessed 
several  objects  of  antiquity,  but  these  were  consumed  by  one  of  the  fires  to 
which  Kazan  has  been  subjected. 

Beside  this  church  rises  the  monastery  of  the  Transfiguration,  founded 
a  few  years  later,  and  which  is  held  in  great  veneration  by  the  Russians, 
in  consequence  of  its  having  been  the  place  of  interment  of  a  certain  saint 
called  Varsanofia,  who  was  likewise  the  first  abbot  of  this  monastery.  It 
has  several  times  been  ravaged  by  the  flames ;  and  at  the  period  when  the 


270  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

rebel  Pougatclieff  laid  siege  to  tlic  fortress,  it  was  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed. Opposite  this  convent  is  situated  the  Etat  Major  and  the  mili- 
tary prison. 

The  Cathedral  of  the  Annunciation,  a  vast  and  imposing  edifice,  is  the 
archicpiscopal  seat  of  the  diocese  of  Kazan.  The  architecture  of  this 
church,  which  is  of  the  Byzantine  order,  is  exceedingly  curious  ;  its  belfry, 
in  particular,  presents  an  extraordinary  appearance.  This  cathedral  was 
built  in  the  year  1561,  according  to  a  plan  furnished  by  Ivan  the  Terrible. 
From  tlie  year  1596  to  1742,  it  was  four  times  entirely  consumed  by  the 
flames ;  and  in  one  of  these  fires,  that  of  1672,  not  only  was  the  church 
destroyed,  but  even  the  colossal  bells  were  melted  down  by  the  fury  of  the 
conflagration.  Most  of  the  precious  objects  that  were  formerly  to  be  found 
here  have  also  been  consumed  at  different  periods  —  among  the  rest,  the 
books  of  divine  service,  presented  by  Ivan  IV. ;  the  pontifical  robes  and 
ornaments,  and  several  bells,  gifts  of  the  same  sovereign ;  the  autograph 
letters  of  St.  Goury  to  Herrman,  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Sviask,  and 
numerous  other  relics  and  antiquities.  At  the  present  day,  however,  may 
be  seen,  among  other  curiosities,  a  gospel  in  manuscript,  the  only  one  of 
the  books  given  by  the  czar  Ivan  that  has  been  saved  from  the  flames.  In 
this  cathedral,  according  to  the  annals  of  Kazan,  was  at  one  time  likewise 
preserved  a  nail  of  the  holy  cross  ! 

Among  the  remains  of  Tartar  architecture  in  the  kremlin  is  that  extraor- 
dinary structure  the  tower  of  Souyounbecka,  or  Siuiibeka,  which  rises  in 
the  western  portion  of  the  fortress,  near  one  of  the  gates  at  which  the  Rus- 
sians began  the  attack  when  they  laid  siege  to  the  tower.  The  beauty  of 
its  architecture,  the  gracefulness  of  its  form,  and  its  perfect  construction, 
can  with  difficulty  be  imagined  by  those  who  have  not  seen  it.  It  is  of  a 
square  shape,  and  composed  of  several  stories,  which  gradually  diminish 
in  size  toward  the  top ;  the  last  has  a  sharp,  steeple-like  form,  ending  in  a 
point.  It  may  be  seen  on  the  left  in  the  foregoing  view  of  the  Kremlin. 
From  the  extremity  of  this  lengthened  cone  rises  an  arrow  of  brass,  which 
supports  the  Russian  eagle  placed  above  two  crescents  —  an  emblem  of  the 
history  and  fate  of  this  town.  Above  the  eagle  is  affixed  a  gilded  globe, 
which  is  supposed  by  many  to  be  of  pure  and  solid  gold.  The  Tartars 
attach  a  particular  interest  to  this  globe,  for  they  suppose  that  it  contains 
precious  documents  whicli  relate  to  their  liberty  and  religion.  This  tower 
is  built  of  bricks,  strongly  joined  together  by  a  very  compact  and  firm  kind 
of  mortar,  which  is  doubtless  the  reason  that  this  edifice  has  suffered  so 
little  from  the  ravages  of  time  and  the  severity  of  tlie  climate.  It  is  two 
hundred  and  forty-five  feet  high :  a  staircase,  formed  in  the  interior,  leads 
to  its  different  stories  ;  but  the  dilapidated  state  in  which  it  now  is,  renders 
it  very  difficult,  and  even  dangerous,  to  ascend. 

Close  to  this  tower,  and  joined  to  it  by  a  wall,  is  another  building  like 
the  former,  square,  and  of  very  considerable  dimensions,  the  second  story 
of  whicli  is  surrounded  by  a  vaulted  gallery  resembling  the  aisles  of  a 


EASTERN   RUSSIA KAZAN. 


•271 


Gothic  church.  This  edifice  is  likewise  built  of  bricks  :  as  its  architecture 
resembles  that  of  the  tower,  and  is  completely  Asiatic  in  style,  the  period 
of  its  construction  is  evidently  the  same ;  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  served 
for  a  palace,  or  some  similar  building. 

This  edifice  and  the  adjoining  tower  have  been  perpetually  the  subject 
of  dispute  and  discussion  to  learned  antiquarians.  Some,  averse  to  every 
tradition  that  bears  a  tinge  of  romance  and  poetry,  pretend  that  the  popu- 
lar opinion,  which  states  that  the  tower  and  palace  existed  before  the  con- 
quest of  Kazan,  is  founded  on  error  ;  and  they  assure  us  that  the  czar  Ivan, 
after  the  taking  of  this  town  in  1552,  built  these  two  edifices  as  monuments 
of  his  victory  and  the  downfall  of  the  Tartars.  Others  suppose,  on  the 
contrary,  that  these  ruins  are  a  portion  of  the  celebrated  palace  of  the 
ancient  khans  :  they  say  that  the  beautiful  and  unfortunate  Sumbeka,  whose 
name  the  tower  bears,  concealed  therein  her  youthful  husljand,  to  protect 
him  from  the  hatred  of  the  Kazan  grandees,  who  subsequently  assassinated 
him.  It  was  also  on  the  tomb  of  this  prince  that,  by  order  of  tlie  czar,  the 
unfortunate  Sumbeka  was  delivered  up  as  a  prisoner  to  the  Russians. 
Such  is  the  tradition  commonly  believed  by  the  people,  the  truth  of  which 
is,  moreover,  corroborated  by  several  authors  who  have  written  on  tlie 
subject. 

The  "  Convent  of  our  Lady  of 
Kazan"  is  situated  on  a  consid- 
erable eminence,  and  forms  one 
of  the  most  prominent  buildings 
of  the  city.  It  contains  two  large 
churches  :  one  for  winter  ser\dce, 
heated  by  the  aid  of  ovens  ;  and 
another,  larger  in  its  dimensions, 
for  the  summer  months.  The  ar- 
chitecture of  the  latter  is  noted 
for  its  simple  style,  which  gives 
it  a  grave  and  imposing  appear- 
ance. The  convent  stands  apart 
from  the  church ;  it  is  a  large, 
plain  building,  with  nothing  re- 
markable in  its  construction.  Its 
inmates  are  limited  to  fifty,  ex- 
clusive of  numerous  novices. 

Many  of  the  other  churches 
contain  specimens  of  an  architec- 
ture even  more  elaborate  than 
those  of  Moscow.  Among  them 
may  be  named,  as  remarkable  ed- 
ifices, the  cathedral  of  Nikolskoi,  and  that  of  Peter  and  Paul,  more  mo 
than  the  first  named.     The  city  has  in  all  about  thirty-five  churches. 


Cathedral  of  Nikolskoi,  at  Kazan. 


do  IT, 
niliO 


272  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

convents,  and  sixteen  mosques.     Among  the  convents,  the  monastery  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist  is  an  extensive  edifice  of  an  imposing  aspect. 

In  the  middle  town,  which  adjoins  the  kremlin,  the  grand  appearance 
of  some  of  the  private  houses,  and  the  great  extent  of  the  bazar  or  g-ostindi 
dvor,  attest  the  high  importance  of  Kazan  at  an  early  period.  The  bazar 
is  surrounded  by  lofty  buildings,  chiefly  of  stone  ;  and  exhibits  an  immense 
quantity  of  furs  piled  up  in  the  fur-stalls  ;  an  endless  variety  of  vegetable 
productions  and  fruits,  both  green  and  dried ;  and  great  supplies  of  fish, 
brought  from  the  difierent  provinces  bordering  on  the  Volga. 

The  cliief  object  of  interest  in  the  lower  town  is  the  university,  built  of 
white  hewn  stone,  and  its  principal  fronts  adorned  with  Corinthian  columns. 
It  was  founded  to  be  a  school  of  modern  civilization,  in  a  semi-barbarous 
district,  and  well  fulfils  its  purpose.  Besides  the  different  branches  of 
natural  science,  the  study  of  eastern  languages  is  carried  on  at  the  very 
source ;  while  that  of  national  history  is  encouraged,  not  only  by  the  pecu- 
liar character  of  the  library,  but  also  by  a  remarkably  rich  collection  of 
Russian  and  Tartar  coins. 

In  addition  to  the  usual  branches  of  manufacture,  Kazan  has  some  which 
are  peculiar  to  itself.  One  is  the  preparation  and  staining  of  Russia-leather, 
a  business  in  which  the  Tartars  are  particularly  expert ;  and  another,  the 
making  of  a  particular  kind  of  soap,  called  miiclo,  which,  cut  into  small 
pieces,  and  packed  in  boxes,  is  sent  over  all  Russia.  The  town  is  well 
situated  for  a  transit  trade,  carrying  the  manufactures  of  Europe  north  and 
east  into  Asia,  and  bartering  them  for  the  peculiar  productions  of  those 
regions.  In  this  way,  particularly  by  the  trade  in  furs  and  tea,  many  of 
its  merchants  are  said  to  have  accumulated  great  wealth. 

Kazan  annually  undergoes  an  extraordinary  change,  about  the  last  of 
April,  owing  to  the  inundation  of  the  Volga,  which,  swollen  by  the  vast 
quantity  of  melted  snow  pouring  into  its  channel,  overflows  its  banks,  dis- 
charging its  waters  in  every  direction  over  the  level  plains  in  its  vicinity. 
The  inundation  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city  often  covers  a  space  of 
fi-om  twenty  to  thirty  miles.  Although  travellers  sufi'er  no  small  degree 
of  inconvenience  from  this  flood,  the  inhabitants  of  the  banks  of  the  Volga 
derive  from  it  considerable  advantages :  to  Kazan  it  becomes  a  rich  source 
of  prosperity,  from  the  facility  it  afibrds  of  transporting  the  diff'erent  prod- 
ucts of  the  province. 

The  aspect  of  the  town  at  this  period  is  imposing  and  magnificent.  Its 
numerous  churches,  with  their  gilded  domes  and  lofty  belfries ;  the  Tartar 
mosques  with  their  minarets,  surrounded  by  glittering  crescents :  in  fine, 
a  thousand  singular  structures,  of  every  form  and  color,  seem  to  be  grow- 
ing out  of  the  immense  sheet  of  water  which  lies  around  them. 

About  the  end  of  May,  the  inundation,  which  lasts  for  nearly  a  month, 
begins  to  subside.  The  waters  are  not  long  in  disappearing.  The  earth 
they  covered  becomes  muddy  and  slimy  after  their  departure,  but  a  burn- 
ing sun  soon  restores  it  to  its  former  state.     The  grass  springs  up  in  the 


EASTERN  RUSSIA  —  KAZAN.  273 

plains,  wliicli  for  a  short  time  look  fresh  and  green  ;  but  this  verdure  lasts 
only  as  long  as  the  earth  remains  damp  from  the  effects  of  the  inundation, 
and  in  a  few  days  <these  plains  become  arid  and  parched^  as  is  their  wont. 

The  town  itself — which,  in  consequence  of  the  thawing  of  the  snow  and 
the  unfirm  nature  of  the  soil,  becomes  a  perfect  bog,  in  which  the  horses 
plunge  to  their  very  haunches — now  experiences  a  change  still  more  in- 
supportable. The  mud,  dried  up  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  is  succeeded  by 
dense  clouds  of  dust,  which  sweep  through  the  streets  of  the  town,  depri- 
ving the  unfortunate  pedestrian  of  the  means  of  breathing,  and  rendering 
his  clothes  as  wliite  and  powdered  as  those  of  a  miller.  Then,  to  avoid 
being  suffocated  by  the  heat  and  dust,  the  greatest  part  of  the  inhabitants 
make  a  precipitate  retreat  from  the  town  —  the  landholders  to  their  estates, 
and  tlie  lack-landers  to  those  of  their  friends  whose  hospitality  affords  them 
a  refuge  from  the  sensible  calamity  of  a  sojourn  in  town  during  this  unpro- 
pitious  and  unhealthy  period. 

The  first  foundation  of  the  city  of  Kazan  took  place  about  the  year  1265. 
Tradition  gives  the  following  singular  account  of  its  origin  and  of  its  name : 
Baton,  or  Baty'i  (the  name  is  written  in  both  ways  by  learned  orientalists), 
a  celebrated  khan  of  the  Golden  Horde,  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  was  in  the  habit  of  frequenting  this  valley,  to  enjoy  his  favorite 
amusement  of  hunting  wild  beasts,  with  which,  according  to  the  statement 
of  certain  historians,  this  country  was  at  that  time  terribly  infested,  and 
also  with  serpents  of  enormous  size.  It  was  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
called  at  the  present  day  the  Kazanka,  and  on  the  spot  where  the  kremlin 
of  Kazan  now  stands,  that  the  repast  of  the  sovereign  and  his  companions 
was  prepared  in  a  large  caldron,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  nomadic 
tribes.  On  one  occasion,  however,  one  of  the  attendants  charged  with  this 
culinary  office,  while  occupied  in  filling  the  caldron  with  water,  let  fall  the 
precious  utensil,  which  was  not  long  in  sinking  to  the  bottom  of  the  river. 
The  good  khan  Batou  and  his  hungry  comrades  were  deeply  chagrined, 
when,  in  consequence  of  the  utter  solitude  of  the  spot,  which  precluded  all 
possibility  of  replacing  the  lost  utensil,  they  found  themselves  reduced  to 
the  disagreeable  necessity  of  going  without  a  dinner  on  that  ill-omened 
day.  The  impression  created  by  that  involuntary  fast  on  the  minds  of 
these  hungry  disciples  of  Nimrod  was  so  powerful,  that  thenceforward  the 
river,  which  had  been  the  cause  of  this  painful  privation,  received  from 
them  the  soubriquet  of  "  Kazan,"  or  the  "  River  of  the  Caldron.''^  Some 
time  after,  the  idea  having  occurred  to  Batou  of  founding  a  city  on  the 
banks  of  that  stream,  he  conferred  the  name  of  the  river  on  the  town. 
With  regard  to  the  word  Kazanka,  which  designates  at  the  present  day 
the  river  that  flows  at  the  foot  of  the  kremlin,  it  is  evident  that  its  termi- 
native  syllable,  ka,  is  a  corruption  of  the  original  name,  which  the  Rus- 
sians adapted  to  the  character  of  their  language,  subsequent  to  their  con- 
quest of  the  country. 

Kazan  soon  became  a  rich  and  flourishing  town.     About  a  hundred  and 

18 


274  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

forty  years  after  its  foundation,  it  was  besieged,  for  the  first  time,  by  Yuiy 
Dmi trie vi tell,  brother  to  the  grand-duke  of  Moscow.  The  town,  after  a 
protracted  and  desperate  defence,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  invader,  wlio 
quitted  not  the  spot  till  he  had  razed  every  structure  it  contained  to  the 
earth.  Its  inhabitants  were  cruelly  massacred.  Kazan  remained  during 
forty  succeeding  years  a  wilderness. 

The  second  founder  of  Kazan  was  the  unfortunate  Oulou  Makhmet,  khan 
of  the  Golden  Horde,  who  had  been  driven  from  his  dominions  by  the 
Yediguai  Saltana,  a  Tartar  prince  of  Yaick.  Makhmet,  who  had.  accord- 
ing to  the  annalists,  eighty-three  sons,  and  almost  as  many  wives,  after 
wandering  from  desert  to  desert  with  his  family  and  followers,  finally  set- 
tled on  a  spot  not  far  from  the  ruins  of  the  desolated  town  of  Kazan.  He 
did  not,  however,  remain  there  long,  but  removed  to  a  place  about  forty 
miles  distant,  where  he  founded  the  present  city.  This  event  marks  the 
period  of  its  second  foundation,  which  took  place  in  the  year  1445. 

Kazan  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Tartars  till  about  1465,  when  it 
again  fell  into  the  possession  of  the  Russians,  Ivan  III.  succeeding  in  its 
reduction  after  two  severe  campaigns.  But  the  Tartars  were  unsubdued, 
and  in  1552  again  took  up  arms  against  the  Russians.  They  were  once 
more  reduced  by  Ivan  the  Terrible,  who  attacked  Kazan  at  the  head  of  a 
numerous  army.  For  six  weeks  they  made  a  vigorous  resistance  ;  but  the 
city  was  ultimately  taken,  scarcely  any  of  its  valiant  defenders  surviving 
the  event.  By  this  capture  of  Kazan  the  Russian  dominion  was  perma- 
nently established  over  the  territory  of  the  lower  Volga. 

When  Batou,  the  original  founder  of  Kazan,  bestowed  on  this  town  the 
ominous  title  of  the  "  Toiun  of  the  Catdron"  he  seemed  as  it  were  to  have 
devoted  it  to  the  devouring  element,  which  so  often  since  that  period  has 
reduced  it  to  ashes.  Probably  the  history  of  no  town  ever  afi'orded  a  suc- 
cession of  such  terrible  conflagrations  as  that  of  Kazan.  During  the  Tartar 
dominion  we  learn  from  its  annals  that  it  was  several  times  devastated  by 
fire — partly  arising  from  accident,  partly  from  the  fury  of  enemies  who 
besieged  it.  Subsequent  to  its  falling  under  the  Russian  sway,  at  nine 
distant  periods  the  flames  have  ravaged  this  unfortunate  town.  These 
fires,  which  seemed  to  increase  in  their  fury  and  the  extent  of  their  rav- 
ages at  every  fresh  occurrence,  form  nine  remarkable  and  fearful  epochs 
in  the  history  of  Kazan. 

The  first,  which  occurred  in  the  year  1595,  consumed  the  greatest  part 
of  the  town,  and  all  the  most  remarkable  buildings  in  the  kremlin. 

The  second  fire,  1672,  broke  out  in  that  part  of  Kazan  near  the  kremlin. 
All  the  churches  it  contained  fell  a  prey  to  the  flames ;  and  four  colossal 
bells,  which  were  sent  from  Moscow  by  Vassili-Ivanovitch,  and  which  were 
suspended  in  the  belfry  belonging  to  the  cathedral,  were  totally  melted 
down  by  the  violence  of  the  conflagration. 

The  third,  1694,  ravaged  nearly  a  mile  in  circumference  of  the  town. 
The  gostinoi  dvor,  with  its  numerous  shops  and  magazines,  six  monasteries, 


EASTERN   RUSSIA KAZAN.  275 

several  churches  and  streets,  and  the  suburbs  known  by  the  names  of  the 
Zaseepkin,  Krasnaya,  and  Feodoroftskaya,  were  reduced  to  ruins. 

The  fourth,  1742,  broke  out  in  the  middle  of  the  night,  burnt  a  very 
considerable  portion  of  the  town,  consumed  some  twenty  cliurches  and  a's 
many  monasteries,  and  once  more  ravaged  the  gostinbi  dvor  and  the  streets 
in  its  vicinity. 

The  fifth,  which  occurred  only  seven  years  after,  began  in  the  Tartar 
town,  which  it  reduced  to  ashes.  Three  palaces — those  of  the  governor, 
the  commandant,  and  the  archbishop — twenty-three  churches,  six  monas- 
teries, all  the  bridges  on  the  canal  called  Boulac,  the  chancery  of  the  gov- 
ernor with  its  archives  and  papers,  the  arsenal  with  its  contents,  several 
streets  and  parishes,  and  a  great  number  of  men,  cattle,  and  barks,  fell  a 
sacrifice  to  this  conflagration. 

The  details  of  the  sixth,  1757,  are  but  little  known  ;  but  history  informs 
us  that  it  was  as  destructive  and  as  terrible  as  any  that  had  preceded  it. 

The  seventh,  the  work  of  the  rebel  Pougatchefif,  who  wherever  he  passed 
brought  with  him  ruin  and  desolation,  occurred  in  the  year  1774.  At  that 
period  the  whole  of  the  town,  with  the  exception  of  the  kremlin  and  the 
Tartar  suburbs,  were  reduced  to  ashes !  Two  thousand  and  ninety-one 
houses,  seventy-four  government-buildings,  the  g-ostindi  dvor,  with  seven 
liundred  and  seventy-seven  magazines  or  warehouses,  and  thirty  churches, 
became  a  prey  to  the  flames. 

The  eighth  fire  took  place  in  the  year  1815,  on  the  15th  of  September,  and 
is  still  fresh  in  the  memory  of  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  Kazan.  It  is 
said  by  eye-witnesses  that  in  less  than  twelve  hours  the  whole  of  the  town, 
with  its  suburbs  and  villages,  presented  little  else  save  a  mass  of  burning 
embers !  Several  woods  and  forests  on  the  outskirts  of  tlie  town  likewise 
took  fire.  The  conflagration  spread  for  miles  around,  destroying  every 
object  that  it  encountered.  In  a  word,  on  that  awful  occasion,  eleven  hun- 
dred and  seventy-nine  private  houses,  eight  hundred  and  ten  government- 
buildings,  one  hundred  and  sixty-six  streets,  several  churches,  monasteries, 
manufactories,  and  magazines,  were  reduced  to  ashes ! 

What  was  much  to  be  regretted  likewise  was  the  destruction  of  the  ar- 
chives of  the  town,  with  many  valuable  manuscripts  relating  to  its  history. 
As  long  as  there  remained  anything  to  consume,  the  fire  lasted  ;  and  when, 
for  want  of  fuel,  it  became  extinguished,  Kazan  presented  a  scene  of  inex- 
pressible desolation. 

Such  were  the  eight  terrible  conflagrations  which,  in  less  than  the  space 
of  three  hundred  years,  ravaged  Kazan :  but  this  devoted  town  was  yet 
destined  to  experience  a  new  one,  probably  more  violent  and  more  terrible 
than  any  that  had  preceded  it.  We  refer  to  that  series  of  conflagrations 
which  ravaged  so  large  a  portion  of  the  city  during  the  months  of  August 
and  September,  1842.  The  first  fire  commenced  during  the  night  of  the 
26th  of  August,  and  in  a  short  time  destroyed  a  whole  street  of  houses  and 
stores,  a  college,  and  many  fine  houses.     On  the  3d  of  September  the  fire 


27G  ILLUSTEATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

showed  itself  in  another  part  of  the  city.  But  these  were  nothing  more 
than  precursors  of  the  terrible  conflagration  of  the  5th  of  September, 

A  more  tempestuous  morning  than  that  on  which  this  terrible  conflagra- 
tion took  place  was  never  known  in  Kazan — a  town  whose  hurricanes 
form  one  of  the  prominent  features  in  its  historical  records.  The  wind 
raged  with  an  incredible  violence.  Several  preceding  months  of  dry  and 
scorching  weather  had  gathered  in  the  streets  a  deep  layer  of  dust  and 
sand ;  this,  raised  aloft  by  the  fury  of  the  whirlwind,  so  darkened  tlie  air, 
that  at  the  distance  of  two  or  three  yards  nothing  could  be  distinguished. 
The  fire  broke  out  in  the  street  called  Prolomnaya,  at  a  hotel,  known  by 
the  name  of  the  "  Hotel  of  Odessa,"  an  elegant  and  costly  structure,  newly 
built ;  and,  driven  over  the  city  by  the  high  winds  with  unparalleled  ra- 
pidity, consumed  in  the  space  of  twelve  hours  thirteen  hundred  houses, 
nine  churches,  one  convent,  warehouses  where  large  quantities  of  merchan- 
dise were  placed  on  deposite,  a  great  number  of  stores,  and  some  institu- 
tions of  learning.  The  university  was  in  imminent  peril,  but  was  saved 
with  the  loss  of  the  wooden  circular  moveable  tower  of  the  observatory. 
The  burning  brands,  carried  by  the  wind  to  the  other  side  of  the  Kazanka, 
communicating  the  flames  to  the  heaps  of  hay,  and  thence  to  the  neigh- 
oring  villages,  they  were  rapidly  reduced  to  aslies.* 

On  the  morning  of  the  6th  of  September,  one  half  of  the  city,  recently 
so  beautiful,  presented  nothing  but  a  heap  of  smoking  ruins.  The  fire  had 
hitherto  spared  that  quarter  of  Kazan  inhabited  exclusively  by  the  Tartars, 
and  known  by  the  name  of  the  Tartar  town,  or  suburbs ;  but  the  followers 
of  Mohammed  were  not  destined  to  be  long  exempt  from  the  calamity  which 
had  befallen  their  Christian  co-inhabitants.  While  the  latter  were  mourn- 
fully contemplating  the  ruins  of  their  houses  and  their  homes,  a  terrible 
fire  suddenly  broke  out  in  the  above-mentioned  quarter.  It  was  about  ten 
o'clock  in  the  morning.  Fortunately  for  the  Tartars,  the  hurricane  which 
had  raged  on  the  preceding  day  no  longer  existed,  otherwise  the  whole  of 
the  Tartar  town  would  inevitably  have  fallen  a  prey  to  the  flames.  As  it 
was,  the  fire  caused  a  fearful  ravage  :  several  streets  were  burnt,  and  some 
hours  elapsed  before  the  conflagration  could  be  efiectually  extinguished. 

The  close  of  that  day  brought  little  or  no  alleviation  to  the  sufferings  of 

*  The  American  minister  at  the  court  of  St.  Petersburg,  Colonel  Todd,  was  at  Kazan  on  the  day 
of  this  disastrous  fire.  He  had  arrived  there,  with  two  travelHng-comp;inions,  on  the  previous 
night,  and  had  taken  up  his  quarters  in  a  hotel  in  the  Prolomnaya.  There  the  flames  had  sui-prisni^ 
him,  and  he  had  removed  to  an  apartment  in  the  "  House  of  the  Nobility."  Driven  thence  shortly 
after  by  the  progress  of  the  conflagration,  he  sought  a  refuge  in  a  third  hotel  on  the  Boulac.  The 
flames  were  not  long  in  reaching  him  in  his  new  place  of  refuge  ;  and,  for  the  fourth  time  on  that 
eventful  day,  he  removed  with  his  suite  to  a  distant  inn  on  the  suburbs.  The  same  fate  followed 
him  thore  !  At  last,  weary  of  flying  from  one  abode  to  another,  he  resolved  to  return  to  Mosrow, 
He  accordingly  ordered  his  travelling-carriage  to  be  harnessed,  and  set  oul  from  Kazan,  to  which 
curiosity  had  carried  him,  and  which  he  had  seen  in  such  a  terrible  state  of  calamity.  He  left  with 
the  governor-general  of  the  town  four  hundred  roubles  for  the  benefit  of  the  sufferers.  We  note 
this  act  of  generosity  with  double  pleasure  ;  for  it  is  agreeable  to  reflect  that  the  first  donation  given 
on  this  disastrous  occasion  for  the  benefit  of  Kazan,  was  from  the  hand  of  an  American  citizen. 


EASTERN  RUSSIA  —  KAZAN.  277 

tlic  unfortunate  inhabitants.  The  night,  like  the  preceding  one,  was  passed 
under  the  cold  and  comfortless  canopy  of  heaven. 

On  the  following  morning  the  tocsin  again  rang,  to  announce  the  break- 
ins;  out  of  a  fresh  fire.  It  commenced  in  a  street  called  Sabatchi  Pereou- 
lok,  or  Dog  street,  which  it  reduced  almost  entirely  to  ashes. 

This  daily  -occurrence  of  fresh  fires  now  awoke  a  conjecture  among  the 
inhabitants  of  Kazan  that  this  repetition  of  horrors  owed  its  origin  to  wil- 
ful incendiarism.  They  now  recollected  that,  during  the  first  conflagra- 
tion, fires  had  broken  out  in  several  parts  of  the  town  in  a  totally  opposite 
direction  to  that  in  which  the  flames  were  borne  by  the  wind  —  a  circum- 
stance difficult  to  be  accounted  for  in  any  other  manner.  A  singular  mys- 
tery likewise  enveloped  the  two  succeeding  fires :  by  degrees  this  terrible 
supposition  became  as  general  as  it  seemed  probable.  The  police  became 
on  the  alert.  Its  researches  seemed  to  authenticate  beyond  doubt  the  ex- 
istence of  a  gang  of  incendiaries  in  the  town.  Upward  of  fifty  persons 
were  in  a  few  hours  apprehended  upon  suspicion :  some  had  been  found 
with  matches  and  other  combustible  materials  about  their  persons  ;  several 
had  been  caught  in  the  very  act  of  setting  fire  to  divers  houses. 

The  fourth  day  came,  and  with  it  a  fourth  fire !  It  broke  out  in  that 
part  of  the  Boulac  which  the  flames  had  previously  spared,  reduced  to  ruins 
upward  of  twenty-five  houses,  and  the  grain-magazine  of  a  merchant  named 
Romanoff,  which  contained  flour  to  the  amount  of  a  hundred  thousand 
roubles. 

A  committee  for  the  discovery  of  the  supposed  conspiracy  was  now  es- 
tablished. It  was  composed  of  the  leading  members  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Kazan.  The  latter  assembled  daily  to  invent  measures  for  the  safety  of 
the  town :  unfortunately,  little  or  no  success  followed  their  arrangements. 
Every  succeeding  day  brouglit  a  fresh  attempt  on  the  part  of  tlic  incendiary 
gang :  in  less  than  the  space  of  a  week,  twenty  repeated  efi'orts  were  made 
to  destroy  the  remainder  of  the  town  !  Fortunately,  however,  the  vigilance 
of  the  inhabitants  kept  pace  with  the  perseverance  of  tlie  villains  who 
seemed  to  have  conspired  to  leave  Kazan  a  desert.  Day  and  night  senti- 
nels were  stationed  before  every  house,  to  have  an  eye  on  the  passenger. 
Yet,  notwithstanding  all  this  caution,  the  evil  did  not  cease :  the  hand  of 
the  incendiary  found  means  to  elude  the  general  vigilance. 

The  19th  of  September  was  signalized  by  new  misfortunes.  The  fire 
broke  out  in  another  part  of  the  city,  till  then  preserved,  and  destroyed 
twenty  houses.  Subsequently,  several  attempts  were  made  to  renew  these 
horrors,  but  they  fortunately  proved  abortive.  The  redoubled  vigilance 
of  the  inhabitants,  the  measures  taken  by  the  police,  and,  most  of  all,  the 
approach  of  winter,  with  its  heavy  rains  and  falls  of  snow,  by  degrees  di- 
minished the  general  anxiety.  The  goods,  furniture,  and  property,  which 
had  hitherto  remained  in  the  fields,  were  brought  back  to  the  town ;  and 
their  owners,  many  of  whom  during  this  period  of  horrors  had  bivouacked 
like  gipsies  in  the  open  air,  now  turned  to  seek  a  refuge  for  themselves 


278  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

and  their  families  in  those  quarters  of  the  town  which  had  escaped  the  con- 
flagration. 

But  Kazan  did  not  long  remain  in  the  state  of  desolation  and  ruin  to 
which  this  frightful  conflagration  had  reduced  it.  Like  a  phoenix,  the  town 
soon  rose  again  from  its  ashes,  more  bright  and  splendid  than  ever.  The 
riches  of  its  inhabitants,  the  vast  and  lucrative  trade  it  carries  on  with 
almost  every  part  of  the  empire  and  with  the  East,  and  the  great  and  active 
co-operation  of  the  emperor  Nicholas,  who  generously  resolved  that  this 
ancient  city  should  be  immediately  restored  to  its  former  splendor,  com- 
bined to  produce  the  same  change  as  took  place  in  Hamburg  after  the  late 
fire  —  a  change  which  gave  to  both  cities  a  beauty  unknown  to  them  before. 
Ere  a  year  had  elapsed,  Kazan  was  again  rebuilt,  under  the  skilful  direc- 
tion of  numerous  architects  sent  from  St.  Petersburg  to  superintend  and 
hasten  its  reconstruction ;  so  that  entire  streets,  whose  houses  were  for- 
merly of  wood,  could  now  boast  of  handsome  brick  habitations,  of  a  new 
and  more  pleasing  style  of  architecture. 

Fortunately,  all  the  ancient  structures  of  Kazan  remained  unmolested 
and  unaltered ;  indeed,  the  fire  seems  to  have  respected  these  monuments, 
most  of  which  escaped  from  the  devouring  element,  or,  if  they  were  at- 
tacked by  it,  thanks  to  their  thick  walls  and  solid  architecture,  were  able 
to  set  its  power  at  defiance.  This  fire,  therefore,  while  it  gave  fresh  beauty 
to  the  modern  portion  of  Kazan,  did  not  in  any  way  deprive  the  town  of 
that  antique  historical  character  which  gives  it  so  great  a  charm  in  the 
eyes  of  the  traveller.     The  population  is  about  fifty  thousand. 

The  following  sketch  of  Kazan  is  from  Oliphant's  "  Russian  Shores  of 
the  Black  Sea."  His  "impressions"  possess  more  than  ordinary  interest 
from  their  freshness,  his  passage  through  Russia  being,  as  we  have  before 
had  several  occasions  to  remark,  as  recent  as  1853 :  — 

"  Situated  on  a  gentle  eminence,  in  the  midst  of  an  extensive  plain,  its 
many-colored  roofs  rising  one  above  another  to  the  walls  of  the  kremlin, 
which  crowns  the  hills  to  the  extreme  left,  tall  spires  and  domes  appearing 
in  every  direction,  and  betokening  the  magnitude  of  the  city  while  adding 
to  its  beauty,  Kazan  presented  a  more  imposing  aspect  than  any  town  I 
had  seen  in  Russia,  and  seemed  to  vie  with  Moscow  as  to  exhibiting  in  the 
most  favorable  manner  the  characteristic  buildings  of  the  country.  Twi- 
light was  just  failing-  us  as  we  entered  the  broad,  deserted  streets,  and 
reached  the  principal  hotel,  where  we  secured  rooms,  and  then  sallied 

forth  to  see  as  much  as  we  could  by  lamplight At  an  early  hour  on 

the  following  morning  we  were  up  at  daybreak,  and  on  our  way  to  the 
kremlin  by  four  o'clock.  We  passed  a  number  of  houses  which  had  been 
recently  burnt  down ;  indeed,  the  town  seemed  to  have  suffered  from  fire 
in  all  directions.  The  Kazansky,  or  main  street,  traverses  the  entire  ridge 
of  the  hill ;  and,  from  the  corners  of  the  various  intersecting  streets,  good 
■sdews  are  obtained  over  the  town  upon  each  side.  Following  along  it,  past 
handsome,  well-built  mansions,  and  through  the  colonnade  of  a  large  bazar, 


EASTERN  RUSSIA  —  KAZAN.  279 

or  g-osli>idi  dvor^  we  reached  the  kremlin,  and,  from  the  terrace  in  front 
of  the  governor's  house,  revelled  in  a  most  glorious  prospect.  Stretching 
away  to  the  north,  the  eye  ranged  over  a  vast  expanse  of  country,  thinly 
dotted  with  villages  and  church-spires ;  while  our  position  commanded  a 
panoramic  view  of  the  town,  which  in  no  way  belied  my  impressions  of  the 
previous  evening.  To  the  south,  the  Volga,  with  its  steep  banks,  bounded 
the  prospect,  while  the  Tartar  villages  in  the  foreground,  with  their  singu- 
larly-built mosques,  seemed  to  invite  a  visit.  One  of  the  latter  was  a 
curiously-fashioned  little  edifice  (as  may  be  seen  in  the  engraving  given 
below) ,  in  its  construction  totally  unlike  any  other  building  I  ever  saw. 
The  effect  of  the  scene  was  completed  by  the  sun  most  opportunely  rising, 
as  it  were,  out  of  the  steppe,  tipping  spire  and  dome,  until  we  oui-selves 
felt  its  genial  influence. 

"  Kazan  has  advantages  which  few  other  inland  towns  possess.  The 
capital  of  an  ancient  kingdom,  it  is  not  the  mere  creation  of  government, 
kept  alive,  as  it  were,  by  law,  and  tenanted  by  compulsion :  it  rests  upon 
foundations  long  since  laid,  and  owes  its  present  prosperity  to  its  position 
on  the  great  highway  from  Siberia  to  Moscow  and  Nijnei-Novgorod.  It 
thus  becomes  an  emporium  for  the  productions  of  that  distant  part  of  the 
empire  which  pass  through  it.  It  boasts,  moreover,  manufactures  peculiar 
to  itself.  The  inhabitants  are  well  known  to  excel  in  leather-embroidery : 
for  workmanship  of  this  sort  Kazan  is  celebrated  all  over  eastern  Europe." 


Tartar  Mosque  neas  Kazan 


2«0 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 


6  7 

Tytes  of  Caucasian  Races. 


CHAPTER   X. 

THE    CAUCASIAN    PROVINCES. 

►  HE  Caucasian  country  has  a  very  ir- 
regular outline,  and  forms  a  sort  of 
isthmus  between  the  Black  sea  and 
the  Caspian.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
nortli  by  the  governments  of  Don 
Cossacks  and  Astrakhan  ;  on  the 
west,  by  the  sea  of  Azov,  the  strait  of  Enikaleh,  and  the  Black  sea ;  on  the 
south,  by  Turkish  Armenia,  the  river  Arras,  and  Persia;  and  on  the  east, 
by  the  Caspian  sea.  The  principal  feature  of  the  country  is  the  celebrated 
mountain-chain  of  Caucasus,  which  has  been  fully  described  on  previous 
pages.  This  region  includes  several  ancient  kingdoms,  states,  and  prov- 
inces, which  have  acquired  historical  celebrity. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Caucasian  country  include  a  great  number  of 
tribes,  evidently  derived  from  a  variety  of  stocks,  and  speaking  a  diversity 
of  languages.  The  vignette  at  the  head  of  this  chapter  presents  types  of 
some  of  the  more  important  of  these  tribes.  The  portrait  seen  on  tlie  left, 
marked  1,  represents  a  Tcherkessian,  or  Circassian  ;  2,  a  Mingrelian  ;  o,  a 
Noga'i  Tartar  ;  4,  a  Georgian ;  5,  an  Armenian  ;  6,  a  Lesghian  ;  7,  a  Cos- 
sack of  Terek.  These  tribes  are  all  distinguished  by  one  noble  quality — 
an  almost  inextinguishable  love  of  freedom ;  and  in  bodily  constitution  are 
at  once  so  robustly  and  so  elegantly  formed,  that  what  is  known  as  the 
Caucasian  race  is  universally  acknowledged  to  be  the  finest  type  of  man. 

The  Russians  first  got  possession  of  this  country  in  the  time  of  Peter  the 
Great,  who  even  extended  his  dominion  along  the  Caspian  sea  into  Ghilan  ; 
but  in  the  reign  of  Anne  the  military  establishments  were  withdrawn  to 
Kizliar,  and  a  line  of  forts  carried  along  the  Terek  for  the  defence  of  the 


THE   CAUCASIAN   PROVINCES  —  GEORGIA.  281 

frontier.  Mozdok  was  built  in  1763,  and  from  that  point  the  line  was 
extended  gradually  westward  to  the  sea  of  Azov,  along  the  northern  bank 
of  the  Kouban,  The  wars  in  which  the  Russians  have  l)een  engaged  with 
Turkey  and  Persia,  having  led  them  again  to  the  south  of  tlie  Caucasus, 
they  have  been  anxious  to  establish  their  authority  over  the  intervening 
mountain-tribes,  who,  if  not  reduced  to  subjection,  are  likely  to  prove  most 
troublesome  and  dangerous  neighbors.  In  the  course  of  time  they  may 
succeed  in  effecting  their  subjugation,  but  as  yet  their  progress  has  been 
very  slow. 

The  government  of  Georgia  (Russian,  Groozia;  Persian,  Ckirdjisian ; 
the  ancient  Iberia)  is  situated  near  the  centre  of  the  Russian  possessions, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Caucasian  range,  between  the  fortieth  and  forty- 
third  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  forty-third  and  forty-seventh  de- 
grees of  east  longitude.  It  has  the  province  of  Shirvan  on  the  east  ;•  an 
Armenian  mountain-range  on  the  south,  which  separates  the  basin  of  the 
Kour  from  that  of  the  Arras  ;  a  branch  of  the  Caucasus  on  the  west,  form- 
ing part  of  the  water-shed  between  the  Caspian  and  Black  seas ;  and  the 
central  chain  of  the  Caucasus  on  the  north.  Thus,  surrounded  on  three 
sides  by  mountain-ranges,  Georgia  is  in  a  great  measure  shut  out  from 
communication  with  the  neighboring  countries,  there  being  but  one  pass 
either  across  the  Caucasus  into  Circassia,  or  across  tlie  western  range  into 
Imeritia.  The  length  of  the  province  from  northwest  to  southeast,  meas- 
ured on  the  best  maps,  is  about  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  miles,  and 
its  average  breadth  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  ten  miles.  It 
contains  about  eighteen  thousand  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  Georgia  is  mostly  mountainous,  consisting  of  table-lands 
and  terraces,  forming  a  portion  of  the  southern  and  more  gradual  slope  of 
the  Caucasus.  The  country,  however,  slopes  from  the  south  and  west,  as 
well  as  the  north,  to  the  centre  and  southeast,  which  are  occupied  by  the 
valley  of  the  Kour,  an  undulating  plain  of  considerable  extent  and  great 
fertility.  Betw(;en  the  mountain-ranges  there  are  also  numerous  fertile 
valleys  covered  with  fine  forests,  dense  underwood,  and  rich  pasturages, 
watered  by  an  abundance  of  rivulets. 

All  the  rivers  have  more  or  less  an  easterly  course.  The  principal  is 
the  Kour,  or  Mthwari  (the  ancient  Cyrus).  This  river  rises  in  the  range 
of  Ararat,  a  little  northwest  of  Kars.  It  runs  at  first  north,  and  afterward 
northeast  to  about  latitude  forty-two  degrees  north,  and  longitude  forty- 
four  degrees  east,  from  which  point  its  course  is  generally  southeast  to  its 
mouth,  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Caspian.  It  is  in  many  places  of  con- 
siderable breadth,  and  sometimes  several  fatlioms  deep ;  but  its  great  ra- 
pidity prevents  its  being  of  much,  if  any,  service  to  navigation ;  and  hence 
rafts  only  are  used  upon  it.  Its  principal  affluents  are  the  Aragwi  from 
the  north,  which  unites  with  it  at  Mtskethi,  the  ancient  capital  of  Georgia, 
about  ten  miles  northwest  of  Teflis ;  and  the  Arras  (the  ancient  Araxes) 


282  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA, 

from  the  south,  which  joins  it  not  far  above  its  mouth,  where  its  course 
deflects  southward. 

The  climate  of  Georgia,  of  course,  varies  greatly,  according  to  elevation. 
It  is,  however,  generally  healthy  and  temperate,  being  much  warmer  than 
that  of  Circassia,  or  the  other  countries  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Cau- 
casus. The  winter,  which  commences  in  December,  usually  ends  with 
January.  The  temperature  at  Teflis,  during  that  season,  is  said  not  to 
descend  lower  than  about  forty  degrees  Fahrenheit ;  and  in  the  summer 
the  air  is  excessively  sultry,  the  average  temperature  at  the  end  of  July, 
in  one  year  being,  at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  seventy-nine  degrees, 
and  at  ten  o'clock  in  the  evening,  seventy-four  degrees  Fahr. 

The  soil  is  very  fertile ;  and  agriculture  and  the  rearing  of  cattle  are 
the  chief  employments  of  the  inhabitants.  Wheat,  rice,  barley,  oats,  Indian 
corn,  millet,  the  Holcus  sorghum  and  H.  bicolor,  lentils,  madder,  hemp, 
and  flax,  are  the  most  generally  cultivated  articles;  cotton  is  found  in  a 
wild  state,  and  is  also  cultivated. 

Georgia  is  noted  for  the  excellence  of  its  melons  and  pomegranates ; 
and  many  other  kinds  of  fine  fruit  grow  spontaneously.  Vineyards  are  very 
widely  difi'used,  and  the  production  of  wine  is  one  of  the  principal  sources 
of  employment.  It  is  strong  and  full-bodied,  with  more  bouquet  than  Port 
or  Madeira ;  but  from  having  generally  little  care  bestowed  on  its  manu- 
facture, it  keeps  badly ;  and  casks  and  bottles  being  for  the  most  part  un- 
known, it  is  kept  in  buffalo-skins,  smeared  with  naphtha,  which  not  only 
gives  it  a  disagreeable  state,  but  disposes  it  to  acidity.  But  notwithstand- 
ing these  drawbacks,  and  its  extensive  consumption  in  the  country,  consid- 
erable quantities  are  exported.  Mr.  Wilbraham  says  that  "  the  Georgians 
liave  the  reputation  of  being  the  greatest  drinkers  in  the  world :  the  daily 
allowance,  without  which  the  laborer  will  not  work,  is  four  bottles  ;  and 
the  higher  classes  generallly  exceed  this  quantity ;  on  grand  occasions  the 
consumption  is  incredible."  According  to  Smith  and  Dwight,  "  the  ordi- 
nary ration  of  the  inhabitants  of  Teflis,  from  the  mechanic  to  the  prince,  is 
said  to  be  a  tonk,  measuring  between  five  and  six  bottles  of  Bordeaux ! 
The  best  wine  costs  about  four  cents  the  bottle,  while  the  common  is  less 
than  a  cent." 

The  multiplied  oppressions  to  which  the  inhabitants  have  been  long  sub- 
jected, and  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  have  gone  far  to  extinguish  all  Indus 
try.  The  peasant  thinks  only  of  growing  grain  enough  for  the  support  of 
himself  and  family,  and  a  small  surplus  to  exchange  at  the  nearest  town 
for  otlier  articles  of  prime  necessity.  The  plough  in  use  is  so  heavy  as  to 
require  six  or  eight  bufl'aloes  for  its  draught,  and  often  double  tlie  number 
are  used  ;  the  harrow  is  nothing  more  than  a  felled  tree  ;  and  a  great  quan- 
tity of  the  produce  is  wasted  owing  to  the  grain  being  trodden  out  by  buf- 
faloes. 

Domestic  animals  of  all  kinds  are  reared.  The  horses  and  horned  cattle 
equal  the  best  European  breeds  in  size  and  beauty ;  and  the  long-tailed 


THE   CAUCASIAN  PROVINCES — GEORGIA.  283 

sliecp  afford  excellent  wool.  Game,  including  tlie  stag,  antelope,  wild- 
boar,  hares,  wild-goats,  pheasant,  partridge,  &c.,  is  very  abundant;  bears, 
foxes,  badgers,  jackals,  lynxes,  and  it  is  said  leopards,  are  common.  The 
forests  consist  of  oak,  beech,  elm,  ash,  linden,  hornbeam,  chestnut,  walnut, 
and  many  other  trees  common  in  Europe ;  but  they  are  of  little  or  no  use. 
The  mineral  products  of  the  country,  though  nearly  unexplored,  are  be- 
lieved to  be  various :  iron  is  plentiful  on  the  flank  of  the  Caucasus,  and 
coal,  naphtha,  &c.,  are  met  with. 

The  houses  of  the  peasantry,  even  in  the  most  civilized  parts,  are  noth- 
ing more  than  slight  wooden  frames,  with  walls  made  of  bundles  of  osiers 
covered  over  with  a  mixture  of  clay  and  cowdung,  and  a  roof  of  rush.  A 
room  thirty  feet  long  and  twenty  broad,  where  the  light  comes  in  at  the 
door ;  a  floor  upon  which  they  dry  madder  and  cotton ;  a  little  hole  in  the 
middle  of  the  apartment,  where  the  fire  is  placed,  above  which  is  a  copper 
caldron  attached  to  a  chain,  and  enveloped  with  a  thick  smoke,  which 
escapes  by  either  the  ceiling  or  the  door,  is  a  picture  of  the  interior  of 
these  dwellings.  In  the  houses  even  of  the  nobility,  the  walls  are  some 
times  built  only  of  trunks  of  trees  cemented  with  mortar,  and  the  furniture 
consists  of  a  very  few  articles. 

The  roads,  except  that  across  the  Caucasus  to  Teflis,  which  has  been 
improved  by  the  Russians,  are  in  a  wretched  state.  The  vehicles  in  use 
are  of  the  rudest  kind,  and  all  commodities,  except  straw  or  timber,  are 
transported  upon  horses,  mules,  asses,  or  camels.  The  inhabitants  never 
ride  except  on  horseback.  Coarse  woollen,  cotton,  and  silk  fabrics,  leather, 
shagreen,  and  a  few  other  articles,  are  manufactured.  The  arms  made  at 
Teflis  have  some  reputation  ;  but  most  of  the  other  goods  are  very  inferior, 
and  only  enter  into  home  consumption. 

Georgia,  as  before  intimated,  composes  one  of  the  Trans-Caucasian  prov- 
inces of  Russia,  Their  government  is  wholly  military :  and  how  little 
soever  it  may  square  with  our  notions  of  what  a  government  should  be,  it 
is  not  ill  fitted  for  the  circumstances  of  the  country ;  and  there  can  not  be 
a  question  that  its  establishment  has  been  most  advantageous  to  the  great 
majority  of  the  population. 

The  Georgian  ladies  have  usually  oval  faces,  fair  complexions,  and  black 
hair,  and  have  long  enjoyed  the  highest  reputation  for  beauty  in  the  East ; 
the  men  are  also  well  formed  and  handsome.  This  superiority  in  the  pliys- 
ical  form  of  the  Georg-ians  and  other  contiguous  Caucasian  tribes,  and  the 
low  state  of  civilization  that  has  always  prevailed  among  them,  explains 
the  apparently  unaccountable  fact  that  these  countries  have  been,  from  the 
remotest  antiquity  down  to  our  times,  the  seat  of  an  extensive  slave-trade. 
Latterly,  the  harems  of  the  rich  mussulmans  of  Turkey,  Persia,  &c.,  have 
been  wholly  or  principally  supplied  by  female  slaves  brought  from  Georgia, 
Circassia,  and  the  adjoining  provinces  ;  and  they  also  furnished  male  slaves 
to  supply  the  Mameluke  corps  of  Egypt  and  various  other  military  bodies 
with  recruits. 


284  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

In  modern  times  the  Georgians  have  been  divided,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  free  commoners,  into  the  two  great  classes  of  the  nobles  and  theii' 
vassals  or  slaves.  Previously  to  the  Russian  conquest,  the  latter  were  the 
absolute  property  of  their  lords,  who,  besides  employing  them  in  all  man- 
ner of  manual  and  laborious  occupations,  derived  a  considerable  part  of 
their  revenue  from  the  sale  of  their  sons  and  daughters !  Indeed,  the 
daughters  of  the  nobles  not  unfrequently  shared  the  same  fate,  being  sacri- 
ficed to  the  necessities  or  ambition  of  their  unnatural  parents ! 

The  Russians  have  put  an  end  to  this  traffic  ;  and  they  have  also  deprived 
the  nobles  of  the  power  capitally  to  punish  their  vassals,  and  set  limits  to 
their  demands  upon  them  for  labor  and  other  services.  There  can  not 
therefore  be,  and  there  is  not,  a  doubt  with  any  individual  acquainted  with 
the  circumstances,  that  the  Russian  conquest  has  been  of  signal  advantage 
to  the  bulk  of  the  Georgian  people.  It  is  probably  true,  however,  that  the 
Russians  are  quite  as  much  disliked  by  the  nobles  of  Georgia  as  by  those 
of  Circassia ;  and  those  travellers  vrho  live  with  them,  and  credit  their 
stories,  will  be  amply  supplied  with-tales  of  Russian  barbarity  and  atrocity. 

With  a  settled  state  of  affairs,  Teflis,  the  capital,  might  again  become, 
as  in  the  days  of  the  emperor  Justinian,  a  thoroughfare  for  the  overland 
commerce  between  Asia  and  Europe.  The  Georgians  belong  to  the  Greek 
church,  and,  since  becoming  subject  to  Russia,  have  been  subordinate  in 
ecclesiastical  matters  to  a  Russian  archbishop  at  Teflis,  who  has  three  suf- 
fragans south  of  the  Caucasus.  The  clergy  are  generally  very  ignorant. 
A  high-school  in  the  capital  has  been  recently  erected  into  a  gymnasium  ; 
and  in  addition  to  it,  there  are  a  few  small  schools,  in  which,  however, 
very  little  is  taught.  No  serf  is,  or  at  least  used  to  be,  instructed  in  read- 
ing, but  all  the  nobility  are  more  or  less  educated :  the  females  of  this  class 
teach  each  other,  and  are  commonly  better  informed  than  the  males.  The 
Georgian  language  is  peculiar,  differing  widely  from  the  languages  spoken 
by  the  surrounding  nations. 

Georgia  was  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire  by  Pompey  the  Great,  anno 
65  B.  C.  During  the  sixtli  and  seventh  centuries  it  was  long  a  theatre  of 
contest  between  tlie  eastern  empire  of  Constantinople  and  the  Persians. 
In  tne  eighth  century,  a  prince  of  the  Jewish  family  of  the  Bagratides  es- 
tablished the  last  Georgian  monarchy,  which  continued  in  his  line  down 
to  the  commencement  of  the  present  century.  The  last  prince,  George  XI., 
before  his  death  in  1799,  placed  Georgia  under  the  protection  of  Russia 
(though  up  to  that  time  it  had  been  regarded  as  nominally  a  dependency 
of  the  Persian  monarchy)  ;  and,  in  1802,  it  was  incorporated  with  the  Rus- 
sian empire.  In  the  present  war  (1854)  between  Russia  and  the  Ottoman 
Porte,  the  frontiers  of  Georgia  and  Armenia  were  early  the  theatre  of  im- 
portant military  operations,  and  the  Russians  falling  back,  Georgia  was  in 
the  month  of  May  declared  independent ;  but  it  is  highly  probable  that,  by 
either  reconquest  or  treaty  settlement  at  the  close  of  the  war,  the  province 
will  again  fall  under  the  sway  of  the  czar. 


THE   CAUCASIAN   PROVINCES  —  GEORGIA.  285 

Toflis,  or  Tiflis,  the  capital  of  Geortiia  and  of  the  other  Trans-Caucasian 
provinces,  is  situated  near  the  centre  of  the  country,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Kour,  three  hundred  miles  east  by  north  of  Trebizond,  in  Turkey,  in  a 
contracted  valley  formed  by  irregular  mountains,  parallel  with  the  stream 
on  the  side  of  the  city,  and  hills  coming  down  in  a  point  quite  to  the  wa- 
ter's edge  on  the  other.  A  circular  fort  covers  this  point,  and,  together 
with  a  small  suburb,  is  united  to  the  city  by  a  bridge  of  a  single  wooden 
arch,  thrown  over  the  river  ;  while  the  ruined  walls  of  an  old  citadel  crown 
the  top,  and  extend  down  the  side  of  a  part  of  the  opposite  mountain. 

The  old  and  native  part  of  the  city  is  built  upon  the  truly  oriental  plan 
of  irregular  narrow  lanes,  and  still  more  irregular  and  diminutive  houses, 
thrown  together  in  all  the  endless  combinations  of  accident.  Here  and 
there  European  taste,  aided  by  Russian  power,  has  worked  out  a  passable 
road  for  carriages,  or  built  a  decent  house,  overlooking  and  putting  to 
shame  all  its  mud-walled  and  dirty  neighbors.  A  line  of  bazars,  too,  ex- 
tending along  the  river,  and  branching  out  into  several  streets,  together 
with  much  bustle  and  business,  display  some  neatness  and  taste,  and  is 
connected  with  two  or  three  tolerable  caravanseries.  Several  old  and 
substantial  churches,  displaying  their  belfries  and  cupolas  in  different  parts, 
complete  the  prominent  features  of  this  part  of  tlie  city. 

In  the  northern  or  Russian  quarter,  officers,  palaces,  government-offices, 
and  private  houses,  lining  broad  streets  and  open  squares,  have  a  decidedly 
European  aspect,  and  exhibit  in  their  pillared  fronts  something  of  that 
taste  for  showy  architecture  which  the  edifices  of  their  capital  have  taught 
the  Russians  to  admire. 

Teflis  has  the  appearance  of  a,n  excessively  busy  and  populous  place. 
Its  streets  present  not  only  a  crowded,  but,  unlike  many  oriental  cities,  a 
lively  scene.  Every  person  seems  hurried  by  business.  Nor  is  the  variety 
of  costumes,  representing  different  nations  and  tongues,  the  least  noticea- 
ble feature  of  the  scene. 

The  Armenian  cathedral  is  a  large  and  somewhat  striking  edifice. 
There  are  likewise  two  mosques  ;  and,  among  the  other  places  of  worship, 
is  a  German  protestant  chapel.  The  city  has  also  a  French  and  a  German 
hotel ;  they  are  represented,  however,  as  being,  in  most  respects,  the  re- 
verse of  what  they  should  be.  House-rent  is  high,  but  otherwise  living  is 
not  expensive.  Teflis  has  many  remarkable  sulphureous  hot  springs,  their 
temperature  varying  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twelve  degrees 
Fahrenheit;  and  to  these,  it  is  supposed  by  some,  the  city  owes  its  name. 
Over  some  of  these  tlie  Russian  goverament  has  erected  the  crown-baths, 
a  plain  edifice,  but  which,  by  being  kept  in  good  order,  differs  widely  from 
all  the  other  bathing-establishments  in  the  city,  and  realizes  a  handsome 
revenue. 

Teflis  is  very  favorably  situated  for  trade,  and  its  commerce  is  pretty 
extensive,  having  greatly  increased  during  the  period  of  Russian  occupa- 
tion.    Almost  all  the  trade  is,  however,  in  the  hands  of  the  Armenians. 


286 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 


y^'i^J 


In  1830,  scarcely  half  a  dozen  mercantile  houses  existed  belonging  to  any- 
other  foreigners,  and  only  one  European  consul  (a  Frenchman)  resided 

here.  In  the  same  year,  the 
Russians  founded  a  school 
at  Teflis,  which  has  since, 
as  already  remarked,  been 
erected  into  a  gymnasium  ; 
and  there  are  some  other 
schools. 

Teflis,  as  well  as  Geor- 
gia in  general,  has  for  a 
long  while  been  celebrated 
for  the  beauty  of  its  wo- 
men ;  and,  according  to  the 
missionaries,  Dwight  and 
Smith,  "  this  has  not  becu 
overrated,  for  we  have  nev- 
er seen  a  city  so  large  a 
proportion  of  whose  fe- 
males   were    beautiful    in 

Georgians  of  the  Heights  op  Teflis.  lOrm,  leaiUrCS,  01   COmpiCX- 

ion,  as  Teflis." 
Teflis  does  not  boast  a  very  high  antiquity.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
built  in  469  by  Vachtang,  the  founder  of  a  dynasty  which  ruled  from  the 
Euxine  to  the  Caspian.  It  was  taken  by  the  Tartars  under  Zinghis  Khan, 
in  the  thirteenth  century ;  subdued  by  the  Turks  in  1576  ;  sacked  by  Aga 
Moliammed  Khan,  shah  of  Persia,  in  1795 ;  and  finally  fell  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  Russians,  with  Georgia,  in  1802.  It  sufiered  greatly  from 
the  ravages  of  the  cholera  in  1830.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  governor- 
general  of  Caucasus,  and  of  a  Georgian  and  Armenian  archbisliop.  There 
are  four  newspapers  published  here  in  the  Russian,  Georgian,  Persian,  and 
Armenian  languages,  respectively.  Its  present  population  may  be  reck- 
oned at  from  thirty-five  to  forty  thousand,  the  great  majority  of  whom  are 
Armenians,  with  some  mussulman  families. 

Among  the  other  chief  towns  are  Elizabetpol,  or  Ganjah,  ninety  miles 
southeast  of  Teflis  ;  Signak,  fifty-six  miles  east  by  south  ;  and  Akhaltsike, 
a  hundred  and  ten  miles  west,  once  the  capital  of  a  Turkish  pachalic,  and 
having  forty  thousand  inhabitants,  but  now  only  thirteen  thousand,  chiefly 
Turkish  Armenians  :  it  has  some  fine  churches  and  ruins.  Warzich,  in  the 
volcanic  region  of  the  Trapovanie  and  the  Kour,  formerly  the  favorite  resi- 
dence of  the  Armenian  queen  Thamar,  is  an  extraordinary  spot.  It  is  a 
complete  city,  hewn  out  of  volcanic  stone,  and  contains  three  large  churches, 
entirely  cut  out  of  the  rock,  subterraneous  passages,  innumerable  chambers, 
finely  sculptured,  and  the  queen's  summer  and  winter  palaces.  The  whole 
country  around  is  covered  with  lava  and  volcanic  products  of  various  kinds. 


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THE   CAUCASIAN  PROVINCES  —  SHIRVAN.  289 

The  province  of  Shirvan  lies  on  the  south  of  the  Caucasus,  principally 
between  tlie  fortieth  and  forty-second  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the 
forty-seventh  and  fiftieth  degrees  of  east  longitude ;  having  the  Caspian  on 
the  east,  Daghestan  on  the  north,  Georgia  on  the  west,  and  the  river  Kour 
on  the  south,  which  divides  it  from  Talysch,  formerly  a  portion  of  the  Per- 
sian territory  of  Ghilan,     It  comprises  about  nine  thousand  square  miles. 

Shirvan  (^Shirivan,  or  Guirvan)  was  formerly  a  pro\ince  of  Persia.  Its 
climate  and  natural  productions  are  much  the  same  as  those  of  Georgia. 
It  consists  chiefly  of  a  well-watered  plain,  which  produces  cotton,  rice, 
wines,  and  fruits  of  various  kinds ;  but  along  the  shore  of  the  Caspian 
there  is  a  flat  tract  almost  a  desert.  The  inhabitants  of  this  proWnce  are 
chiefly  Mohammedan  Persians. 

Baku,  or  Badku,  the  capital  of  Shirvan,  is  situated  on  the  southern 
shore  of  the  peninsula  or  cape  of  Abcheran  on  the  western  coast  of  the 
Caspian  sea,  of  which  it  is  one  of  the  most  frequented  ports.  The  walls 
of  the  town  were  formerly  washed  by  the  Caspian,  but  they  are  at  present 
about  five  yards  distant  from  it :  the  sea,  however,  has  gained  upon  the 
land  in  other  places,  the  ruins  of  ancient louildings  being  found  at  the  depth 
of  nearly  twenty  feet.  It  stands  on  a  declivity,  the  summit  of  which  is 
crowned  by  the  palace  of  the  former  khans  and  Persian  kings  ;  is  defended 
by  a  double  wall  and  deep  ditch,  constructed  in  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great, 
and  has  two  strong  forts,  under  whose  protection  vessels  can  anchor  in 
from  four  to  six  fathoms  water,  within  eighty  yards  of  the  shore,  in  a  spa- 
cious road,  sheltered  from  all  quarters. 

The  town  is  ill  built,  with  crooked  and  narrow  streets.  The  houses  are 
small,  with  flat  roofs  coated  with  naphtha.  The  Virgin's  Tower  is  the 
most  striking  object  in  the  place.  There  are,  however,  several  spacious 
mosques,  public  squares,  marts,  and  caravansaries  ;  a  Greek  and  an  Arme- 
nian church,  and  some  Tartar  schools. 

The  chief  exports  of  Baku  and  its  neighborhood  are  na})htha,  salt,  and 
saffron ;  in  return  for  which  it  receives,  principally  from  Persia,  raw  silk 
and  cotton,  rich  carpets  and  shawls,  rice,  &c. ;  and  from  Europe  all  kinds 
of  ironware  and  cutlery,  cotton,  linen,  and  woollen  manufactured  goods  — 
thus  becoming  an  entrepot  through  which  an  important  trade  is  carried  on 
between  the  East  and  the  West.  The  adjacent  island  of  Salian  has  impor- 
tant fisheries.     Baku  has  a  population  of  about  six  thousand. 

The  jurisdiction  of  Baku  extends  over  thirty-two  villages,  with  nineteen 
thousand  inhal)itants,  of  whom  one  thousand  are  Turkomans.  The  khan- 
ate of  Baku  was  formerly  attached  to  Persia,  but  wrested  from  it  by  the 
Russians,  under  Peter  the  Great,  about  1723.  It  was  restored  in  1735, 
but  retaken  in  1801  by  the  Russians,  to  whom  it  now  belongs. 

The  peninsula  of  Abcheran,  or  Apsheron,  is  rocky  and  barren,  destitute 
of  trees,  and  the  water,  obtained  only  from  wells,  is  very  brackish.  It  is 
in  many  respects  a  most  singular  region,  and  is  particularly  famous  for  its 
naphtha-springs.     The  quantity  of  naphtha  procured  in  the  plain  to  the 

19 


290  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

southeast  of  the  city  of  Baku  is  enormous.  It  is  of  two  kinds,  black  and 
white,  and  its  principal  sources  are  about  six  miles  from  Baku,  The  black 
oil  shines  with  a  reddish  tint  in  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  is  used  for  burning 
and  for  coating-  roofs.  The  supply  seems  inexhaustible,  some  of  the  wells 
yielding  fifteen  hundred  or  two  thousand  pounds  a  day,  and  on  being  emp- 
tied immediately  fill  up  again ;  the  entire  annual  yield  is  upward  of  four 
thousand  tons ! 

Near  these  springs  is  the  Artech-gah,  or  "  Field  of  Fire^''  nearly  half  a 
square  mile  in  extent.  A  stream  of  white  oil  here  gushes  from  the  foot  of 
a  hill ;  it  readily  ignites  and  burns  on  the  surface  of  the  water :  and  in 
calm  weather  people  amuse  themselves  with  pouring  it  into  the  sea,  where 
they  set  fire  to  it,  and  it  floats  away,  giving  the  waters  the  appearance  of 
a  sea  of  fire.  The  poor  people  obtain  a  cheap  light  and  fire  for  cooking 
by  driving  a  clay  pipe  or  reed  into  the  ground,  and  burning  the  gas  which 
rises  through  it.  The  Persian  ghebers  or  fire-worshippers  likewise  send 
the  gas  in  bottles  to  their  friends  at  a  distance.  The  "  Field  of  Fire"  is 
in  constant  motion,  and  emits  a  flame  without  heat.  Occasionally  the  whole 
region  seems  to  be  in  flames ;  and  it  appears  as  if  the  fire  rolled  down 
the  mountain-sides  in  large  masses,  with  incredible  velocity,  presenting  on 
a  winter's  night  a  scene  of  wonderful  sublimity.  In  ancient  times  the  burn- 
ing field  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  aieshyahs  or  shrines  of  grace 
among  the  ghebers  or  parsees  of  Persia,  and  frequented  by  thousands  of 
pilgrims.  They  have  still  several  temples  here,  and  many  of  them  spend 
their  days  in  worship  and  in  penitential  exercises  so  severe  as  often  to 
cost  them  their  lives.  The  peninsula  is  likewise  celebrated  for  numerous 
volcanoes,  which  discharge  immense  quantities  of  mud. 

Russian  Armenia  comprises  that  portion  of  the  former  kingdom  of  that 
name  which  lies  south  of  Georgia  and  north  of  the  Arras  and  Mount  Ara- 
rat, being  two  hundred  miles  in  length  and  about  one  hundred  and  thirty 
in  breadth.  It  formerly  constituted  the  Persian  province  of  Erivan,  by 
which  name  it  is  now  sometimes  known.  It  contains  about  eight  thousand 
square  miles. 

The  country  consists  of  a  mass  of  mountains,  crowding  on  each  other 
and  filling  up  the  whole  space  with  volcanic  amphitheatres.  One  of  the 
largest  of  these  amphitheatres  is  occupied  by  the  great  fresh-water  lake 
of  Gukcha  (blue  lake),  called  also  Sivan,  the  surface  of  which  is  five  thou- 
sand three  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  the  northwestern 
portion  of  the  lake  is  an  island  called  Sivan,  with  a  monastery,  twelve 
hundred  yards  from  the  shore.  The  lake  is  said  to  be  unfathomable,  and 
has  the  dark-blue  appearance  of  deep  water.  A  branch  of  the  river  Zen- 
gue,  which  passes  the  town  of  Erivan,  carries  the  surplus  waters  of  the 
lake  to  the  Arras.  The  whole  country  in  the  neighborhood  is  volcanic. 
The  soil  of  the  valley  of  the  Arras  is  extremely  fertile,  and  the  mountains 
are  covered  with  pasture.     Directly  south  of  Erivan  a  small  portion  of  the 


THE   CAUCASIAN  PROVINCES  —  ARMENIA. 


291 


Russian  territory  extends  to  the  southwestward  of  the  Arras,  and  in  the 
southwest  corner  of  this  portion  stands  the  famous  mountain  Macis  {Ag-ri- 
dag-h)^  or  Ararat,  a  view  of  which  is  herewith  given. 


„, _:ai|*lfe^^JSaiU.~ 


Ararat,  from  the  Plain  of  Ebivan. 


It  consists  of  two  mountains  —  the  Great  Ararat,  on  the  northwest;  and 
the  Less  Ararat,  on  the  southeast :  their  summits,  in  a  direct  line,  being 
about  seven  miles  apart,  and  their  bases  insensibly  blending  into  each  other 
by  the  interposition  of  a  wide,  level,  upland  valley.  The  summit  of  the 
Great  Ararat  is  seventeen  thousand  three  hundred  and  twenty-three  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  and  fourteen  thousand  three  hundred  and  twenty  feet 
above  the  plain  of  the  Arras.  The  northeastern  slope  of  the  mountain  is 
about  fourteen  miles  in  length,  and  the  southwestern  about  twenty  miles. 
On  the  former,  visible  even  from  Erivan,  thirty-two  miles  distant,  is  a  deep, 
gloomy,  crater-like  chasm.  The  mountain  is  covered  with  perpetual  snow 
and  ice,  for  about  three  miles  from  its  summit  downward,  in  an  oblique 
direction.  On  the  entire  northern  half,  from  about  fourteen  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  it  shoots  up  in  one  rigid  crest  to  its  summit,  and  then 
stretches  downward  on  its  southern  side  to  a  level  not  quite  so  low,  forming 
what  is  called  the  "  Silver  Crest  of  Ararat.''  Little  Ararat  rises  thirteen 
thousand  and  ninety-three  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  ten  thousand  one 
hundred  and  forty  feet  above  the  plain  of  the  Arras  ;  and  is  free  from  snow 
in  September  and  October.  Its  declivities  are  greater  and  steeper  than 
those  of  the  Great  Ararat ;  and  its  almost  conical  form  is  marked  with  sev- 
eral delicate  furrows,  that  radiate  downward  from  its  summit. 

The  top  of  the  Great  Ararat  was  first  reached,  October  9, 1829,  by  Pro- 
fessor Parrot,  who  reports  it  to  be  a  "  gently-vaulted,  nearly-cruciform  sur- 
face, of  about  two  hundred  paces  in  circuit,  which  at  the  margin  sloped  off 
precipitously  on  every  side,  but  particularly  toward  the  southeast  and  north- 
east.    Formed  of  eternal  ice,  without  rock  or  stone  to  interrupt  its  conti- 


292       .  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

nuity,  it  was  the  austere  silvery  head  of  Old  Ararat."  Toward  the  oast, 
this  summit  is  connected,  by  means  of  a  flattish  depression,  with  a  lower 
summit,  distant  four  hundred  yards,  and  in  like  manner  covered  with  ice. 
After  remaining  on  the  summit  three  quarters  of  an  hour,  determining  the 
height,  and  making  various  observations.  Parrot  descended  to  the  monas- 
tery of  St,  James ;  the  third  day  after,  he  left  it.  The  observations  of 
Parrot  have  been  in  every  respect  confirmed  by  another  Russian  traveller, 
named  Abich,  who  reached  the  summit  of  the  Great  Ararat  without  diffi- 
culty, July  29,  1845.  He,  with  six  others,  remained  an  hour  on  the  top, 
without  experiencing  any  inconvenience  from  cold,  so  much  felt  by  Parrot 
and  his  companions. 

All  travellers  attest  the  volcanic  nature  of  the  Ararat  mountains,  as  evi- 
denced by  the  stones  found  on  all  their  slopes,  undoubtedly  the  products 
of  a  crater.  They  are  composed  chiefly  of  trachytic  porphyry,  and  on  them 
pumice  and  various  descriptions  of  lava  have  been  met  with.  Eeineggs 
avers  that  he  saw  the  Great  Ararat  send  forth  smoke  and  flame  for  three 
days  in  1785 ;  but  this  is  believed  to  be  one  of  the  many  romances  which 
that  traveller  has  related.  No  such  occurrence  was  remembered,  in  1843, 
by  individuals  resident  on  the  mountain  at  the  period  indicated,  and  no 
eruption  is  found  recorded  in  the  chronicles  of  the  monastery  of  Echmiad- 
zin, though  they  extend  back  over  a  period  of  eight  hundred  years.  All 
doubt  as  to  the  volcanic  nature  of  the  two  Ararats  was  put  an  end  to  on 
July  2,  1840,  when  an  eruption  took  place  from  the  head  of  the  great 
chasm,  which  destroyed  the  monastery  and  chapel  of  St.  James,  the  village 
of  Arguri,  and  their  inmates.  Dr.  Wagner,  an  enterprising  German  trav- 
eller and  naturalist,  who  visited  the  spot  in  1843,  gives  in  substance  the 
following  account  of  that  event,  as  related  by  Sahatel  Chotschaieff,  brother 
to  Stephen  Aga,  village  elder  of  Arguri,  honorably  mentioned  by  both  Par- 
rot and  Dubois,  and  confirmed  by  other  two  eye-witnesses :  — 

"  On  July  2,  1840,  half  an  hour  before  sunset,  the  atmosphere  clear,  the 
inhabitants  of  Armenia  were  frightened  by  a  thundering  noise,  that  rolled 
loudest  and  most  fearfully  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Great  Ararat.  During  an 
undulating  motion  of  the  earth,  lasting  about  two  seconds,  which  rolled 
from  the  mountain  east  and  southeast,  and  wrouglit  great  destruction  in 
the  districts  of  Sharur  and  Nakhichevan,  a  rent  was  formed  in  the  end 
of  the  great  chasm,  about  three  miles  above  Arguri,  out  of  which  rose  gas 
and  vapor,  hurling  with  immense  force  stones  and  earth  over  the  slope  of 
the  mountain  down  into  the  plain.  The  vapor  rose  very  quickly  higher 
than  the  summit  of  Ararat,  and  seems  to  have  been  wholly  of  aqueous  com- 
position ;  for  in  the  same  night  a  heavy  rain  fell  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mount- 
ain—  an  unusual  occurrence  in  this  country  during  summer.  The  vapor 
at  first  was  of  various  colors,  in  which  blue  and  red  prevailed.  Whether 
flames  burst  forth  could  not  be  ascertained ;  but  the  pillars  of  vapor  or 
smoke  had  a  red  tint,  which,  had  the  eruption  taken  place  during  the  night, 
might  possibly  have  exhibited  flame.     The  blue  and  red  tint  of  the  vapor 


THE   CAUCASIAN   PROVINCES — ARMENIA.  _         293 

soon  became  dark  black,  and  immediately  the  air  was  tilled  with  a  very 
disagreeable  smell  of  sulphur.  While  the  mountain  continued  to  heave, 
and  the  earth  to  shake,  with  the  unremitting  thunder,  along  with  the  sub- 
terranean cracking  and  growling,  might  be  heard  the  whiz,  as  of  bombs, 
caused  by  the  force  with  which  stones  and  large  masses  of  rock,  upward  of 
fifty  tons'  weight,  were  hurled  through  the  air !  Likewise,  the  dash  of  the 
stones  as  they  met  in  the  air  in  their  flight,  could  be  distinguished  from 
the  thundering  noise  issuing  from  the  interior  of  the  mountain.  Where 
these  large  stones  fell,  there  in  general  they  lay  ;  for,  in  consequence  of  the 
gentle  declination  of  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  to  roll  far  was 
impossible.  The  eruption  continued  a  full  liour.  When  the  vapor  had 
cleared  away,  and  the  shower  of  stones  and  mud  had  ceased,  the  rich  vil- 
lage of  Arguri,  and  the  monasteiy  and  chapel  of  St.  James,  were  not  to  be 
seen :  all,  along  with  their  inmates,  were  buried  under  the  mass  of  stones 
and  mud  that  had  been  ejected.  The  earthquake,  which  accompanied  the 
eruption,  destroyed  six  thousand  houses  in  the  neighboring  districts  of 
Nakhichevan,  Sharur,  and  Ardubad.  Four  days  after  a  second  catastrophe 
occurred,  which  spread  still  farther  the  work  of  destruction  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountain.  After  the  rent  in  the  chasm,  whence  issued  the  vapor  and 
stones,  had  closed,  there  remained  in  the  same  place  a  deep  basin  filled 
with  water  by  the  melting  of  the  snow,  by  the  rain,  and  by  a  streamlet 
from  above,  so  as  to  form  a  small  lake.  The  mass  of  stone  and  clay,  which 
formed  a  dam,  and  surrounded  the  lake  like  the  edge  of  a  crater,  was  burst 
by  the  weight  of  water,  and  poured  down  the  declivity  of  the  mountain 
with  irresistible  force  a  stream  of  thick  mud,  which  spread  into  the  plain, 
and  partly  stopped  up  the  bed  and  altered  tlie  course  of  the  small  river 
Karasu.  A  part  of  the  gardens  of  Arguri  that  had  escaped  the  eruption, 
were  destroyed  by  this  stream  of  mud,  which  carried  trees,  rocks,  and  the 
bodies  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  village,  down  into  the  plain,  and  to  the 
bed  of  the  Karasu.  This  stream  of  mud  was  three  times  repeated,  and 
was  accompanied  by  subterranean  noises." 

That  Noah's  ark  rested  on  the  top  of  Mount  Ararat  is  not  to  be  credited. 
The  difficulty  of  the  descent,  and  the  low  temperature  of  the  atmosphere, 
which  must  have  killed  many  of  the  animals,  alike  preclude  the  supposi- 
tion;  and,  moreover,  the  Scriptures  do  not  say  it  rested  on  the  top,  but 
merely  "  on  the  mountains  of  Ararat."  If  this  be  the  mountain  there  re- 
ferred to  —  which  is  somewhat  doubtful,  seeing  that  the  olive  does  not  grow 
near  it — the  ark  must  have  rested  on  one  of  its  lower  slopes.  Nakhiche- 
van, eighty  miles  east  of  Erivan,  claims  the  honor  of  being  the  oldest  city 
of  the  world;  and  tradition  affirms  that  Noah  fixed  his  residence  here  after 
descending  from  Ararat. 

The  name  Ararat  is  said  to  be  derived  from  Arai^  a  king  who  lived  1750 
years  B.  C.  He  fell  in  battle,  in  an  Armenian  plain,  which  was  hence 
called  '■'■Arai-Arat''^  —  the  fall  of  Arai.  Before  him  reigned  Afnassis,  the 
sixth  from  Japhet,  who  called  the  country  Amasia ;  hence  the  name  Massisj 


294  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

or  Macis,  by  which  alone  Armenians  in  the  present  day  know  the  mount- 
ain. By  the  Turks  and  Persians  it  is  called  Ag-ri-dag-h.  The  third  sylla- 
ble, dag-h,  means  mountain;  but  philologists  are  not  agreed  on  the  signifi- 
cation of  Ag-ri. 

Owing  to  the  great  elevation  of  the  country,  the  climate  in  most  parts  is 
rather  severe ;  but  though  the  winters  last  long,  the  summer  heats  are  suf- 
ficient to  bring  all  the  fruits  of  the  earth  to  perfection.  Although  severe, 
the  climate  is,  however,  considered  healthy. 

The  soil  of  Armenia  is  reckoned,  on  the  whole,  productive,  though  in 
many  places  it  would  be  quite  barren  were  it  not  for  the  great  care  taken 
to  irrigate  it ;  to  such  an  extent,  indeed,  is  the  system  of  irrigation  carried 
on,  that  in  summer  many  considerable  streams  are  wholly  absorbed  for  this 
purpose.  Wheat,  barley,  tobacco,  hemp,  grapes,  and  cotton,  are  raised  ; 
and,  in  some  of  the  valleys,  apricots,  peaches,  mulberries,  and  walnuts,  are 
grown.  From  the  nature  of  the  country,  the  rearing  of  stock  is  carried  on 
to  a  greater  extent  than  agriculture.  The  horses  are  spirited,  fleet,  and 
fi^ry.  Pines,  birches,  poplars,  and  beeches  flourish,  but  there  are  no  thick 
forests  except  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  country.  The  flora  is  not  so 
varied  as  might  be  expected  in  such  an  Alpine  region ;  in  several  respects 
it  resembles  the  vegetation  of  the  Alps  of  Tyrol  and  Switzerland. 

The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  of  the  genuine  Armenian  stock ;  but  besides 
them,  in  consequence  of  the  repeated  subjugation  of  the  country,  various 
other  races  have  obtained  a  footing.  Of  these  the  principal  are  the  Turko- 
mans, who  still  maintain  their  nomadic  habits,  and  from  whom  the  country 
has  received  the  name  of  Turkomania.  Of  the  Armenians,  but  about  one 
half  are  in  Armenia.  The  remainder,  like  tlie  Jews,  are  scattered  over 
various  countries ;  and,  being  strongly  addicted  to  commerce,  play  an  im- 
portant part  as  merchants.  They  are  found  all  over  western  Asia ;  about 
two  hundred  thousand  are  in  Constantinople  and  its  vicinity ;  numbers  are 
in  various  parts  of  the  Russia  empire,  Hungary,  and  Italy  ;  some  in  Africa 
and  America ;  and  a  large  number  in  India,  chiefly  in  the  great  marts  of 
Bombay,  Madras,  and  Calcutta.  Everywhere  they  are  engaged  in  banking 
and  trading.  In  physical  structure,  they  belong  to  the  Caucasian  race, 
and,  in  general,  are  well  made.  Their  eyes  and  hair  are  black,  their  look 
lively,  noses  aquiline,  and  their  complexion  somewhat  swarthy.  The  women 
are  remarkable  for  the  delicacy  and  regularity  of  their  features.  Like  the 
Jews,  whom  in  many  respects  they  resemble,  their  ruling  passion  appears 
to  be  an  inordinate  love  of  gain,  but  they  are  generally  esteemed  honest. 
Their  mental  capacity  is  good,  and  those  who  are  educated  are  distin- 
guished by  superior  cultivation  and  refined  manners  ;  but  the  mass  of  the 
people  inhabiting  their  native  country,  in  consequence  of  centuries  of  neg- 
lect, are  grossly  ignorant  and  superstitious. 

The  Armenians  embraced  Christianity  in  the  fourth  century ;  and,  in 
A.  D.  536,  separated  from  the  Greek  church,  being  dissatisfied  with  the 
decisions  of  the  council  of  Chalcedon.     In  doctrine,  they  hold  that  there 


THE   CAUCASIAN  PROVINCES  —  ARMENIA. 


295 


is  only  one  nature  in  Christ,  and  that  the  Holy  Spirit  proceeded  from  tlie 
Father  alone.  They  have  seven  sacraments,  but,  in  the  mode  of  using 
them,  diflFer  in  several  respects  from  the  Roman  catholics.  They  adore 
saints  and  images,  but  do  not  believe  in  purgatory.  Their  hierarchy  differs 
little  from  that  of  the  Greeks.  The  catholicus,  patriarch,  or  head  of  the 
church,  has  his  seat  at  Echmiadzin,  a  monastery  near  Erivan.  A  minority 
of  the  Armenians,  chiefly  those  residing  in  European  countries,  acknowl- 
edge the  pope,  and  conform,  in  doctrine  and  church-government,  to  the 
Roman  catholic  church.     They  are  called  United  Armenians. 


Patriarchal  Church  and  Monastery  of  Echmiadzin. 

The  monastery  of  Echmiadzin,  the  seat  of  the  catholicus,  or  head  of  the 
Armenian  church,  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Arras,  thirteen  miles  east  of  Eri- 
van, near  the  village  of  Vagarhabad,  which  is  also  frequently  though  im- 
properly called  Echmiadzin.  The  monastery  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  thirty 
feet  high,  entered  by  four  gates,  and  flanked  by  towers,  which,  as  well  as 
the  walls,  are  built  of  brick,  excepting  the  base,  and  furnished  with  loop- 
holes, giving  to  the  whole  structure  the  appearance  of  a  large  quadrangular 
fortress.  The  monastery  was  founded  in  A.  D.  524 ;  but  the  church  it 
contains  dates  from  the  time  of  St.  Gregory  "  the  Enlightener,"  who  intro- 
duced Christianity  into  Armenia,  though  various  additions  have  been  made 
to  it  in  later  times.  The  monks  have  here  a  printing-press  and  a  seminary  : 
but  little  good  is  to  be  expected  from  their  labors,  as  they  are  unlearned, 
ignorant,  and  superstitious. 

The  Armenian  language  belongs  to  the  most  distant  ofFshoots  of  the 
Indo-Germanic  root ;  but  still,  in  its  form  and  structure,  has  much  that  it 
is  peculiar,  and  to  the  ear  it  is  harsh  and  dissonant.  The  old  Armenian 
language,  also  called  Haican,  which  is  that  of  literature,  may  now  be  con- 
sidered a  dead  language.  In  the  new  Armenian  language,  which  is  divided 
into  four  dialects  not  differing  greatly  from  each  other,  there  are  many 
Turkish  words,  and  the  construction  of  sentences  is  regulated  by  the  rules 
of  Turkish  syntax.  With  the  exception  of  some  songs  collected  by  Arch- 
bishop Moses  Choronensis,  no  specimens  of  the  earlier  Armenian  literature 


296  ILLUSTRATED  DESCRIPTION  OP  RUSSIA. 

have  been  preserved.  After  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  a  great  taste 
for  the  Greek  language  and  literature  arose,  and  a  number  of  works  in 
Greek  and  Syriac  were  translated  into  Armenian.  Before  A.  D.  406,  the 
Armenians  had  no  alphabet  of  their  own,  but  used  indifferently  Greek, 
Syriac,  or  Persian  characters.  In  that  year,  however,  Mesrop  Masdoty 
invented  the  Haican  alphabet,  consisting  of  thirty-eight  letters  (thirty  con- 
sonants and  eight  vowels),  called,  from  its  inventor,  Mesropian,  and  which 
still  continues  to  be  employed  along  with  the  modern  alphabet. 

Armenian  literature  flourished  from  the  fourth  to  the  fourteenth  century. 
Of  this  period,  many  writers  have  obtained  a  name  chiefly  as  historians  and 
clironiclers.  Their  works,  which  might  throw  considerable  light  on  the 
history  of  the  East  during  the  middle  ages,  have  hitherto  been  little  con 
suited.  Armenian  literature  began  to  sink  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and 
since  that  period  scarcely  any  original  work  of  importance  has  appeared ; 
but,  in  all  their  wanderings,  the  Armenians  have  preserved  a  taste  for 
native  literature,  and  liave  set  up  printing-presses  wherever  they  have  set- 
tled :  so  that  we  find  Armenian  works  printed  in  Amsterdam,  Venice, 
Leghorn,  Lemberg,  Moscow,  Astrakhan,  Constantinople,  Smyrna,  Echmi- 
adzin, Ispahan,  Madras,  Calcutta,  Batavia,  &g.  The  most  interesting  col- 
ony is  that  on  the  island  of  San  Lazaro  at  Venice,  founded  by  the  abbot 
Mechitar  Pedrosian  in  1717,  who  there  established  a  monastery,  academy, 
and  printing-press,  whence  important  Armenian  works  have  continued  to 
be  issued  down  to  the  present  time. 

According  to  the  native  historians,  the  name  Armenia  is  derived  from 
Aram,  the  seventh  king  of  the  first  dynasty,  who  about  B.  C.  1800,  gave  a 
settled  character  to  the  kingdom.  The  Armenians  call  themselves  Haics, 
or  Haicans,  and  trace  their  origin,  in  their  traditions,  to  Haic  or  Haico, 
the  father  and  patriarch  of  the  people,  a  contemporary  of  the  Assyrian 
king  Belus.  Armenia  subsequently  fell  into  the  hands  of  different  rulers, 
and  was  exposed  to  many  attacks.  The  Romans  and  Parthians  had  many 
fierce  conflicts  for  its  possession,  in  one  of  which  the  consul  Crassus  was 
defeated  ;  but  at  last,  under  the  emperor  Trajan,  Armenia  Major  became  a 
Roman  province.  It  afterward  recovered  its  independence,  and  was  under 
the  rule  of  its  own  kings.  Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  attempted  its  subjuga- 
tion in  vain,  and  it  remained  free  until  650,  when  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Arabians.  After  this,  it  several  times  changed  its  masters.  In  the  thir- 
teenth century,  it  was  overrun  by  the  Moguls  under  Zinghis  Khan.  In 
1552,  the  Turkish  sultan  Selim  II.  conquered  it  from  the  Persians. 

In  1604,  Shah  Abbas,  emperor  of  Persia,  in  order  to  protect  liis  domin- 
ions on  the  side  of  Armenia  against  the  Turks,  resolved  to  carry  off  the 
inhabitants,  and  to  lay  waste  a  large  portion  of  the  country,  so  that  it 
might  no  longer  be  able  to  support  an  army !  This  monstrous  resolution 
was  executed  with  the  most  revolting  barbarity.  The  inhabitants,  driven 
off  like  cattle,  perished  by  thousands,  while  their  houses  were  burnt  down, 
and  every  vestige  of  civilization  obliterated.     A  part  of  the  survivors  were 


THE   CAUCASIAN   PROVINCES  —  ARMENIA.  297 

settled  in  tlie  suburbs  of  Ispahan,  the  old  Persian  capital,  where  they  were 
kindly  treated  ;  but  the  greater  number,  being  located  in  an  unhealthy  part 
of  the  province  of  Mazunderan,  were  soon  swept  off  by  disease. 

Until  recently,  Armenia  was  divided  between  Turkey  and  Persia ;  but 
the  former  ceded  to  Russia,  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople,  in  1829,  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  her  Armenian  territories ;  and  Russia  had  previously 
(in  1827)  acquired  the  entire  province  of  Erivan  from  Persia.  These  ac- 
quisitions have  been  consolidated  into  the  government  of  Armenia. 

Erivan,  or  Irwan,  the  capital  of  Russian  Armenia,  is  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Zengue,  or  San^a,  a  considerable  river  that  flows  from  the  lake 
Gukcha,  or  Sivan,  to  the  Arras,  thirty-three  miles  north-northeast  from  the 
foot  of  Mount  Ararat,  on  the  border  of  the  great  plain  of  the  Arras,  and 
one  hundred  and  six  miles  southwest  of  Teflis.  The  site  of  the  town  is 
three  thousand  three  hundred  feet  above  the  sea-level.  It  stands  partly 
on  a  hill,  and  partly  on  the  margin  of  the  stream,  which  is  here  crossed  by 
a  handsome  stone  bridge  of  several  arches,  and  is  very  unhealthy  during 
the  summer  heats.  It  contains  about  two  thousand  houses,  interspersed 
with  numerous  gardens,  and  ruins  of  various  dates,  the  whole  fortified  and 
protected  by  a  citadel  placed  on  a  steep  rock,  more  than  six  hundred  feet 
in  height,  overhanging  the  river.  This  fortress,  which  is  about  two  thou- 
sand yards  in  circumference,  is  encompassed  by  a  double  rampart  of  earth, 
flanked  with  towers :  it  contains  the  ancient  palace  of  the  khans,  called 
Sardar,  now  the  residence  of  the  governor ;  a  fine  mosque,  a  cannon-foun- 
dry, barracks,  &c.  The  town  is  irregularly  built,  with  narrow  and  dirty 
streets  ;  and  the  houses,  which  are  built  of  boulders,  and  mortar  made  of 
clay  and  straw,  give  it  a  moan  appearance.  It  has,  however,  a  handsome 
bazar,  with  nearly  eight  hundred  shops,  besides  several  caravansaries,  five 
Armenian  churches,  one  Russo-Greek  church,  an  Armenian  convent,  five 
mosques,  some  aqueducts  of  a  curious  construction,  &g.  An  old  tower, 
described  by  Chardin,  has  since  been  pulled  down,  and  its  materials  used 
for  building.  The  town  has  some  manufactures  of  cotton-stufl's,  leather, 
and  earthenware ;  and,  being  on  the  caravan  route  between  Persia  and 
Russia,  it  has  a  considerable  transit-trade.  Its  population  is  about  twelve 
thousand,  wiio  are  principally  Armenians. 

The  epoch  of  the  foundation  of  Erivan  is  unknown.  It  was  taken  by 
the  Persians  in  1635.  The  latter  retook  it  in  1724  ;  but  it  was  again  cap- 
tured by  the  Persians,  under  Nadir  Shah  (commonly  called  Nadir  Kouli 
Khan),  in  1748.  The  Russians  were  repulsed  in  an  attempt  to  take  it  in 
1808 ;  but  they  succeeded  in  1827,  and  were  confirmed  in  its  possession 
by  the  ensuing  treaty  with  Persia. 

Akhalzik,  Akalzik,  or  Akiska,  is  situated  in  a  district  of  the  same  name, 
one  hundred  and  ten  miles  west  of  Teflis,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Dalka,  ten 
miles  from  its  junction  with  the  Kour.  It  is  without  walls,  but  defended 
by  a  strong  citadel,  built  on  a  rock,  which,  when  it  belonged  to  Turkey, 
baffled  all  the  attempts  of  the  Russians  to  reduce  it.     Akhalzik  is  the  seat 


298  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

of  a  Greek  archbishop,  and  contains  two  churches,  a  synagogue,  and  sev- 
eral mosques  —  one  of  which,  that  of  Sultan  Ahmed,  is  built  on  the  model 
of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  and  has  a  college  and  library  attached  to 
it.  The  latter  was  accounted  one  of  the  most  curious  in  the  East ;  but  the 
Russians  have  removed  about  three  hundred  of  the  most  valuable  works  to 
St.  Petersburg.  The  neighborhood  produces  silk,  honey,  and  wax,  with 
excellent  fruits,  raisins,  peaches,  apricots,  and  figs.  Some  manufactures 
are  carried  on,  and  the  inhabitants  prosecute  an  active  trade  with  various 
places  on  the  Black  sea.  Formerly  a  large  slave-market  was  held  here, 
which  the  Russians  suppressed  when  they  acquired  possession  of  the  town. 
In  the  vicinity  are  some  alkaline  springs.  The  population,  which  includes 
Armenians,  Georgians,  Turks,  Russians,  and  Jews,  is  about  fifteen  thousand. 
The  former  Turkish  pachalic  of  Ahkalzik,  or  Tcheldir,  as  named  by  the 
Turks,  forms  now  a  political  and  administrative  subdivision  of  Russian  Ar- 
menia. It  is  a  mountainous  country,  watered  by  the  Kour ;  the  climate  is 
healthy,  though  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  very  great.  The  soil  is 
fertile,  producing  maize,  barley,  tobacco,  flax,  and  cotton,  with  excellent 
fruits.  Game  is  abundant.  Large  numbers  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  raised, 
and  much  attention  is  paid  to  bees  and  silkworms.  The  population  consists 
chiefly  of  Georgians,  Turks,  Armenians,  and  Jews. 

Imeritia,  Mingrelia,  and  Guria,  the  three  most  western  Trans-Cauca- 
sian provinces,  occupy  the  whole  basin  of  the  Rioni,  enclosed  on  three 
sides  by  mountains,  and  open  only  toward  the  Black  sea. 

The  province  of  Imeritia,  or  Imerethi,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  tlie 
Caucasus,  east  by  Georgia,  south  by  Armenia  and  Guria,  and  west  by  the 
Black  sea  and  Mingrelia.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  is  ninety 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  about  seventy-five.  It  contains  about  four 
thousand  eight  hundred  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  the  country  has  a  general  slope  westward  to  the  Black 
sea,  but  is  mostly  very  uneven  and  rugged,  being  traversed  by  ramifications 
of  the  Caucasus.  The  only  streams  are  the  Rioni  and  its  tributaries.  The 
climate  is  excellent,  and  the  soil  generally  fertile.  All  the  higher  mountain- 
slopes  are  covered  with  magnificent  forests ;  many  of  the  loftier  valleys 
afford  luxuriant  pasture ;  and  in  the  lower  grounds,  notwithstanding  the 
indolence  and  unskilful  management  of  the  inhabitants,  heavy  crops  of 
wheat,  barley,  maize,  tobacco,  hemp,  and  madder,  are  raised.  Fruit-trees 
grow  spontaneously;  and  chestnuts,  walnuts,  apricots,  cherries,  &c,,  are 
found  in  abundance  in  every  quarter.  The  vine  also  is  said  to  grow  spon- 
taneously, and  is  often  found  entwining  itself  with  the  trees  of  the  forest. 
Domestic  animals  are  not  numerous,  but  game  is  very  abundant. 

Considerable  attention  is  paid  to  the  rearing  of  bees  and  silkworms. 
There  are  no  manufactures  deserving  of  the  name ;  and  the  trade,  almost 
wholly  in  the  hands  of  Armenians,  Greeks,  aid  Jews,  consists  chiefly  in 
exports  of  the  raw  produce  of  the  country — particularly  wine,  grain,  silk, 


THE   CAUCASIAN   PROVINCES  —  IMERITIA — MINGRELIA. 


299 


wax,  skins,  wool,  and  fruit ;  and  imports  of  woollen,  linen,  and  silk  goods, 
copper  and  iron  ware,  cutlery,  salt,  and  colonial  produce.  The  trade  iii 
slaves  —  males  for  the  army,  and  females  for  the  harems  of  the  Turks  — 
was  once  the  most  important  in  all,  but  has  been  put  down  by  the  Russians 
since  they  acquired  the  control  of  the  country. 

Imeritia,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Geor- 
gia. It  afterward  became  independent,  and  was  governed  by  its  own  prin- 
ces :  one  of  whom,  in  1804,  voluntarily  made  it  over  to  Russia. 


Imeritian  Princk. 


MiNGRELIAN   PrINCE. 


The  pi  evince  of  Mingrelia  (the  ancient  Colchis,  and  the  scene  of  the 
fable  of  the  Golden  Fleece  and  the  Argonautic  expedition)  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Caucasus,  on  the  east  by  Imeritia,  on  the  south  by 
Guria,  on  the  southwest  by  the  Black  sea,  and  on  tlie  northwest  by  Abas- 
sia.     Its  area  is  about  seven  thousand  two  hundred  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  this  province  is  generally  mountainous,  but  slopes  gradu- 
ally to  the  south,  particularly  toward  the  Rioni,  its  principal  stream.  The 
mountains  are  generally  covered  with  magnificent  forests ;  and  both  the 
lower  slopes  and  valleys  are  fertile,  yielding  good  crops  of  millet  and 
abundance  of  excellent  fruit.     A  good  deal  of  silk  and  honey  are  likewise 


800  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

produced.     Mingrelia  became  a  vassalage  of  Russia  in  1803,  but  is  gov- 
erned by  its  own  prince,  who  takes  the  name  of  dadian. 

The  province  of  Guria,  or  Guriel,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Imeritia 
and  Mingrelia,  on  the  east  by  the  district  of  Akhalzik  in  Russian  Armenia, 
on  the  south  by  the  pachalic  of  Trebizond  in  Turkey,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  Black  sea.     It  contains  fifteen  hundred  square  miles. 

The  country  is  chiefly  forest ;  the  soil  is  very  fertile.  The  inhabitants 
are  principally  Georgians,  with  a  few  Armenians.  Guria,  the  same  as 
Mingrelia,  is  governed  by  a  native  prince,  who  acknowledges  the  czar's 
supremacy.  Ignorance  and  vice  are  very  prevalent,  and  even  few  of  the 
nobles  can  understand  their  oWn  language.  The  general  condition  of  the 
people,  however,  is  said  to  have  been  greatly  improved  through  their  con- 
nection with  Russia.  The  noble  can  no  longer  deprive  his  servant  of  life, 
or  sell  him  to  a  foreign  master,  as  formerly. 

Koutais,  Kotais,  or  Khouthaissi  (the  ancient  Cotatis'),  the  capital  of  the 
western  Trans-Caucasian  provinces,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rioni,  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  west-northwest  of  Teflis.  It 
is  embosomed  in  fruitful  gardens  ;  has  in  its  centre  a  market-place,  in  the 
form  of  a  large  amphitheatre,  where  the  inhabitants  lounge  away  much  of 
their  time  ;  and  six  churches,  a  seminary  with  one  hundred  pupils,  and  a 
public  garden  tastefully  laid  out.  It  is  the  residence  of  a  governor  and  a 
bishop.  The  inhabitants,  consisting,  besides  Imeritians,  of  a  great  number 
of  Armenians  and  Jews,  are  chiefly  employed  in  vine  and  garden  culture. 
The  population  is  about  three  thousand. 

The  old  town  of  Cotatis,  or  Cotaisis,  the  capital  of  ancient  Imeritia,  is 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rioni,  to  the  westward  of  the  modern 
town,  and  is  reached  by  a  stone  bridge  over  the  river.  It  is  little  more 
than  a  heap  of  ruins,  among  which,  however,  lie  broken  columns,  and  capi- 
tals covered  with  inscriptions. 

The  province  of  Abassia,  Abkasia,  or  Abkhazia,is  bounded  north  and 
west  by  the  Caucasian  range,  which  separates  it  from  Circassia ;  east  by 
Mingrelia  ;  and  south  by  tlie  Black  sea.  It  is  about  two  hundred  and  sixty 
miles  long,  by  less  than  thirty  in  breadth. 

This  country  is  composed  wholly  of  the  southern  side  of  the  Caucasus 
mountains — some  of  whose  snow-covered  peaks  are  here  from  twelve  to 
thirteen  thousand  feet  high  —  and  of  the  low  plains  intervening  between 
these  mountains  and  the  sea.  The  prevailing  geological  formations  are 
greenstone,  porphyry,  black  slate,  and  Jura  limestone. 

Immense  forests  of  the  finest  trees  (oak,  alder,  chestnut,  &c.)  clothe  the 
mountain-sides,  stretching  down  to  the  plains,  whose  Italian  climate,  ripen- 
ing maize,  figs,  pomegranates,  the  fruits  of  central  Europe,  grain,  and  ex- 
cellent grapes,  invites  to  profitable  cultivation  ;  but  the  country  is  a  waste, 
its  numerous  ruins  alone  proclaiming  its  former  flourishing  condition.     Nor 


THE   CAUCASIAN   PROVINCES  —  ABASSIA  —  CIRCASSIA.  301 

do  the  Abasslans  excel  in  cattle-rearing  or  commerce  —  a  little  of  the  lat- 
ter, in  felt  mantles,  fox  and  polecat  skins,  honey,  wax,  and  boxwood,  being 
carried  on  —  any  more  than  in  agriculture.  On  the  contrary,  with  such 
indiiference  are  these  branches  of  industry  pursued,  that  by  their  means 
they  do  not  obtain  a  sufficient  subsistence ;  which,  therefore,  they  eke  out 
in  the  manner  most  congenial  to  their  tastes,  by  plunder  and  robbery  — 
occupations  which,  in  them,  have  become  a  second  nature.  They  were 
formerly  well  known  as  pirates  on  the  Black  sea,  and  many  of  them  prose- 
cuted their  fortunes  in  Egypt,  Avhere  they  rose  by  their  bravery  to  eminent 
military  rank  among  the  Mamelukes.  The  slave-trade  with  Turkey  for- 
merly constituted  one  of  the  chief  employments,  and  tended  greatly  to 
reduce  the  population.  Notwithstanding  the  watchfulness  of  the  Russians, 
slaves  are  still  secretly  exported.  The  women  are  beautiful,  and  are  much 
sought  after  in  Turkey. 

The  Abassians  belong  to  the  Circassian  race,  and  distinguish  among 
themselves  five  tribes  —  Abassians  (or  Ahkases)  proper,  Bsubbes,  Tsche- 
beldies,  Aschawes,  and  Imuozahanes.  Abassia,  under  the  Byzantine  em- 
perors, formed  an  independent  state,  separate  from  Georgia.  In  the  elev- 
enth century,  by  heirship,  it  fell  to  the  kings  of  Georgia,  under  whom  it 
decayed  ;  and  in  1457  it  fell  under  the  supremacy  of  the  Turks.  In  1771, 
the  Abassians  asserted  their  independence ;  and,  after  various  fortunes, 
about  1823,  the  reigning  prince,  Michael  Bey,  called  on  the  Russians  to 
occupy  the  country,  which  they  did,  by  stationing  troops  at  Anapa,  Souk- 
goum-Kaleh,  Tambor,  Pitzunda,  Gagra,  and  other  towns.  Anapa,  situated 
on  the  Black  sea,  was  formerly  the  chief  emporium  of  the  Turkisli  trade 
with  the  Circassian  tribes,  and  from  it  the  Georgian  and  Circassian  slave- 
girls  were  supplied.  The  fort  was  constructed  by  the  Turks  in  1784,  when 
the  Russians  took  possession  of  the  Crimea  and  the  island  of  Saman.  In 
1791,  the  Russians  carried  it  by  storm.  It  was  afterward  restored  to  the 
Turks,  who  strengthened  the  fortifications.  By  a  subsequent  treaty  the 
Russians  again  acquired  possession.  Its  trade  is  chiefly  in  hides,  tallow, 
wax,  honey,  &c.     The  population  is  about  three  thousand. 

CiRCASSiA  (Russian  Tcherkeskaia  Zemlia),  the  largest  and  most  impor- 
tant country  in  the  Caucasus,  occupies  nearly  the  whole  northern  slope  of 
that  range  of  mountains.  It  lies  between  the  forty-second  and  forty-sixth 
degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  thirty-seventh  and  forty-fourth  degrees 
of  east  longitude.  At  its  northwest  corner  it  reaches  the  Black  sea,  but, 
with  tliis  exception,  it  is  bounded  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  main  ridge 
of  the  mountains  which  divide  it  from  the  Trans-Caucasian  provinces.  The 
northern  limit  is  formed  by  the  rivers  Kouban  and  Terek,  which  separate 
it  from  the  government  of  the  Caucasus.  Toward  the  east  it  terminates  at 
the  junction  of  the  little  river  Sunsha  with  the  Terek,  at  which  point  a  host 
of  small  streams  divide  it  from  the  country  of  the  Lesghians.  In  extreme 
length,  from  northwest  to  southeast,  Circassia  is  about  four  hundred  and 


302  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

seventy  miles  ;  in  its  greatest  width,  about  one  hundred  miles  ;  in  its  least, 
about  forty  miles  ;  and,  at  an  average,  seventy  miles.  It  contains  thirty- 
two  thousand  square  miles. 

The  physical  features  of  Circassia  have  been  generally  described  in  the 
notice  of  the  Caucasian  range  on  a  previous  page,  and  what  is  peculiar  to 
Circassia  is  only  the  consequence  of  that  country's  occupying  the  northern 
slope  of  the  mountains.  With  the  exception  of  the  lowlands  on  the  banks 
of  the  Kouban  and  Terek,  the  whole  territory  is  broken  into  precipitous 
mountains,  small  table-lands,  and  valleys  of  the  most  picturesque  and  ro- 
mantic description.  Its  hydrography  belongs  to  two  systems,  the  waters 
of  Kabardah  (the  eastern  section)  being  all  conveyed  by  the  Terek  to  the 
Caspian,  and  those  of  western  Circassia  by  the  Kouban  to  the  Black  sea. 
The  former  river  rises  near  the  Kazbek,  and,  forcing  its  way  through  the 
jtass  of  Dariel  (the  ancient  "  Caucasian  Gate^'^,  receives,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, thirty-five  streams  before  it  quits  the  Circassian  country.  Of  these, 
the  Malk,  which  joins  it  at  its  eastern  bend,  is  scarcely  inferior  in  size  to 
the  principal  river.  It  rises  near  the  eastern  bases  of  the  Elbrouz,  and  is 
itself  the  recipient  of  a  considerable  number  of  tributaries.  The  Kouban 
rises  on  the  northern  base  of  the  Elbrouz,  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the 
Malk,  and  receives  the  water  of  more  than  fifty  rivers,  thirty  of  which  fall 
directly  into  its  bed.  It  has  every  reason  to  be  considered  exclusively  a 
Circassian  river ;  for,  though  no  part  of  its  nortliern  bank  be  inhabited  b}* 
Circassians,  it  does  not  receive  a  single  tributary,  in  its  whole  course, 
that  does  not  rise  within  their  territory.  A  similar  remark  will  apply,  in 
a  modified  sense,  to  the  Terek,  which,  like  the  Kouban,  does  not  receive  a 
single  stream  from  the  north,  and  only  one  of  consequence  after  entering 
the  Tartar  country  east  of  Little  Kabardah.  The  country  between  the 
sources  of  the  Malk  and  Kouban  is  watered  by  various  streams  ;  and  when 
it  is  recollected  that,  in  addition  to  these,  innumerable  torrents  pour  from 
the  upper  ranges  of  the  mountains,  it  will  be  evident  that  no  land  can  be 
better  irrigated.  The  water  is  in  general  clear  and  good,  but  occasionally 
impregnated  with  mineral  and  other  extraneous  matters.  The  tributary 
streams  become  flooded  in  winter,  and  extremely  shallow  during  the  heats 
of  summer ;  the  currents  of  all  are  extremely  rapid,  as  are  those  also  of 
the  Terek  and  Kouban,  except  where  the  latter  forms  morasses,  which  it 
does  in  some  parts  of  the  flat  country,  when  its  course  becomes  sluggish, 
and  its  water  thick  and  muddy. 

The  climate,  soil,  and  natural  productions  of  Circassia,  are  also  the  same 
with  those  of  the  Caucasus  generally  ;  but  the  temperature  is  rather  lower 
than  on  the  southern  slopes,  except  on  the  banks  of  the  Kouban,  where  the 
greater  depression  more  than  compensates  for  the  difference  of  aspect,  and 
where  the  extensive  marshes  and  the  exuberant  vegetation  create  miasma, 
which  render  it  more  pestilential  than  any  other  district  in  the  whole  region. 
There  is  a  greater  proportion  of  bare  rock  in  Circassia  than  in  Georgia 
and  the  other  countries  south  of  the  main  ridge ;  but  on  every  shelf,  and 


THE   CAUCASIAN  PROVINCES  —  CIRCASSIA.  303 

in  every  rift,  trees,  grain,  vegetables,  and  fruit  of  almost  every  kind,  arc 
produced  from  most  fertile  soil. 

The  animals,  also,  are  on  the  same  seale  of  abundance  and  variety, 
whether  the  wild  or  domesticated  tribes  be  considered — the  quadrupeds, 
birds,  fishes,  insects,  or  reptiles.  The  Circassian  horses  are  nearly  as  fa- 
mous, and  quite  as  good,  as  those  of  Arabia.  Cattle  of  all  kinds  are  abun- 
dant in  the  extreme ;  and,  in  addition  to  the  herds  forming  the  numerous 
stocks  of  the  pastoral  population,  the  aurochs  and  argali  (wild  ox  and 
sheep)  still  wander  among  the  mountains,  with  the  ibex  and  another  beau- 
tiful variety  of  the  goat.  Game  of  all  kinds,  winged,  hoofed,  or  clawed, 
are  found  in  equal  abundance,  but  differing  in  kind,  in  the  mountains  and 
plains  ;  nor  are  beasts  of  prey,  as  jackals,  wolves,  bears,  lynxes,  and  tiger- 
cats,  &c.,  much  less  numerous,  though  they  seem  to  be  but  little  regarded 
by  the  natives.  Wild-boars  are  found,  especially  among  the  swamps  of  the 
Kouban,  and  it  is  affirmed  that  the  tiger  is  not  wholly  unknown.  The  rep- 
tile and  insect  tribes  are  equally  numerous.  In  one  of  the  campaigns  of 
the  Russians,  besides  the  thousands  who  fell  victims  to  the  bad  air,  it  is 
stated  by  Spencer  that  numbers  died//"owi  the  mortified  bites  of  mosdietoes. 

Both  natives  and  Russians  believe  that  the  mountains  abound  in  gold 
and  silver,  but  apparently  on  no  good  grounds.  Iron,  however,  lead,  and 
copper,  are  found  ;  and  saltpetre  is  very  abundant.  Salt  is  nowhere  found 
within  the  limits  of  Circassia ;  and  since  Russia  has  excluded  the  natives 
from  the  brine-pits  in  the  Caucasian  steppe,  and  sealed  their  ports  against 
tlie  trade  of  Turkey  and  Persia,  they  have  been  almost  totally  deprived  of 
that  necessary. 

The  Circassians  are  divided  into  five  classes.  1.  Pschi,  or  pschech 
(princes).  2.  ?7orA;  (ancient  nobles).  3.  The  freedmen  of  these  princes 
and  ancient  nobles,  who,  by  their  manumission,  become  themselves  noble, 
and  are  called  uork  of  uork.  4.  The  freedmen  of  these  new  nobles,  called 
begualia.  5.  The  vassals,  or  tcho'kotl.  Between  the  ancient  and  recent 
nobility  there  is  no  real  distinction,  except  that,  in  military  service,  the 
latter  are  still  under  the  command  of  their  former  masters ;  nor  is  there 
any  great  practical  difference  between  the  begualia  and  the  tcho'kotl  or 
vassals.  The  latter  are,  of  course,  the  laborers,  and  are  subdivided  into 
such  as  are  engaged  in  agriculture  and  such  as  serve  the  superior  classes 
in  the  capacity  of  menial  servants.  Of  the  former,  many  are  wealthy,  nor 
is  the  state  of  any,  one  of  great  degradation,  since  there  are  very  few  if 
any  offices  of  labor  which  prince  or  noble  would  consider  derogatory  to 
himself.  To  every  princely  house  belongs  a  certain  number  of  uork,  or 
usden,  as  they  are  called  by  the  Russians ;  and  the  latter  are  the  direct 
proprietors  of  the  vassals.  Of  these  last,  tliough  all  are  unquestionably 
slaves,  those  engaged  in  agriculture  can  not  be  sold  singly ;  and  the  sale 
of  any  is  so  rare  as  almost  to  be  prohibited  by  custom.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  appears  the  vassal  may  transfer  his  duty  to  another  usdan;  which  is,  of 
course,  a  great  protection  from  ill  usage.     The  vassals  pay  no  money-tax, 


304  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

and  though  they  are  compelled  to  supply  their  lord  with  all  he  wants,  yet 
this,  from  the  check  upon  the  noble's  power  just  alluded  to,  extends  no 
further,  usually,  than  to  bare  necessaries ;  since,  should  the  latter  carry 
his  demands  too  far,  he  runs  the  risk  of  losing  his  vassal  altogether.  The 
relation  between  prince  and  usdan  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  between 
usdan  and  vassal :  the  noble  must  supply  the  necessities  of  his  sovereign ; 
but  should  the  exactions  of  the  latter  become  excessive,  the  former  may 
transfer  liis  allegiance  to  another  prince.  The  usden  must  pay  the  debts 
of  their  prince,  and  the  vassals  those  of  their  usden;  and  in  each  case  the 
inferior  must  make  good  all  losses  sustained  by  his  superior,  whether  from 
robbery  or  accident :  by  which  arrangement  it  is  evident  that  all  losses  or 
expenses  are  defrayed,  ultimately,  by  the  vassal.  The  head  of  the  princely 
house  is  the  leader  in  war ;  and  his  usden  are  bound  to  attend  him  with  all 
their  retainers,  or  as  many  as  may  be  required. 

There  is  no  people,  not  even  the  Arabs,  among  whom  pride  of  birth  is 
carried  to  a  greater  height  than  among  the  Circassians,  especially  those  of 
Kabardah.  In  this  district,  if  an  usdan  were  to  marry  or  seduce  a  prin- 
cess, he  would  forfeit  his  life  without  mercy ;  and  the  same  result  would 
attend  the  attempt  of  a  begualia  or  vassal  to  ally  himself  to  a  noble  house. 
An  Abassian  prince  is,  in  this  respect,  considered  equal  only  to  a  Circas- 
sian usdan,  and  can  obtain  a  Circassian  wife  only  from  that  class.  The 
rigorous  enforcement  of  this  custom  has  preserved  the  different  ranks  very 
distinct,  tliough  Pallas  has  observed,  even  in  the  Kabardahs,  some  traces 
which  indicate  a  descent  from  Tartar  mothers.  It  must  be  observed,  how- 
ever, that  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  restriction  upon  a  man's  taking 
a  wife  or  a  concubine  from  an  inferior  class  ;  and  the  issue  of  such  connec- 
tions take  rank  from  the  father,  but  are  not  accounted  equal  to  the  de- 
scendants of  a  pure  stock  from  both  parents.  Thus,  there  are  princes  of 
the  first,  second,  and  third  class,  &c.,  according  to  the  greater  or  less 
degree  of  inferior  blood  which  they  inherit  from  their  maternal  ancestors. 
This  state  of  society,  closely  resembling  the  feudal  institutions  of  the  Gotliic 
ages,  seems  to  imply  the  division  of  the  Circassians  into  two  distinct  peo- 
ple, a  conquering  and  a  conquered  race ;  but  when  or  how  the  present 
relations  were  established,  is  involved  in  impenetrable  obscurity. 

The  whole  of  the  Circassian  and  Abchasian  tribes  live  in  small  villages 
scattered  here  and  there,  without  the  slightest  approach  to  anything  resem- 
bling a  city  or  walled  town ;  indeed,  the  prince  or  noble  has  an  unconquer- 
able aversion  to  any  castle  or  place  of  artificial  strength,  which  he  regards 
as  only  fitted  to  restrain  his  state  of  wild  freedom.  He  lives,  therefore,  in 
the  centre  of  his  village,  which  usually  consists  of  forty  or  fifty  houses,  or 
rather  huts,  formed  of  plaited  osiers,  plastered  within  and  without,  covered 
with  straw  or  grass,  and  arranged  in  a  circle,  within  the  area  of  which  the 
cattle  are  secured  at  night.  These  primitive  dwellings,  which  strongly 
resemble,  in  form  and  appearance,  the  humbler  residences  in  Arabian 
towns,  have,  however,  the  peculiar  recommendation  of  being  unexception- 


THE   CAUCASIAN   PROVINCES  —  CIRCASSIA.  305 

ablj  clean,  which  is  also  the  case  with  the  persons,  dress,  and  cookery,  of 
the  inmates.  From  the  slender  nature  of  the  buildings,  they  are  evidently 
not  formed  for  long  endurance,  and  a  Circassian  village  is,  in  fact,  by  no 
means  a  fixture.  The  accumulation  of  dirt  in  their  neighborhood,  the  inse- 
curity of  the  position,  and  frequently  even  the  caprice  of  the  inhabitants, 
cause  them  to  be  from  time  to  time  abandoned.  On  such  occasions  the 
dwellings  are  destroyed,  the  household  utensils  packed  up,  and  the  whole 
colony  migrate  in  search  of  a  new  abode.  While  stationary,  however, 
there  is  much  comfort  in  a  Circassian's  hovel,  for  those  who  can  dispense 
with  superfluities ;  but,  as  may  be  supposed,  their  domestic  arrangements 
are  of  the  most  simple  kind. 

Tlie  usual  occupations  of  the  higher  classes  are  the  chase  and  war,  on 
which  expeditions,  or  those  of  a  predatory  kind,  they  depart  with  no  other 
provision  than  a  little  millet  or  wheat,  and  that  without  the  slightest  fear 
of  suffering  from  want,  since  every  man  who  possesses  and  can  use  a  rifle 
is  sure  of  finding  provision  on  every  hedge.  In  these  expeditions  the  Cir- 
cassians carry  with  them  tent-covers  of  felt,  but  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of 
protecting  themselves  from  sudden  storms,  as,  in  fine  weather,  the  hardy 
mountaineer  throws  himself  on  the  ground,  and  sleeps  with  no  other  cover- 
ing than  the  heavens.  While  in  his  hut,  the  Circassian,  of  whatever  rank, 
is  his  own  carpenter,  weaver,  carver,  and  shepherd.  It  does  not  appear, 
however,  that  the  higher  classes  often  take  part  in  agricultural  pursuits, 
not  so  much  because  it  is  considered  derogatory,  as  from  that  species  of 
indolence  (quite  consistent  with  great  occasional  exertion)  which  recoils 
from  regular  and  continuous  labor. 

The  occupations  of  the  women  consist  in  spinning  and  needlework.  They 
make  the  clothes  of  their  household,  down  to  the  very  shoes,  and  also  sad- 
dle-cushions, housings,  and  horse-trappings,  and  sheaths  for  the  warriors' 
swords  and  poniards.  They  frequently  excel  in  embroidery,  are  skilful 
dairy-women,  and  sometimes  even  noblewomen  may  be  seen  taking  a  part 
in  field-labor.  As  in  other  half-barbarous  societies,  the  greater  portion  of 
labor  falls  upon  the  females  ;  but  their  condition  is  far  superior  in  Circas- 
sia  to  what  it  is  in  most  other  eastern  countries. 

As  Mohammedanism  is  little  more  than  a  profession  among  these  people, 
their  habits,  with  the  exception  of  some  formal  observances  with  regard  to 
food,  have  undergone  but  little  change  by  its  introduction.  The  sexes 
mix  freely  together  while  unmarried,  and,  under  the  restriction  of  caste, 
love-matches  are  probably  as  numerous  here  as  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 
The  husband  has,  however,  to  purchase  his  bride  of  her  father ;  and  nei- 
ther husband  nor  wife,  from  the  moment  of  their  union,  is  permitted  to 
appear  in  the  presence  of  the  parents  for  a  year,  or  until  the  birth  of  the 
first  child.  It  is  a  still  more  remarkable  custom,  that  the  husband  must 
never  be  seen  in  company  with  his  wife  ;  and  tho'igh  the  latter  is  permitted 
to  receive  without  restraint  the  visits  of  stro:igers„yet  the  former  is  never 
present  on  such  occasions,  and  the  matrimonial  correspondence  is  always 

20 


306 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 


carried  on  by  stcaltli,  and  in  the  utmost  secrecy.  The  greatest  insult  tiiat 
can  be  offered  to  a  prince  or  usdan,  is  to  inquire  after  the  health  of  his 
wife  or  family !  The  son  of  a  prince  is  committed,  at  the  age  of  three 
days,  to  the  care  of  an  usdan,  by  whom  he  is  brought  up,  and  never  again 
seen  by  his  father  till  he  is  married :  the  son  of  an  usdan  remains  in  the 
paternal  household  till  he  is  three  or  four  years  old,  when  he,  in  like  man- 
ner, is  consigned  to  the  care  of  a  stranger !  The  foster-father  stands  iu 
every  respect  in  the  place  of  the  natural  parent.  He  receives  no  payment 
for  his  trouble,  but  claims  all  the  duty  and  service  of  his  ward.  The  cause 
of  this  very  remarkable  custom  is  said  to  be  the  wish  to  prevent  the  effect 
of  indulgence  consequent  on  a  home  education,  in  enervating  the  character  ; 
but  though  it  destroys  the  usual  affection  subsisting  between  father  and 
son,  it  establishes  another  not  less  strong  between  the  guardian  and  his 
ward,  which  is  usually  as  intense  as  any  exhibited  in  the  social  connections 
of  other  countries. 

The  daughters  are  brought  up  at  home,  and  at  the  age  of  ten  or  twelve 
years  have  their  waists  enclosed  by  tight-fitting  stays,  or  a  broad  band  of 
untanned  leather,  ichich  is  never  removed  nor  loosened  till  they  are  mar- 
ried. On  the  wedding  night  the  husband  cuts  this  boddice  open  with  his 
dagger,  an  operation  which  is  frequently  attended  with  danger.  As  a  fine 
waist  is  considered  the  great  beauty  of  a  Circassian,  men  are  also  subjected 
to  a  very  heavy  compression  on  that  part,  but  nothing  to  that  wliich  the 
females  endure.     The  girdle  remains  on  the  latter  for  a  period  varying 

from  two  to  six  years  (a  girl 
unmarried  at  seventeen  rarely 
finds  a  husband),  during  which 
time  the  victim  is  growing;  — 
and,  in  addition  to  this,  they 
are  (still  further  to  "  improve" 
the  form)  so  sparingly  fed,  that 
tlic  young  unmarried  females 
have  often  a  look  of  ill  health. 
The  finest-looking  women  are 
the  young  wives. 

The  Circassians  have  long 
been  proverbial  for  their  beau- 
ty of  form  and  figure,  especially 
the  women ;  and,  though  they 
have  in  this  respect  been  con- 
founded with  the  Georgians,  yet 
all  the  accounts  of  the  modern 
and  the  most  accurate  travellers 
concur  in  describing  them  as  an 


ClBCASSIAXS. 


extremely  handsome  people  —  tall,  finely-formed,  slender  in  the  loins,  small 
in  the  hand  and  foot,  elegantly-featured,  with  keen,  lively  eyes,  fresh  com- 


rUE   CAUCASIAN   PROVINCES  —  CIRCASSIA. 


307 


Circassian  Females. 

plexions,  and  remarkably  intelligent  countenances.  Their  bearing  is  manly 
and  dignified ;  but  they  have  a  kind  of  lofty  gait,  which  perhaps  indicates, 
and  may,  at  all  events,  be  easily  mistaken  for,  haughtiness.  The  dress  of 
the  men  consists  of  shirt,  tunic,  and  cloak,  much  resembling  those  of  the 
Calmucks,  but  formed  of  better  materials,  and  in  general  richer.  The 
female  costume  is  not  very  different  except  in  being  longer.  The  men 
crop  the  hair,  leaving  only  a  single  lock  hanging  from  the  crown ;  they  wear 
thick  mustaches  ;  and  the  warriors  and  learned  classes  (priests  and  physi- 
cians) suffer  the  whole  beard  to  grow.  The  women's  heads  have  luxuri- 
riant  tresses,  but  both  sexes  eradicate  every  appearance  of  hair  on  all  other 
parts  of  their  bodies,  by  means  of  a  caustic  ointment  of  unslaked  lime  and 
orpiment.  The  princes  and  usden  rarely  go  out  unarmed ;  and  in  his  coat- 
of-mail,  helmet,  musket,  pistols,  bow,  quiver,  and  shield,  the  Circassian 
chief  forms  a  most  imposing  and  picturesque  object.  In  this  dress  they 
pay  their  visits  of  state,  and  in  this  also  they  ride  out  on  their  warlike  or 
predatory  expeditions. 

The  Circassian,  like  the  Arab,  is  a  strange  mixture  of  ferocity  and  hos- 


308  ILLUSTRATED    DESCKIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

pitality.  The  unfortunate  traveller  who  approaches  his  country  without 
securing  the  protection  of  some  chief,  is  seized  as  a  slave  by  the  first  native 
who  meets  him  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  should  this  protection  be  extended, 
the  whole  power  of  the  host,  or  konak,  as  he  is  called,  is  strained  to  pro- 
cure, not  only  the  safety,  but  the  accommodation  of  the  guest.  The  form 
of  granting  protection  is  remarkable.  The  wife  of  the  konak  gives  the 
stranger  her  breast  to  suck,  after  which  ceremony  he  is  regarded  as  her 
son,  and  the  whole  tribe  as  his  adopted  brethren.  Robbery  and  plunder 
are  considered  honorable  occupations :  but  the  charge  of  thieving  is  ac- 
counted an  insult,  because  it  implies  detection !  The  custom  of  blood- 
revenge,  called  thlil-vasa,  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Arabia :  in  cases  of 
murder,  the  friends  of  the  murdered  are  allowed  to  take  the  life  of  the 
homicide,  or  that  of  any  of  his  relatives  within  the  fourth  degree.  The 
ransom  by  fine  is,  according  to  the  Prussian  traveller  Pallas,  never  taken ; 
but  Spencer  (a  British  traveller),  on  the  contrary,  affirms  that  it  is  almost 
always  preferred. 

The  exclusive  nature  of  Circassian  marriages  has  been  already  noticed. 
It  is,  however,  as  little  inconsistent,  that  while  a  Circassian  prince  would 
unhesitatingly  slaughter  an  nsdan  of  his  own  tribe,  or  an  Abchasian,  who 
should  presume  to  wed  his  daughter,  he  will  as  unhesitatingltj  sell  her  to 
Turk,  Persian,  Turkoman,  Nogai  Tartar,  or  Calmuck  !  Spencer,  who  pro- 
fesses to  admire  every  institution  of  these  people,  has  ingeniously  discov- 
ered that  this  practice  has  tended  to  refine  and  civilize  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Caucasus  !  He  admits,  indeed,  that  it  has  occasioned  wars  and  feuds 
innumerable  among  the  petty  tribes,  from  the  rapacity  with  which  they 
have  overrun  each  otlier's  territory  in  search  of  beauty  for  the  foreign  mar- 
ket. The  greater  portion  of  the  females  thus  sold  have,  however,  always 
been  from  among  the  Trans-Caucasian  people  —  the  Imeritians,  Georgians, 
Mingrelians,  and  Abassians  —  the  Circassian  slave-trade  having  been  chiefly 
confined  to  the  male  sex,  from  which  they  supplied  the  Mameluke  and  other 
slave-troops  of  Egypt  and  Turkey. 

'  The  laws  of  Circassia  rest  only  on  long-established  custom.  They  are 
administered  in  a  council  of  elders,  but  not  always  by  the  reigning  prince, 
if  any  other  of  his  rank  possess  the  requisite  qualities  in  a  higher  degree. 
The  council  consists  not  of  princes  and  tisdeii  only,  but  also  of  the  wealthier 
and  more  aged  vassals,  who,  in  the  judgment-seat,  are  regarded  as  on  an 
equality  with  the  higher  classes.  The  laws  themselves  are  based  upon  the 
principle  of  retaliation,  and  the  business  of  "the  court"  seems  to  consist 
of  little  else  than  the  assessment  of  damages.  Robbery  of  a  prince  is  pun- 
ished by  the  restitution  of  nine  times  the  property  stolen  ;  of  an  tisdan,  by 
simple  restitution,  and  a  fine  of  thirty  oxen.  The  prince  or  usdan  can 
scarcely  commit  a  robbery  on  a  vassal,  since  his  abstract  right  to  all  the 
property  of  the  latter  is  tacitly  acknowledged  ;  and  the  punishment  of  ro]»- 
bery  by  one  vassal  of  another,  appears  to  vary  with  the  circumstances  of 
the  case.     Fine,  as  among  the  Arabs,  seems  almost  the  universal  punish- 


THE   CAUCASIAN  PROVINCES  —  CIRCASSIA.  309 

meiit,  except  in  cases  of  murder  and  adultery ;  in  both  of  which  cases  the 
Itunishment  is  left  in  the  hands  of  the  injured  party.  The  offending  wife 
lias  her  head  shaved,  her  ears  slit,  the  sleeves  of  her  garment  cut  off,  and 
in  this  trim  is  returned,  on  horseback,  to  her  father ;  who,  if  he  can  not 
Bell,  generally  kills  her.  The  paramour  is  certain  of  death,  being  a  marked 
man  by  all  the  husband's  tribe.  Polygamy  is  allowed,  but  very  rarely 
practised.  The  Circassians  arc  very  attentive  to  their  breeds  of  horses, 
and  have  distinct  marks  to  show  the  noble  races  from  which  they  have 
descended.  The  stamping  a  false  mark  upon  a  filly  is  a  forgery  for  which 
nothing  but  life  can  atone  ! 

Learning  is  a  complete  blank.  The  Circassians  have  not  even  an  alpha- 
bet, and  consequently  neither  book  nor  manuscript  in  their  own  language. 
The  few  who  read,  and  they  are  A^ery  few,  use  the  Tartar  or  Arabic  tongues, 
both  of  which,  the  former  especially,  are  very  generally  understood.  Ev- 
ery tribe  would  seem  to  speak  a  modified  language,  since,  within  a  narrow 
space,  not  less  than  seventy-two  dialects,  ov  patois,  have  been  enumerated  ; 
and  one  particular  spot,  where  this  variety  is  more  remarkably  exhibited, 
has  been  surnamed,  by  Abulfeda,  an  oriental  writer,  Jeb  el-el- Alas  on  ("  the 
Mount  of  Tongues").  These  dialects  totally  difi'er  from  any  other  lan- 
guage at  present  known  :  their  pronunciation  consists  of  strange,  uncouth, 
deep,  guttural  sounds,  which  European  letters  can  hardly  express,  and 
European  organs  vainly  attempt  to  articulate ;  and,  what  is  singular  (con- 
sidering the  absence  of  written  characters),  and  adds  to  the  perplexity  of 
the  philologist,  there  is  a  secret  dialect,  apparently  an  old  barbarous  gibber-  ' 
ish,  peculiar  to  the  princes  and  usden,  and  used  by  them  chiefly  on  their 
predatory  excursions. 

The  religion  of  the  Circassians  exhibits  a  strange  jumble  of  Christianity, 
Mohammedanism,  and  paganism.  The  first,  unfortunately,  has  scarcely  a 
nominal  existence,  and  is  chiefly  discernible  in  a  superstitious  reverence 
paid  to  the  cross,  figures  of  which,  in  stone,  are  set  up  in  many  localities, 
which  in  consequence  often  become  famous  try  sting-places,  and  at  which 
some  kind  of  worship  is  paid.  The  paganism  appears  in  the  homage  which 
is  rendered,  principally  by  the  vulgar,  to  two  spirits,  a  good  and  a  bad — 
Merem,  a  benevolent  deity,  and  Tschible,  the  spirit  of  thunder.  Moham- 
medanism, as  before  remarked,  is  the  nominal  faith,  and  exists  in  a  more 
definite  form.  In  some  districts,  considerable  influence  is  possessed  by  its 
mollahs  or  priests,  who  latterly,  in  addition  to  their  proper  duties,  act  as 
teachers,  and  keep  a  few  schools,  in  which — as  there  is  no  printed  vernac- 
ular— Turkish,  Tartar,  Arabic,  and  occasionally  a  little  Persian,  are  taught. 
The  true  Circassian  education  is  that  which  the  youths  receive  who  are 
trained  to  war  from  their  earliest  years,  and  never  cease  from  it  till  they 
are  able  to  take  the  field. 

Arts,  manufactures,  and  commerce,  are  at  the  lowest  ebb  among  the  Cir- 
cassians. The  doctors  are  simply  conjurers  or  saints,  who  profess  to  cure 
diseases  by  charms  and  the  roughest  applications  of  actual  cautery.     Their 


310  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

success  may  be  surmised  from  the  fact  that,  notwithstanding  the  length 
and  inveteracy  of  the  war  with  the  Russians,  very  few  instances  of  maimed 
Circassian  warriors  are  to  be  met  with :  to  be  wounded  among  these  peo- 
ple is  generally  to  die.  Of  artificers  and  skilled  mechanics,  there  are  only 
cutlers,  armorers,  and  goldsmiths ;  who,  however,  exhibit  great  ingenuity 
in  the  construction  and  decoration  of  the  warriors'  arms.  A  view  of  the 
interior  of  one  of  their  armor-manufactories  is  given  on  the  opposite  page. 
The  art  of  preparing  gunpowder  has  been  known  for  ages  in  the  Caucasus, 
and  the  abundance  of  saltpetre  renders  the  inhabitants  independent  of  other 
countries  for  this  important  element  of  warfare  ;  their  mode  of  manufacture 
is,  however,  very  primitive.  It  has  been  already  stated  that  the  women 
are  the  great  manufacturers  of  clothes,  which  may  be  said  to  be  the  only 
manufacture  which  these  people  possess.  They  formerly  traded  with  Per- 
sia and  Turkey  for  their  chain  and  other  armor,  and  with  Tartar  tribes 
northward  for  salt ;  the  equivalents  on  their  part  being  their  children  and 
cattle.  The  Russians  have  annihilated  both  trades ;  and  this  is  said  to  be 
one  great  cause  of  the  hatred  entertained  against  them  by  the  Circassians. 

Tlie  Circassians  having  no  annals,  and  very  few  traditions,  their  early 
history  is  almost  a  blank.  Much  ingenuity  and  labor  have  been  employed 
in  endeavoring  to  trace  their  origin  through  the  affinities  of  language.  The 
success  as  yet  has  been  very  partial ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they 
came  from  the  East.  Authors  differ,  however,  as  to  the  nation  or  tribe 
from  which  they  have  descended :  some  maintain  that  tliey  were  originally 
Medes ;  while  others  affirm  that  they  are  a  branch  of  the  Arabians,  whom 
they  greatly  resemble  in  their  laws  and  customs :  indeed,  the  Kabardahs 
claim  this  descent,  and  there  is  a  common  tradition  among  the  Circassians 
that  the  whole  people  are  descendants  from  Ishmael.  They  may  be  divided 
into  two  great  classes:  the  Circassians  proper,  or  Tcherkessians ;  and  the 
Tschetschenzes,  who  inhabit  Lesghia,  or  western  Daghestan.  They  take  the 
common  name  of  Adig-he  or  Adeches,  a  name  denoting  a  mountairwravine 
on  the  sea.  But  the  word  Tcherkessia  is  Tartar,  and  literally  means  cut 
the  road;  that  is,  highwayman  or  robber,  one  who  makes  communication 
unsafe.  It  also  bears  this  signification :  tcherk,  to  cvt  off,  and  kes,  the 
head.  The  general  name  given  to  these  people  in  th^e  Caucasus  is  Kasack, 
whence  some  have  inferred  that  they  are  of  the  same  race  with  the  Cos-  • 
sacks  of  the  Don  and  the  Volga,  which  is  doubtless  an  error,  for  the  word 
Cossack  has  a  general  and  not  a  national  signification,  and  means  a  man 
who  leads  a  wandering  and  martial  life. 

From  these  regions  Greece  received  her  first  inhabitants,  and  in  return 
appears  to  have  sent  back  colonists,  who  settled  on  the  Circassian  coast, 
and  ultimately  fell  under  the  Roman  domination.  In  more  modern  times, 
between  the  tenth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  they  became  subject  to  the 
kingdom  of  Georgia,  whose  queen,  Tamar,  is  said  to  have  spread  a  knowl- 
edge of  Christianity  among  them.  In  1424,  they  threw  off  the  Georgian 
yoke,  asserted  their  independence,  and  not  only  maintained  it,  but  extended 


ARMOR  MANTTFACTORY  IN  CIRCASSU. 


THE   CAUCASIAN   PROVINCES  —  CAUCASUS.  313 

tlieir  boundaries  so  far,  that  tliey  were  at  last  brought  into  fierce  conflict 
with  tlie  Tartars,  who  ultimately  prevailed  and  made  the  Circassians  their 
tributaries.  They  continued  so  till  1705,  when  they  rose  against  their 
oppressors,  and,  by  a  decisive  victory,  effected  their  freedom. 

Their  first  connection  with  Russia  took  place  in  1555,  when  the  princes 
of  the  Besch  Dag-h  submitted  to  the  czar  Vassili-Ivanovich.  From  that 
time  the  Russian  power  has  been  constantly  increasing  in  the  Caucasus. 
In  1781,  Russia  acquired  the  Kouban  as  a  frontier ;  and,  in  1784,  the 
Turks  built  the  fort  Anapa,  and  thence  directed  their  efforts  to  stir  up  the 
Circassians  against  their  great  enemy.  Anapa,  taken  by  the  Russians  in 
1807,  was  restored  to  Turkey  in  1812,  at  the  peace  of  Bucharest,  owing  to 
Napoleon's  expedition  to  Moscow.  The  quiet  which  followed  this  treaty 
was  used  by  the  Turks  to  convert  the  Circassians  to  Islamism,  and  thus 
implant  in  tliein  an  ever-during  enmity  to  Russia.  In  1829,  Anapa  again  fell 
into  tlie  hands  of  the  Russians  ;  and,  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople,  they  also 
acquired  all  the  other  Turkish  possessions  on  this  coast.  Upon  this  they 
ground  their  claims  of  sovereignty  over  Circassia,  which  in  fact  was  never 
under  Turkish  rule.  The  claim  was  indignantly  scouted  by  the  Circas- 
sians, who,  knowing  that,  under  the  vigorous  government  of  Russia,  their 
robberies  would  be  repressed,  as  well  as  their  traffic  in  slaves,  flew  to 
arms,  and  for  many  years  maintained  a  brave  but  unequal  struggle ;  most 
of  the  country  meanwhile,  with  the  exception  of  some  mountain-fastnesses, 
falling  under  the  sway  of  the  czar.  Though  till  recently  (when  they  rose 
in  a  general  rebellion  during  the  Russo-Turkish  conflict  of  1854,  the  result 
of  which  it  is  now  impossible  to  foresee)  no  open  war  has  for  some  time 
existed  between  them,  a  single-handed  border  warfare  has  long  been  car- 
ried on  with  the  Cossacks  that  on  all  sides  surround  and  watch  them. 

The  province  of  Caucasus  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  governments 
of  the  Don  Cossacks  and  Astrakhan,  on  the  east  by  the  Caspian  sea,  on 
the  south  by  Circassia,  and  on  the  west  by  Circassia  and  the  sea  of  Azov. 
Its  greatest  length  from  northwest  to  southeast  is  about  three  hundred  and 
eighty  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from  north  to  south  is  one  hundred 
and  seventy  miles,  comprising  an  area  of  forty  thousand  square  miles. 

This  province  is  traversed  from  north  to  south,  near  its  centre,  by  a  low 
ramification  of  the  Caucasus  mountains ;  but,  with  tliis  exception,  the  sur- 
face is  flat,  consisting  generally  of  an  alluvion,  wliich  toward  the  east  ap- 
pears to  be  of  very  recent  formation.  It  is  not  traversed  by  any  river  of 
importance  (the  Kouma,  since  the  lower  part  of  its  course  was  lost  in  the 
sand,  no  longer  deserves  the  name),  but  is  watered  on  part  of  its  northern 
frontier  by  the  Manytch,  and  on  the  southern  by  the  Kouban  and  the  Terek. 

The  climate  is  in  general  very  mild,  and  there  are  some  fertile  tracts, 
particularly  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Terek,  but  a  great  part  of  the  allu- 
vial flats  is  covered  with  salt  pools  and  marshes,  which  make  the  soil  where 
ihey  prevail  altogether  unfit  for  cultivation.     The  injury  is,  in  some  mcas- 


314  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OP  RUSSIA. 

ure,  compensated  by  the  large  quantities  of  excellent  salt  which  is  obtained 
from  them.  Some  of  the  steppes  yield  tolerable  pasture,  on  which  numer- 
ous herds  of  cattle  are  reared. 

The  chief  products  of  the  soil  are  grain,  including  Indian  corn,  and  wine. 
The  mulberry  thrives  well,  and  considerable  attention  has  recently  been 
paid  to  the  rearing  of  silkworms.  Bees  also  are  carefully  attended  to, 
and  honey  and  wax  form  a  considerable  article  of  export. 

Owing  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  warlike  mountaineers  of  the  Caucasus, 
a  considerable  army  is  always  maintained  within  the  province,  and  most 
of  its  towns  are  fortified.  The  population  is  composed  of  a  great  variety 
of  half-savage  tribes — Cossacks,  Tartars,  Circassians,  &c.,  with  some  Rus- 
sians and  Armenians. 

Stavropol,  the  new  capital  of  the  province,  is  a  neat,  fortified  town,  situ- 
ated near  the  Kouban.  Gheorghievsk,  or  Georg-ievsk,  the  old  capital,  and 
still  the  residence  of  the  governor-general  of  Caucasus,  is  a  small  town, 
situated  on  a  steep  height  near  the  left  bank  of  the  Kouma,  or  Podkoumka, 
ninety  miles  southeast  of  Stavropol.  It  is  regularly  built,  and  contains  a 
government-house,  one  Greek  and  one  Armenian  church,  six  hospitals 
(mainly  for  the  use  of  the  army),  a  lazaretto,  and  several  granaries.  The 
inhabitants  are  composed  principally  of  Cossacks  of  the  Volga,  who  are 
engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits,  and  Russians  and  Armenians.  The  envi- 
rons are  picturesque,  and  the  air  pure.  The  population  is  about  three 
thousand. 

Konstantinogorsk,  twenty  miles  southwest  of  Gheorghievsk,  is  celebrated 
for  its  sulphur-baths  ;  and  at  Kislavodsky  there  is  acid-water.  Karass,  a 
neat  town  situated  between  the  two  last-named  places,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Besch  Dagh  (five  mountains,  four  thousand  three  hundred  feet  high),  is 
remarkable  for  a  colony  of  Germans  and  Scotch.  Mozdok  is  a  commercial 
town,  and  one  of  the  principal  military  stations  on  the  line  of  tlie  Terek. 
It  was  built  in  1763,  under  Catherine  II. 

Kizliar  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Terek,  fifty  miles  above  its 
mouth.  It  is  dull  and  sombre  ;  a  few  of  the  houses  are  of  brick,  but  the 
greater  part  are  of  wood.  The  situation  being  low,  and  exposed  to  inun- 
dations, is  very  unhealthy.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  employed  in  agri- 
culture. Kizliar,  being  an  entrepot  for  the  traffic  between  Astrakhan  and 
Persia,  carries  on  a  prosperous  trade,  which  is  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the 
Armenians.  The  exports  are  wine,  brandy,  oil  of  sesame,  cotton  and  silk 
stufi"s.     The  population,  exclusive  of  the  garrison,  is  about  ten  thousand. 

The  triangular  portion  of  the  Caucasian  country  bounded  by  the  river 
Terek  on  the  north,  the  Caspian  on  the  east,  the  summits  of  the  Caucasus 
on  the  southwest,  and  Circassia  on  the  northwest,  is  generally  known  by 
the  name  of  Daghestan,  a  name  derived  from  the  Tartar  Tagh  stem,  sig- 
nifying a  mountainous  country.  It  lies  between  the  fortieth  and  forty-third 
degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  forty-sixth  and  forty-ninth  degrees  of 


THE   CAUCASIAN  PROVINCES  —  DAGHESTAN.  315 

cast  longitude.  Its  greatest  length  is  about  two  hundred  miles,  and  its 
breadth  forty,  comprising  about  nine  thousand  tliree  hundred  square  miles. 
This  is  exclusive  of  the  western  portion,  called  Leg-hisian,  or  Lesg-liiay 
which  is  estimated  to  contain  six  or  seven  thousand  square  miles. 

Daghcstan  consists  partly  of  plains,  but,  as  its  name  implies,  chiefly  of 
mountains,  offsets  from  the  Caucasus,  which  separate  deep  valleys  as  they 
traverse  the  province  southeast,  toward  the  plains  lying  along  the  Caspian 
sea.  They  are  chiefly  of  limestone.  In  the  southern  parts  of  the  province 
are  numerous  bituminous  springs,  some  of  which  are  worked,  and  afford, 
in  addition  to  petroleum,  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  black  and  white  naph- 
tha, while  others  have  for  ages  emitted  a  burning  stream,  known  by  the 
name  of  Indian  fire.  (For  a  description  of  similar  springs,  see  Shirvan, 
the  adjoining  Trans-Caucasian  province.) 

Notwithstanding  the  generally  mountainous  character  of  Daghestan,  it 
comprises  many  valleys  and  level  tracts  of  great  fertility.  Its  climate  is 
various  :  on  the  plains  it  is  warm  and  unwholesome  ;  on  the  slopes  of  the 
mountains  it  is  more  temperate  and  healthy ;  but  still  more  decidedly  so 
on  the  higher  elevations.  Agriculture  is  carefully  attended  to,  and  good 
crops  of  grain  are  produced ;  also  silk,  cotton,  madder,  flax,  saffron,  and 
tobacco.  The  vegetables  and  domestic  animals  are  nearly  the  same  with 
those  of  Europe.  The  wild  animals  are  tigers,  panthers,  buffaloes,  and 
camels,  the  latter  also  being  domesticated. 

Tlie  population  of  the  lowlands  is  composed  of  a  mongrel  race  of  Per- 
sian, Arabian,  Syriac,  Turkish,  and  Tartar  origin,  mixed  with  the  original 
Caucasians.  They  are  of  middle  size,  strong,  and  active.  The  mountains 
are  inhabited  by  a  variety  of  Caucasian  tribes  :  among  the  most  prominent 
are  the  Insgushes,  the  Lesghians,  the  Kists,  the  Kumiks,  and,  above  all, 
the  Tschetschenzes.  The  mountaineers  are  generally  tall  and  well  formed. 
They  are  brave  and  hospitable ;  but  revengeful,  given  to  falsehood,  theft, 
and  intrigue,  and  noisy  and  boisterous  in  their  convivialities.  The  people 
generally  are  careful  agriculturists  and  industrious  fishermen,  taking  stur- 
geon and  turtle  in  such  quantities  as  to  form  a  considerable  export  trade 
to  Persia  and  Russia.  The  religion  is  chiefly  Mohammedan,  and  their  lan- 
guage is  composed  of  dialects  of  the  Tartar  tongue,  mixed  with  Armenian, 
Persian,  Turkish,  and  Hebrew.  The  principal  towns  are  Derbent,  Tarki, 
Nizabad,  and  Kouba. 

Derbent  is  an  ancient  but  decayed  town  on  the  Caspian,  and  formed  for 
many  centuries  the  key  of  the  Persian  empire  in  this  quarter.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  strong  walls,  built  of  large  stones ;  and  on  the  summit  of  the 
hill,  on  the  declivity  of  which  the  city  stands,  there  is  a  fort  or  citadel,  of 
a  triangular  figure.  The  streets  are  very  narrow,  and  the  houses  mostly 
of  one  story,  with  a  terraced  roof.  Large  quantities  of  saffron  are  grown 
in  the  vicinity,  and  the  inhabitants  prepare  rose-water  and  opium ;  but  the 
trade  of  the  place  is  small.  Its  population,  composed  chiefly  of  Georgians, 
Armenians,  and  Jews,  is  about  twelve  thousand.     In  the  neighborhood  is 


316  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

a  famous  tomb,  said  to  be  that  of  forty  Saracen  heroes,  who  were  killed  iu 
battle  against  the  "  infidels,"  when  Derbent  was  taken  by  the  califs.  The 
Mohammedan  Lesghians  still  make  pilgj-images  to  it.  Kouba,  fifty  miles 
southwest  of  Derbent,  is  a  considerable  town  ;  and  at  Bereiklei,  twenty  miles 
northwest,  resides  the  khan  of  the  Kaitaks,  who  bears  the  title  of  ouzmei, 
and  exercises  a  sort  of  sovereignty  over  the  Akushas  and  the  Kubashas. 

The  Tschetschenzes  and  Lesghians  inhabit  the  northwestern  portion  of 
Daghestan,  bordering  on  Circassia ;  and  the  latter  are  said  to  be  the  most 
predatory  and  ferocious  of  all  the  Caucasian  nations.  They  are  mostly 
Mohammedans,  but  a  few  vestiges  of  Christianity  may  be  traced  among 
them.  They  are  divided  into  numerous  tribes,  whom  the  nature  of  their 
country  keeps  so  isolated,  that  no  such  thing  as  a  general  confederacy  or 
national  union  can  be  maintained  among  them.  Their  language  has  no 
analogy  with  any  known  tongue  except  that  of  the  Samoides,  of  northern 
Siberia,  to  which  it  bears  a  distant  resemblance :  it  is  divided  into  numer- 
ous dialects,  which  have  been  reduced  to  eight  classes,  and  the  people 
using  them  comprise  so  many  small  states.  The  first  of  these  is  the  Avar, 
which  includes  the  Avars  and  fourteen  other  tribes  resembling  them.  The 
Avars  are  believed  to  be  the  remains  of  the  Avars,  or  Huns,  Avho  took  ref- 
uge in  this  part  of  tlie  Caucasus,  and  are  probably  of  the  same  primitive 
stock  with  the  Magyars  of  Hungary.  The  other  chief  tribes  of  Lesghians 
are  the  Akushas,  the  Kubashas,  and  the  Kasi-Kumiks.  The  Akushas  dwell 
on  the  Koisou,  and  form  a  republic,  composed  of  about  thirty  villages.  The 
Kubashas  also  live  near  the  Koisou,  in  a  large  town  of  the  same  name, 
and  eight  dependent  villages.  They  are  a  peaceful  tribe,  and  are  known 
throughout  the  East  as  the  Zer-kJierans,  or  makers  of  coats-of-mail :  they 
manufacture  splendid  armor,  and  fine  cloth  or  shawls,  which  they  exchange 
for  cattle  and  produce.  The  Kasi-Kumiks  dwell  on  a  branch  of  the  same 
river,  and  are  governed  by  a  khan,  whose  authority  extends  over  a  hundred 
villages.  He  resides  at  Chahar,  and  can  raise  six  thousand  men.  They 
are  zealous  Mohammedans,  and  fiercely  opposed  to  the  Russians. 

The  Lesghians  had  long  been  the  terror  of  surrounding  nations  ;  but,  in 
1742,  they  were  driven  by  the  arms  of  Nadir  Shah  to  seek  protection  from 
Russia,  and  swear  allegiance  to  the  czar.  It  was  during  this  war,  that  the 
shah  (having  retaken  the  Trans-Caucasian  provinces  wrested  from  Persia 
by  Peter  the  Great)  attempted  with  forty  thousand  men  to  penetrate  the 
defiles  of  the  Caucasus,  but  was  defeated  at  the  pass  of  Dariel,  the  dangers 
of  which  passage  in  ancient  times  gave  origin  to  the  Persian  proverb — 
"  When  the  king  is  too  happy,  let  him  enter  Dariel !" 

Daghestan  is  the  seat  of  the  Caucasian  war  waged  by  Shamyl  and  his 
followers,  the  Lesghians,  the  Tschetschenzes,  and  other  tribes  of  the  eastern 
section  of  the  Caucasian  range.  This  fierce  conflict  between  the  mountain- 
eers of  Daghestan  with  the  Russians  began  about  the  commencement  of  the 
present  century,  on  the  absorption  of  this  territory,  with  Georgia,  by  the 
Russian  empire.     It  was  formerly  interrupted  from  time  to  time,  but  has 


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THE   CAUCASIAN  PROVINCES — DAGHESTAN.  3T9 

now  raged  without  respite  for  some  twenty-five  years.  On  the  Russian 
side,  Zizianoflf,  a  prince  of  Georgian  origin,  was  one  of  the  first  who,  about 
forty  years  ago,  struck  the  Tschctschenzes  with  awe.  One  of  his  most  able 
successors  was  Yermoloff,  equally  respected  and  dreaded  by  the  Caucasian 
tribes.  He  was  recently  living  in  Moscow,  more  than  eighty  years  old, 
and  in  a  kind  of  silent  disgrace  with  the  emperor.  Paskiewitch  replaced 
Yermoloff  for  a  few  years,  and  in  1832  was  followed  by  Baron  Rosen,  to 
whose  administration  are  ascribed  the  disasters  suffered  by  Russia  from 
1832  to  1836. 

About  the  year  1823,  a  sect  of  religious  enthusiasts  sprang  up  among  tlie 
vlemas  or  Mohammedan  clergy  of  the  Caucasus.  Sheik-Mansour  was  the 
forerunner  of  this  sect.  Nearly  thirty  years  after  his  death,  Khasi-Mollah 
or  Khasi-Mohammed,  standing  upon  the  new  creed,  raised  the  standard  of 
religious  fanaticism  for  the  defence  of  the  national  independence.  The 
principal  feature  of  this  new  theology  is  tlie  belief  in  a  certain  perfectibility 
of  the  worn-out  forms  of  Islamisni.  Khasi-Mollah  claimed  to  be  directly 
inspired  and  advised  by  God ;  and  the  revelations  thus  received  were  com- 
municated by  him  to  his  immediate  companions,  called  murides  or  murshi- 
des,  who  formed  a  warlike  priesthood,  and  a  kind  of  body-guard  for  the 
prophet.  He  was  soon  surrounded  by  numerous  believers  from  all  parts  of 
Daghestan,  and  especially  from  among  the  Lesghians  and  Tschctschenzes. 
Khasi-Mollah  warred  for  two  years  against  the  Russians,  but  finally,  at  the 
storm  of  the  village  of  Himry,  in  1832,  he  met  the  death  of  a  hero  and  of 
a  prophet,  figliting  to  the  last,  and,  even  after  he  ]iad  fallen,  exciting  his 
companions  by  inspiring  songs.  All  the  murides  fell  with  him  on  the  battle- 
field. Among  them  was  a  young  man  named  Shamyl  :  struck  by  two  balls, 
and  pierced  by  a  bayonet,  he  lay  there,  bathed  in  his  blood,  among  the 
corpses  of  his  companions. 

The  history  of  Shamyl's  escape  after  this  battle  is  still  unknown.  A  few 
months  from  the  catastrophe  of  Himry,  he  was  the  first  muride  near  the 
new  Iman,  named  Hamsad  Bey,  who  was  assassinated  by  some  of  his  rivals 
in  1834.  Shamyl  succeeded  him,  raised  the  standard  of  Khasi-Mollah,  and 
the  war  of  extermination  began.  He  was  born  in  1797,  at  the  same  village 
of  Himry,  and  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven  became  the  chief  of  the  Tschcts- 
chenzes. In  person  he  is  of  medium  size,  with  liglit  hair  ;  his  eyes,  covered 
by  long  and  bushy  brows,  are  full  of  fire  ;  his  beard,  though  white,  does  not 
give  him  the  appearance  of  age.  He  is  very  abstemious,  eats  little,  drinks 
water,  and  sleeps  but  a  few  hours.  For  a  long  time  the  fastness  of  Akulcho 
was  his  residence,  whence  he  darted  upon  the  foe.  "  Moliammed  was  the 
first,  Shamyl  is  the  second  prophet  of  Allah  !"  is  the  war-cry  of  Daghestan. 

In  1839,  the  Russian  general  Grabbe  attacked  Shamyl  in  his  retreat  of 
Akulcho.  The  fortress  was  dismantled  by  heavy  artillery,  but  the  Tschcts- 
chenzes did  not  suffer  at  all.  Sheltered  in  vaults  and  crevices,  they  rushed 
out  to  fire  their  deadly  rifles,  and  then  disappeared.  Several  assaults  were 
tlius  repulsed  by  tliem ;  but  finally  the  rocks  were  mined,  and  at  the  fourth 


320  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

assault,  after  horrible  bloodshed,  the  Russians  took  the  fortress,  on  the 
22d  of  August.  But  Shamyl  was  not  to  be  found  among  the  dead.  With 
a  few  murides  he  had  retreated  to  the  caverns  of  the  mountain.  Tlicre 
they  constructed  a  kind  of  raft,  which  they  threw  into  the  stream  at  the 
foot  of  the  rocks.  They  sprang  on  this  floating  conveyance,  while  they 
were  fired  at  from  both  banks  of  the  river.  All  perished  but  one,  who 
leaped  into  the  current,  reached  a  sure  spot,  and  disappeared  in  the  mount- 
ains. This  was  Shamyl.  After  this  defeat,  he  visited  the  western  tribes 
of  the  Caucasus,  and  preached  among  them  the  holy  war  against  Russia, 
but  without  success.  On  his  return  he  selected  a  new  abode  in  the  fortress 
of  Dargo,  situated  in  an  almost  impregnable  position.  Grabbe  attacked 
him  there  in  1842.  When  the  Russian  army  had  completely  entered  the 
primitive  forests  and  defiles  around  Dargo,  it  was  surrounded  by  the  war- 
riors of  Shamyl,  and  more  than  half  of  it  destroyed.  This  was  the  most 
terrible  defeat  sustained  by  Russia  during  this  whole  protracted  contest. 

The  war  continued  to  be  disastrous  for  the  imperial  troops.  The  com- 
manders were  changed  again  and  again,  and  finally  Prince  Woronzow  was 
sent  there  with  unlimited  powers.  At  that  moment  the  authority  of  Shamyl 
was  absolute  and  extensive.  He  ruled  the  Lesghians  (including  the  Avars), 
the  Tschetschenzes,  the  Kists,  and  the  Kumiks.  Shamyl,  not  only  a  war- 
rior, but  a  legislator,  had  established  over  the  unruly  princes  of  these  tribes 
a  kind  of  theocratic  monarchy ;  he  had  united  tribes  hitherto  hostile  to 
each  other,  organized  a  numerous  military  force,  and  in  1843  commanded 
above  five  thousand  of  the  best  cavalry  in  the  world.  His  body-guard  was 
then  a  thousand  men.  When  Woronzow  took  the  command  of  the  Russian 
army,  his  first  idea  was  to  avenge  the  defeat  sustained  at  Dargo.  He  cut 
roads  through  the  forests,  and  indeed  felled  the  trees  entirely  for  miles  of 
country.  Heroic  feats  on  both  sides  signalized  this  campaign  ;  but  Dargo 
was  finally  taken  and  destroyed  in  the  course  of  the  year  1845.  In  1846, 
Shamyl  descended  with  nearly  twenty  thousand  horse  upon  the  western 
side  of  the  Caucasus,  invaded  the  Kabardians,  and,  not  being  able  to  bring 
them  to  his  side,  pillaged  the  country,  and  returned  to  Daghestan  without 
the  Russians  overtaking  him. 

Since  that  time,  Woronzow  has  slowly  proceeded  to  enclose  Shamyl  in 
an  iron  circle,  and  the  area  of  his  activity  has  narrowed  more  and  more. 
From  time  to  time,  he  has  been  wont  to  rush  from  his  retreat  upon  the 
enemy,  and  to  inflict  on  him  the  severest  blows,  but  has  not  been  able  to 
carry  on  the  war  on  a  large  scale.  A  visionary  priest,  an  enthusiastic 
prophet,  a  warrior  and  a  legislator,  for  a  moment  it  seemed  liis  destiny  to 
become  the  sovereign  of  the  Caucasus,  and  to  secure  his  country  against  the 
encroachments  of  Russia.  More  recently  this  has  appeared  impossible, 
and  it  remains  to  be  seen  whether  it  can  be  revived  by  the  events  of  the 
Turkisli  war.  One  thing  is  certain,  and  that  is,  that  whatever  may  be  the 
final  result,  the  Russian  arms  in  Asia  will  meet  no  more  redoubtable  or 
heroic  antagonist  than  Shamyl. 


SIBERIA  —  GENERAL   FEATURES.  323 


CHAPTER   XI 


SIBERIA,    OR    ASIATIC    RUSSIA. 


SIBERIA,  or  Asiatic  Russia,  comprises  all  the  north  of  Asia,  extend- 
ing from  the  Arctic  ocean  on  the  north  to  the  Altai  chain  of  monnt- 
ains  on  the  south,  and  from  the  Ural  mountains  on  the  west  to  the 
Pacific  ocean  on  the  east.  Behring's  strait  on  the  northeast  divides  it 
from  the  continent  of  North  America.  Its  length  from  west  to  east  can 
i\ot  be  less  than  four  thousand  miles,  and  its  breadth  from  north  to  south 
varies  from  one  to  two  thousand  miles,  the  whole  comprising  an  area  of 
about  three  millions,  eight  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  square  miles. 

This  immense  territory  has  much  less  diversity  of  surface  than  might  be 
presumed  from  its  extent.  Assuming  the  meridian  of  one  hundred  and  five 
degrees  as  a  line  of  demarcation,  two  regions  will  be  formed  —  a  western 
and  an  eastern  —  exhibiting  a  very  marked  difference  in  the  configuration 
of  their  surface.  Both  regions  have  their  greatest  altitude  in  the  south, 
and  may  be  considered  as  a  vast  inclined  plane,  sloping  gradually  north  to 
the  Arctic  ocean  :  but  the  eastern  region  is  traversed  in  different  directions 
by  several  mountain-chains  ;  whereas  the  western  region,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  chain  of  the  Ural  on  the  western  and  that  of  the  Altai  on  the 
southern  frontiers,  forms  a  vast  plain,  almost  unbroken  by  any  greater 
lieights  than  a  few  hills  and  the  banks  of  the  rivers  which  wind  across  it. 
This  plain,  toward  the  south,  has  a  height  of  about  two  thousand  feet  above 
the  sea,  but  toward  the  north  is  so  near  its  level  as  often  to  become  exten- 
sively inundated. 

For  convenience  of  description,  this  plain  has  been  arranged,  according 
to  its  productive  powers,  in  four  divisions  —  the  steppe  or  pastoral,  the 
agricultural,  the  woody,  and  the  moorland  or  tundra.  The  steppe,  occu- 
pying the  most  elevated  part  of  the  plain,  extends  from  the  southern  fron- 
tiers north  to  latitude  fifty-five  degrees ;  and  from  the  western  frontiers, 
within  these  limits,  east  to  the  banks  of  the  Irtyscli.  The  greater  part  of 
it  consists  of  what  is  called  the  steppe  of  Ishim,  and  has  a  bare  and  almost 
sterile  surface,  often  incrusted  witli  salt,  but  also  occasionally  covered  with 
a  scanty  vegetation,  and  sometimes  even  enlivened  by  tracts  of  green  pas- 
ture, over  which  the  nomadic  tribes  roam  witli  their  flocks  and  herds. 

The  agricultural  division  extends  north  to  latitude  sixty  degrees,  though 
its  exact  limits  can  not  be  properly  defined  by  a  parallel  of  latitude,  since 


324  ILLUSTRATED  DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

they  more  strictly  form  a  waving  line  encroaching  or  encroached  upon  by 
the  other  divisions,  according  as  the  configuration  of  the  surface  and  prop- 
erties of  the  soil  are  favorable  or  unfavorable  to  agricultural  operations. 
In  many  parts,  where  it  borders  on  the  steppe,  it  has  much  of  the  same 
character,  and  has  only  occasional  tracts  which  have  been  or  can  be  advan- 
tageously brought  under  the  plougli ;  and  in  many  other  parts,  as  the  same 
vegetative  powers  which  may  be  employed  in  growing  grain  naturally  grow 
trees,  primeval  forests  are  often  found  ;  but  still  the  term  agricultural  is 
properly  applied  to  it,  as  it  is  only  within  its  limits  that  agriculture  is  suc- 
cessfully prosecuted  on  an  extensive  scale,  and  occupies  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  inhabitants.  The  division  thus  named  has  an  extent  of 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  square  miles,  and,  under  favorable 
circumstances,  might  furnish  subsistence  to  a  very  large  population ;  but, 
as  yet,  it  is  only  the  more  fertile  alluvial  tracts  adjacent  to  the  rivers  that 
have  been  brought  under  anything  like  regular  culture.  Within  this  divis- 
ion, though  not  properly  belonging  to  it,  is  the  steppe  of  Baraha,  situated 
between  the  Irtysch  and  the  Obi.  The  southern  portion  greatly  resembles 
the  steppe  of  Ishim,  though  on  the  whole  it  is  not  so  arid,  and  has  a  more 
abundant  vegetation.  The  northern  portion,  though  flat  and  swampy,  is 
covered  with  nearly  continuous  forests  of  birch  and  fir,  haunted  by  numer- 
ous wild  animals,  including  the  beaver. 

This  portion  of  the  Baraba  or  Barahinza  steppe  may  therefore  be  con- 
sidered as  the  commencement  of  the  wooded  division,  which  extends  north 
to  latitude  sixty-four  degrees,  and  in  parts  to  sixty-six,  though  in  the 
higher  latitude  the  trees  are  seldom  of  very  vigorous  growth.  The  whole 
of  this  division  is  covered  with  vast  forests  of  birch  and  different  species 
of  fir  and  pine.  It  is  not  at  all  adapted  to  agriculture,  but  barley  and  rye 
are  occasionally  cultivated.  Wild  animals  are  very  numerous,  and  many 
valuable  furs  are  obtained. 

The  last  division  is  that  of  the  moorland  or  tundra,  consisting  of  a  low, 
monotonous  flat,  covered  with  moss,  and  nearly  destitute  of  trees.  It  ex- 
tends along  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  ocean,  and  has  so  rigorous  a  climate, 
that  even  in  summer  ice  is  found  a  few  inches  below  the  surface.  Here 
the  reindeer  exists  in  vast  herds,  both  wild  and  domesticated  ;  white  bears 
and  foxes  are  also  numerous,  and  furnish  valuable  furs  ;  and  the  coasts  and 
mouths  of  the  rivers  are  frequented  by  immense  shoals  of  fish  and  flocks 
of  fowl.  One  remarkable  feature  in  the  western  part  of  the  tundra  is  an 
isolated  mountain-mass  which  rises  with  steep  sides  to  the  north  of  Ob- 
dorsk,  about  latitude  sixty-six  degrees,  and  forms  a  kind  of  range  divided 
into  five  summits,  the  loftiest  of  which  attains  the  height  of  about  five 
thousand  feet. 

Siberia  to  the  east  of  longitude  one  hundred  and  five  degrees,  forming 
nearly  one  half  of  the  whole  territory,  has  a  much  more  diversified  surface 
than  the  western  region ;  and,  owing  partly  to  its  general  ruggedness  and 
elevation,  and  partly  to  the  greater  severity  of  its  climate,  has  much  less 


SIBERIA  —  GENERAL  FEATURES.  325 

land  adapted  for  agricultural  purposes.  The  sea  of  Okhotsk  has  a  bold 
and  rocky  shore,  and  the  country  behind  rises  with  a  steep  ascent  till  a 
mountain-range  is  formed,  with  a  general  altitude  of  nearly  three  thousand 
feet  above  sea-level.  This  range,  under  the  name  of  the  Stanovoy  mount- 
ains, runs  nearly  parallel  with  the  coast,  till  it  reaches  the  frontiers  of 
China,  where  it  takes  the  name  of  the  Jablonnoi  mountains,  and  proceed- 
ing west,  continues  for  a  long  distance  to  form  the  boundary  between  the 
two  empires.  It  then  takes  the  name  of  the  mountains  of  Daouria,  and 
throws  out  numerous  ramifications,  which,  continuing  westward,  throw 
their  arms  round  Lake  Baikal,  and  cover  almost  all  the  southern  part  of 
the  government  of  Irkoutsk.  Other  ramifications,  proceeding  northward, 
form  the  water-sheds  of  the  numerous  affluents  of  the  right  bank  of  the 
Lena.  On  both  sides  of  this  river  the  surface  continues  elevated,  and 
forms  a  table-land,  the  interior  of  which  is  still  very  imperfectly  known. 

The  best  portions  of  Eastern  Siberia  occur  in  the  south  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Irkoutsk,  where,  in  the  lower  and  more  open  valleys  in  the  vicinity 
of  Lake  Baikal,  cultivation  has  been  attempted  with  success,  and  the  oak 
and  hazel,  unknown  in  other  parts  of  Siberia,  are  found  growing  freely. 
In  almost  the  whole  of  the  same  government,  where  the  configuration  of 
the  surface  does  not  present  invincible  obstacles,  all  the  grains  of  Europe 
are  grown,  and  even  the  mountains  and  hills  are  covered  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year  with  good  pasture.  Still  farther  north,  in  the  government 
of  Yakoutsk,  as  far  as  the  town  of  the  same  name,  grain  is  cultivated  in 
patches  in  the  upper  vale  of  the  Lena,  though  the  far  greater  part  of  it  is 
covered  with  fir  and  pine,  with  so  much  intervening  space  between  the 
trees,  that  a  good  deal  of  herbage  springs  up,  and  helps  to  nourish  the 
numerous  herds  of  cattle  kept  by  the  Yakutes,  and  grazed  chiefly  on  an 
immense  tract  of  low  land  which  extends  from  the  Lena  eastward  to  the 
Aldan. 

The  northern  part  of  Eastern  Siberia  consists  of  two  distinct  portions  — 
the  one  extending  from  longitude  one  hundred  and  five  degrees  east  to  the 
lower  valley  of  the  Lena,  and  the  other  from  that  valley  eastward  to  Beh- 
ring's  sea.  The  former  portion  is  very  imperfectly  known ;  but,  from  the 
modes  of  life  pursued  by  the  Yakutes,  who  have  taken  possession  of  it,  it 
is  presumed  that  it  consists  chiefly  of  pasture-ground  well  adapted  for  the 
rearing  of  cattle,  or  of  moorland  wastes,  on  which  no  other  animal  than 
the  reindeer  is  able  to  subsist  in  numerous  herds.  The  latter  portion,  as 
far  as  the  Kolima,  is  traversed  from  north  to  south  by  chains  of  low  hills, 
separated  from  each  other  by  wide  valleys  or  open  plains,  and  generally 
overgrown  with  stunted  larch  and  birch.  In  these  valleys  and  plains  are 
numerous  lakes,  generally  well  supplied  with  fish,  and  bordered  by  low 
banks,  on  which  a  rich  grassy  sward  is  often  seen.  Another  remarkable 
feature  in  this  locality  is  the  number  of  albnty^  or  dry  lakes,  consisting  of 
a  kind  of  wide  basins,  so  far  below  the  general  level  of  the  surface  as  to 
have  become  filled  with  water  when  the  rivers  overflowed  their  banks,  and 


326  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OP  RUSSIA. 

yet  so  shallow  that  the  clefts  produced  by  the  winter-frost  form  natural 
drains,  through  which  the  water  escapes,  and  leaves  the  lakes  almost  dry. 
The  alluvial  bottom,  owing  to  the  richness  of  the  soil,  immediately  on  the 
arrival  of  summer,  becomes  clothed  with  the  finest  turf.  When  the  drain- 
age is  less  complete,  extensive  morasses  are  formed,  covered  only  with 
moss  or  stunted  larches,  and  so  destitute  of  proper  pasture,  that  the  dis- 
tricts in  which  they  prevail  are  almost  uninhabited.  To  the  east  of  the 
Kolima,  branches  from  the  Stanovoy  mountains  stretch  northward,  and 
form  a  series  of  ranges  which  frequently  rise  from  two  to  three  thousand 
feet.  Some  of  these  penetrate  to  the  northern  coast,  and  are  seen  forming- 
precipitous  clifls  at  Swialoi  Noss,  Cape  North,  and  other  headlands.  Other 
ramifications"  from  the  Stanovoy  pursue  an  opposite  course,  and  traverse 
the  remarkable  peninsula  of  Kamtscliatka  almost  centrally  to  its  southern 
extremity. 

The  races  and  tribes  scattered  over  Siberia  are  so  numerous,  that  little 
more  can  be  done  here  than  to  give  the  names  of  the  more  important.  At 
least  two  thirds  of  the  whole  population  is  Russian,  and  consists  either  of 
voluntary  immigrants,  who  have  found  it  their  interest  to  settle  in  the 
country,  or  of  exiles  and  their  descendants.  In  regard  to  the  exiles,  Sibe- 
ria is  merely  a  penal  settlement ;  and  hence  that  portion  of  the  population, 
which,  as  coming  from  Europe,  ouglit  to  be  the  most  civilized,  is  not  likely 
to  be  the  most  exemplary.  In  those  cases  where  the  exile  Las  been  awarded 
for  political  causes  merely,  the  individuals  may  be  more  unfortunate  than 
vicious  ;  but  when  it  is  the  penalty  of  ordinary  crimes,  the  individuals  being 
convicts  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  term,  must  taint  society  in  the  same  way 
as  in  Van  Diemen's  Land  and  Australia. 

A  more  unsophisticated,  and  far  more  interesting  population,  is  furnished 
by  the  indigenous  tribes.  Beginning  at  the  Ural  mountains,  and  proceed- 
ing eastward,  we  find  the  Samoyedes,  or  Samoides,  in  the  northwest.  Im- 
mediately south  of  tliese  tlie  Ostiaks  occupy  botli  sides  of  the  Obi,  up  to 
the  confluence  of  the  Irtysch,  tlie  northern  part  of  the  steppe  of  Baraba, 
and  the  whole  of  the  woody  region  eastward  to  the  banks  of  the  Yenisei. 
They  live  by  fishing  and  hunting,  and,  though  their  physical  structure  is 
by  no  means  robust,  they  display  both  great  dexterity  and  courage  in  at- 
tacking the  larger  and  fiercer  animals,  of  both  tlie  land  and  water.  Some 
of  them  have  embraced  Christianity,  but  the  great  majority  are  pagans,  and 
continue  addicted  to  Sliamanism. 

In  the  south,  among  the  Altai  mountains,  the  Calmucks  predominate, 
but  have  laid  aside  a  number  of  the  usual  peculiarities  of  their  race.  They 
subsist  chiefly  on  the  produce  of  their  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  and  culti- 
vate a  little  grain  and  tobacco.  They  have  some  skill  in  mechanical  arts, 
particularly  in  the  working  of  iron,  and  manufacture  their  own  gunpowder. 
Though  not  Buddhists,  they  are  generally  addicted  to  other  forms  of  super- 
stition. 

Among  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Altai  are  several  Turkish  tribes,  known 


SIBERIA INHABITANTS HISTORY.  327 

I)}'  the  names  of  Beruisses,  Beltires,  Sagai,  and  Katschinzes.  The  last 
extend  eastward  to  the  banks  of  the  Yenisei. 

The  Buriats,  tlie  most  numerous  of  all  the  Siberian  tribes,  dwell  chiefly 
on  both  sides  of  Lake  Baikal,  and  eastward  as  far  as  the  Onon.  They  are 
of  Mongol  origin,  and  are  closely  allied  to  the  natives  of  the  northern  prov- 
inces of  China,  in  both  language  and  customs. 

The  Tungusi  (  Tung"uzes,  or  Toong-ooses}  are  the  most  widely  dispersed 
of  all  the  native  tribes.  They  arc  found  along  the  shores  of  the  Arctic 
ocean,  from  longitude  one  hundred  and  ten  to  one  hundred  and  seventy 
degrees  east ;  along  the  banks  of  the  Yenisei  as  far  south  as  the  mouth  of 
tlie  Upper  Tongouskai ;  and  along  the  sea  of  Okhotsk  as  far  as  the  town 
of  that  name  ;  and  thence  southwest  to  the  frontiers  of  China,  in  Daouria, 
and  to  the  north  of  Lake  Baikal.  Parts  of  these  extensive  tracts  the}' 
occupy  exclusively,  but  others  they  hold  in  common  with  the  Yakutes  and 
some  minor  tribes.  They  are  considered  the  best  formed  of  the  native 
Siberians,  are  very  expert  horsemen,  live  chiefly  by  hunting,  possess  such 
skill  in  the  working  of  iron  as  enables  them  to  prepare  their  own  firearms, 
and  are  generally  addicted  to  Shamanism.  Among  their  great  amusements 
are  cards  and  chess.  For  the  latter  they  carve  chessmen  very  elaborately 
out  of  the  mammoth's  teeth. 

The  Yakutes,  as  already  mentioned,  live  intermingled  with  the  Tungusi, 
and  confine  themselves  almost  wholly  to  the  rearing  of  horses  and  cattle, 
and  the  preparation  of  dairy-produce  from  them.  Tlie  herds  of  many  of 
them  amount  to  several  thousand  head.  They  have  made  considerable 
progress  in  civilization,  and  pay  some  attention  to  the  education  of  their 
children.  They  are  of  Tartar  origin,  and  not  a  few  of  them  are  nominal 
converts  to  Cliristianity,  though  the  majority  still  adhere  to  Shamanism. 

The  Tchouktchis  occupy  the  peninsula  formed  in  the  northeast  of  Sibe- 
ria, by  the  Arctic  ocean  on  the  north  and  the  sea  of  Okhotsk  on  the  south. 
They  are  very  jealous  of  their  independence,  and  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
be  nominally  subject  to  Russia.  Their  language  proves  them  to  have  a 
common  origin  with  the  Esquimaux.  They  consist  of  two  distinct  tribes, 
the  one  sedentary  and  the  other  nomadic.  The  former,  inhabiting  the  sea- 
shore, subsist  by  fishing,  in  which  they  show  great  courage  and  dexterity, 
and,  though  not  much  given  to  hunting,  kill  common  and  white  bears,  and 
polar  foxes ;  the  latter  live  intermingled  with  the  Koriaks,  and  occupy  the 
interior,  where  they  feed  large  herds  of  reindeer,  and  subsist  almost  entirely 
on  their  produce. 

Siberia  appears  to  have  been  partly  conquered  by  Zinghis  Khan  and  his 
successors,  but  did  not  become  known  to  Europe  till  the  year  1580,  when 
a  Cossack,  called  Yermak  Timofeyew,  who  had  long  robbed  the  vessels 
which  navigated  the  Volga,  finding  himself  hotly  pressed  by  the  czar  of 
Moscow,  crossed  over  into  Asia  with  his  accomplices.  Their  number  suf- 
ficed to  form  a  small  army,  and  their  courage  soon  enabled  them  to  acquire 
extensive  settlements.     These  Yermak  ofi"ered  to  the  czar,  on  condition  of 


328  ILLUSTRATED  DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

obtaining  pardon.  The  offer  was  accepted,  and  thus  Russia  for  the  first 
time  obtained  a  footing  in  Asia.  The  territories  thus  conquered  belonged 
to  the  Tartar  prince  Kutshum  Khan,  and  included  his  residence,  which, 
called  by  the  natives  Isker,  and  by  the  Cossacks  Sibir,  has  given  name  to 
the  whole  country. 

The  conquests  of  Yermak  continued  eastward,  and,  though  interrupted 
for  a  time  by  his  death  in  1584,  were  gradually  extended,  till  the  whole 
country  west  of  the  Obi  was  subjected  to  the  czar.  In  1604,  the  town  of 
Tomsk  was  founded,  and  became  a  centre  from  which  new  expeditions 
were  fitted  out  and  new  conquests  made.  Private  adventurers,  instigated 
chiefly  by  the  hope  of  plunder,  proceeded  in  all  directions  to  the  southward, 
where,  not  without  serious  reverses,  they  succeeded  in  expelling  the  Kir- 
ghiz ;  and  to  the  eastward,  where  they  entered  the  basin  of  the  Lena,  sub- 
dued the  Yakutes,  and  finally,  after  passing  the  Aldan  mountains,  reached 
the  sea  of  Okhotsk.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Lake  Baikal  a  formidable 
resistance  was  made  by  the  Buriats,  but  their  subjugation  was  finally  com- 
pleted in  1658.  The  town  of  Nertchinsk,  which  has  since  become  so  cele- 
brated for  its  mines,  was  then  founded,  and,  two  years  after,  that  of  Irkoutsk. 

A  further  extension  of  conquests  to  the  south  brought  the  Russo-Cossack 
adventurers  into  collision  with  the  Chinese ;  and  both  governments  taking 
part  in  the  quarrel,  a  war,  threatening  the  existence  of  one  or  other  of  the 
empires,  became  imminent.  It  was,  however,  prevented,  partly  by  the  in- 
tervention of  the  Jesuits  resident  at  Pekin,  and  a  treaty  in  1689  definitively 
fixed  the  boundaries  of  the  two  empires.  A  second  treaty,  in  1727,  con- 
firming the  former,  regulated  the  commercial  intercourse,  and  confined  it 
to  the  two  localities  of  Kiakhta  and  Mai-matshin. 

Never  has  so  large  a  territory  been  acquired  at  so  little  expense.  Rus- 
sia, almost  without  any  expenditure  of  her  own  means,  and  chiefly  by  the 
aid  of  a  few  Cossack  adventurers,  in  little  more  than  a  century  more  than 
doubled  her  area.  The  greater  part  of  it,  indeed,  is  a  frozen,  inhospitable 
region,  which  must  always  remain  comparatively  worthless  ;  but  vast  tracts 
enjoy  a  climate  and  possess  a  soil  well  adapted  for  agriculture,  and  seem 
destined,  whenever  the  tribes  roaming  over  them  can  be  induced  to  settle 
down  to  a  sedentary  life,  to  become  the  abodes  of  a  dense  population,  who, 
in  addition  to  the  resources  of  pasture  and  agriculture,  will  find  almost 
inexhaustible  wealth  in  mines  and  fisheries. 

Siberia  is  divided,  as  remarked  in  a  previous  chapter,  into  the  two  great 
governments  of  Western  and  Eastern  Siberia  :  the  former  comprising  the 
provinces  of  Tobolsk,  Tomsk,  and  Yeniseisk  ;  and  the  latter  those  of  Ir- 
koutsk, Yakoutsk,  Okhotsk,  and  Kamtschatka. 

Tobolsk,  the  westernmost  government  of  Western  Siberia,  comprises  a 
large  portion  of  the  basin  of  the  great  river  Obi,  or  the  country  between 
the  fiftieth  and  seventy-third  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  sixtieth  and 
eightieth  degrees  of  east  longitude :  having  on  the  east  the  government  ot 


WESTERN  SIBERIA  —  TOBOLSK. 


329 


A  Kirghiz  Merchant  in  his  Tent. 


Yeniseisk ;  on  the  south,  Tomsk,  and  the  territory  of  the  Kirghiz ;  on  the 
west,  the  governments  of  Orenburg,  Perm,  and  Archangel ;  and  on  the 
north,  the  sea  of  Kara,  gulf  of  Obi,  &c.  Its  area  is  about  seven  hundred 
thousand  square  miles. 

The  surface  of  this  vast  province  includes  the  four  divisions  into  which, 
according  to  its  productive  powers,  as  described  a  few  pages  back,  the 
plain  of  Western  Siberia  is  divided.  The  tundra^  or  northern  portion,  is 
the  most  sterile  imaginable,  consisting  of  all  but  boundless  moors  and 
morasses,  interspersed  here  and  there  with  some  stunted  shrubs,  and  occu- 
pied by  only  a  few  Ostiak  tribes,  who  subsist  chiefly  by  fishing,  and  the 
chase  of  fur-bearing  animals.  Such  is  the  severity  of  the  climate,  that  this 
portion  is  usually  covered  with  ice  and  snow  for  about  nine  months  of  the 
year  ;  and,  during  the  other  months,  ice  is  always  found  at  a  little  distance 
below  the  surface. 

The  agricultural  portion  includes  extensive  tracts  watered  by  the  Irtysch, 
a  part  of  the  Ishim,  and  the  Tobol.  Though  not  generally  fertile,  this  dis- 
trict comprises  some  very  productive  tracts,  and  it  has  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  towns,  though  few  of  them  are  of  any  great  size.  Even  in  this 
part  of  the  government,  the  climate  is  very  severe  ;  for,  though  the  summer 
heats  be  sometimes  oppressive,  they  are  but  of  short  duration,  and  the 
winters  are  long  and  excessively  cold.  Rye,  oats,  barley,  and  buckwheat, 
are  the  principal  crops. 

Iron  and  copper  are  extensively  raised  in  various  parts  of  the  Ural  chain, 
and  gold  and  silver  are  produced  both  there  and  in  the  Altai.  Soap  and 
tallow  works,  tanneries,  mat-manufactories,  &c.,  arc  found  in  different 
parts  :  but  the  commerce  of  the  government  is  of  more  importance  than  its 
manufacturing  industry.  Except  the  clergy,  and  persons  in  the  govern- 
ment employment,  all  the  inhabitants  are  more  or  less  engaged  in  traflBc, 
exchanging  their  sable  and  other  furs,  cattle,  cassia,  fresh  and  dried  fish, 


330  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

and  game,  with  the  Russian  traders  for  grain,  flour,  hardware,  &c.  The 
merchants  of  Tobolsk,  Toumen,  and  the  principal  towns  in  the  south  and 
west,  send  every  summer  boats  laden  with  flour  and  other  provisions,  by 
way  of  the  Irtysch  and  Obi,  to  Berezov  and  other  small  towns  in  the  north, 
which  return  with  cargoes  of  fish,  and  with  valuable  furs,  procured  from 
the  Ostiaks  and  other  tribes.  These  furs  are  afterward  partly  sent,  with 
soap,  tallow,  and  hides,  to  the  fair  at  Nijnei-Novgorod ;  partly  to  the  Kir- 
ghiz, to  be  bartered  for  horses,  cattle,  and  cotton-goods  obtained  through 
Bokliara ;  and  partly  to  Kiakhta,  on  the  Chinese  frontier,  where  they  are 
exchanged  for  tea,  silk-fabrics,  and  other  Chinese  products.  The  govern- 
ment, in  common  with  the  rest  of  Siberia,  lies  under  the  greatest  disadvan- 
tages with  respect  to  water-communication  :  the  frozen  shores  of  its  northern 
coast  are  inaccessible  for  the  purposes  of  trade ;  and  its  rivers,  although 
equal  in  magnitude  to  any  belonging  to  the  Asiatic  continent,  are  covered 
with  ice  during  the  greater  portion  of  the  year.  The  most  common  mode 
of  travelling,  as  likewise  of  conveying  goods,  throughout  a  great  portion 
of  the  government,  is,  as  in  the  northern  part  of  Europe,  in  sledges  drawn 
by  dogs  or  reindeer. 

Mr.  Bell  and  Captain  Cochrane  agree  in  representing  the  Tartar  villages 
in  the  agricultural  part  of  the  government  as  neat,  clean,  and  comfortable. 
Their  wliite,  plastered  chimneys  and  ovens  reminded  the  latter  of  his  own 
country  (Scotland).  The  houses  consist  in  general  of  one  or  two  rooms. 
Near  the  hearth  is  an  iron  kettle,  and  at  one  end  of  the  apartment  a  bench 
covered  witli  mats  or  skins :  on  this  all  the  family  sit  by  day,  and  sleep  by 
night.  Tlie  walls  are  of  wood  and  moss  —  a  layer  of  moss  between  every 
two  beams.  A  square  hole  is  cut  out  for  a  window,  and,  to  supply  the 
v/ant  of  glass,  a  piece  of  ice  is  often  put  in ;  two  or  three  pieces  will  last 
the  whole  winter.  They  use  no  stoves,  and  have  neither  chairs  nor  stools. 
The  furniture  consists  of  a  few  earthenware  utensils,  and  a  set  of  tea-table 
appendages.  The  women  never  eat  nor  drink  till  the  men  have  done,  and 
then  seldom  in  their  presence. 

Owing  to  the  thinness  of  the  population,  and  the  immense  distances  be- 
tween the  diff'erent  towns,  education  is  very  little  diffused,  and  besides  the 
schools  in  the  capital,  there  are,  perhaps,  hardly  a  dozen  in  the  rest  of  the 
government.     Except  Tobolsk,  the  capital,  there  are  no  towns  of  note. 

The  city  of  Tobolsk,  the  capital  of  Western  Siberia,  and  of  the  govern- 
ment of  its  own  name  (and,  indeed,  of  the  whole  of  northern  Asia),  is  sit- 
uated on  the  Irtysch,  close  to  its  junction  with  the  Tobol.  The  town 
proper  is  built  principally  on  the  flat  summit  of  a  hill  commanding  an  ex- 
tensive view,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  strong  brick  wall  with  square  towers 
and  bastions.  When  approached  from  the  west  it  has  a  remarkably  fine 
appearance,  and  it  really  contains  some  good  and  solid  buildings  —  nvost 
of  the  government-offices,  and  the  residences  of  the  Russian  and  German 
settlers,  being  within  the  walls.  Along  the  banks  of  the  river  are  suburbs, 
enclosed  by  a  ditch  and  palisade,  and  inhabited  mostly  by  Tartars.     The 


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WESTERN   SIBERIA  —  TOMSK.  333 

streets,  wliich  cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  are  generally  paved  with 
wood.  Among  its  public  edifices,  the  most  remarkable  are,  the  cathedral, 
in  the  Byzantine  style  of  architecture,  with  five  cupolas,  the  archbishop's 
and  governor's  palaces,  a  monastery,  and  a  large  hospital.  It  has  about 
twenty  clmrches,  chiefly  of  wood,  as  are  most  of  the  houses. 

The  climate  in  winter  is  very  severe,  so  much  so  as  sometimes  to  freeze 
mercury  ;  and,  next  to  Yakoutsk,  Tobolsk  is  one  of  the  coldest  towns  in 
Siberia :  but  the  dress  and  houses  of  the  inhabitants  being  fitted  to  resist 
its  influence,  it  is  not  so  disagreeable  as  might  be  supposed,  and,  in  other 
respects,  it  is  not  an  unpleasant  residence.  The  rivers  furnish  an  inex- 
haustible supply  of  fish,  and  provisions,  fur,  and  game  of  all  kinds,  are 
cheap  and  abundant ;  and  shops,  theatres,  and  places  of  public  amusement, 
are  numerous.  Being  on  the  great  road  from  Russia  to  China,  it  is  well 
supplied  with  most  European  and  Chinese  goods  ;  and  French  wines,  Eng- 
lish porter,  and  books  of  all  kinds,  are  to  be  met  with.  Dobell  says,  "  The 
society  of  Tobolsk  may  fairly  stand  a  comparison  with  that  of  some  of  the 
best  provincial  towns  in  Russia."  Among  the  inhabitants  are  many  de- 
scendants of  the  Swedish  officers,  sent  thither  after  tlie  battle  of  Poltava, 
to  whom  Tobolsk  is  mainly  indebted  for  its  superior  civilization. 

This  city,  which  was  founded  in  1587,  is  the  residence  of  the  governor- 
general  of  Western  Siberia.  It  lias  two  ecclesiastical  and  several  Lancas- 
trian schools,  and  various  charitable  institutions.  No  convicts  or  male- 
factors are  sent  thither  from  European  Russia,  although  persons  banished 
to  Siberia  for  political  oflences  are  sometimes  permitted  to  reside  in  To- 
bolsk.    The  population  is  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  thousand. 

The  government  of  Tomsk  lies  principally  between  the  fiftieth  and  six- 
tieth degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  seventy-fifth  and  ninetieth  degrees 
of  east  longitude.  It  has  the  government  of  Tobolsk  on  the  west,  that  of 
Yeniseisk  on  the  north  and  east,  and  the  Altai  range  on  the  south.  Its 
area  is  about  three  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  square  miles. 

This  province  belongs  to  the  pastoral  and  agricultural  divisions  of  Sibe- 
ria, and  in  its  general  features  closely  resembles  the  more  southern  parts  of 
the  governments  of  Tobolsk  and  Yeniseisk.  Large  quantities  of  gold  are 
obtained  from  the  various  gold-washings  in  this  government.  It  has  very 
few  manufactures,  but  there  are  extensive  forges  at  Kholyvan  and  Barnaul. 
Since  1838,  Tomsk  has  comprised  a  portion  of  the  government  of  Omsk,  the 
other  part  of  the  latter  government  being  included  in  that  of  Tobolsk. 

Tomsk,  the  capital  of  this  government,  is  situated  on  the  Tom,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Obi,  six  hundred  and  fifty  miles  east  by  soutli  of  Tobolsk.  It 
has  about  two  thousand  houses,  and  from  ten  to  twelve  thousand  inhabit- 
ants. Here  are  workhouses  for  exiles ;  coarse  cloth,  leather,  and  soap 
manufoctories  ;  bari'acks,  public  magazines,  military  and  other  hospitals  ; 
an  orphan-house,  a  dispensary,  &g. 

There  are  a  number  of  handsome  houses  in  Tomsk,  but  the  town  is  irreg- 


334  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 

ulai'ly  built,  except  the  part  that  occupies  a  hill  overlooking  the  river  Torn 
and  the  country  round.  Next  to  Krasnoiarsk,  Tomsk  is  said  to  be  the 
cheapest  and  most  plentiful  spot  in  Siberia.  Its  principal  buildings  are 
the  cathedral  and  another  churcli,  the  tribunals,  treasury  (in  which  are 
the  magazines  of  furs  collected  as  tribute  from  the  various  native  tribes), 
and  two  convents.  The  inhabitants  carry  on  a  brisk  trade  with  the  Cal- 
niucks  and  Ostiaks,  in  cattle,  furs,  &c. ;  and  the  town  is  an  emporium  for 
distilled  liquors  and  Chinese  goods.     It  was  founded  in  1604. 

The  government  of  Yeniseisk  lies  to  the  east  of  the  governments  of  To- 
bolsk and  Tomsk,  and  on  the  west  of  the  governments  of  Yakoutsk  and 
Irkoutsk,  extending  from  the  Altai  mountains  to  the  Arctic  ocean.  Its 
area  is  nine  hundred  and  forty-five  thousand  square  miles. 

This  government  includes  almost  every  variety  of  climate,  soil,  and  pro- 
ductions, peculiar  to  Siberia.  Its  southern  inliabitants,  like  the  patriarchs 
of  old,  dwell  in  tents,  and,  with  their  flocks  and  herds,  lead  a  wandering- 
life,  changing  from  place  to  place  as  circumstances  may  direct,  or  Provi- 
dence guide  them.  Those  who  reside  in  the  centre  have  fixed  residences, 
and  enter  into  all  the  pursuits  of  agriculture  and  traffic  ;  while  the  more 
northern  tribes  are  in  a  state  approximating  to  savage  wildness,  and  evince 
all  the  cunning  and  ferocity  of  their  native  wolves.  The  destruction  of 
the  latter  constitutes  their  chief  occupation  and  support ;  and  after  thus 
supplying  tliemselves  witli  clothing,  the  superfluous  produce  of  their  toil  is 
disposed  of  to  tlie  Russian  merchant,  chiefly  in  barter  for  knives,  tobacco, 
beads,  or  such  other  necessaries  or  luxuries  as  their  own  country  denies, 
or  savage  taste  directs. 

This  province  is  admirably  adapted  for  commerce,  the  fine  and  majestic 
river  Yenisei  running  through  its  centre  from  south  to  north,  and  pouring 
its  voluminous  waters  (the  accumulation  of  numberless  tributary  rivers) 
into  the  Frozen  ocean.  Its  horses  and  horned  cattle  are  also  more  esteemed 
than  those  of  any  other  part  of  Siberia. 

Krasnoiarsk  (from  Krasnoi,  "red,"  and  i/ar,  "cliff"),  tlie  capital  of 
tlie  above  government,  lies  on  a  low  tongue  of  land  between  the  Yenisei 
and  Kacha,  at  their  junction,  in  a  plain  of  great  beauty  and  fertility,  two 
hundred  and  ninety  miles  east  by  south  of  Tomsk,  and  in  the  direct  route 
from  Western  Siberia  to  Irkoutsk,  Yakoutsk,  &c.  It  is  a  place  of  consid- 
erable trade.  The  principal  street  is  wide  and  well  levelled,  and  is  inter- 
sected at  right  angles  by  similar  cross-streets,  and  in  the  middle  of  the 
town  are  two  handsome  squares.  Many  of  the  houses  are  built  of  brick, 
though  the  most  of  them  ai-e  of  wood,  painted  outside  with  bright  colors. 
It  has  a  catliedral  and  three  other  churches,  and  a  synagogue ;  spacious 
public  offices,  the  last  generally  of  stone ;  and  a  large  public  factory,  or 
workhouse,  for  the  employment  of  the  numerous  artisan-convicts,  in  which 
tlie  tanning  of  leather,  and  the  construction  of  droskies,  sledges,  and  all 
sorts  of  carriages,  are  carried  on.     There  are  numerous  Tartar  graves  in 


EASTERN  SIBERIA  —  IRKOUTSK.  335 

the  neighborhood,  and  a  fine  collection  of  the  antiquities  which  have  been 
discovered  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  sights  of  Krasnoiarsk.  The  dis- 
trict of  country  subordinate  to  this  town  is  the  most  productive  in  the 
whole  province  for  grain,  cattle,  horses,  &c.  Provisions  are  very  plentiful 
and  cheap ;  fish  and  game  are  also  in  abundance ;  and  the  neighborhood 
is  famous  for  wild-goats,  the  flesh  of  which  is  said  to  be  equal  to  venison. 
Krasnoiarsk  within  the  last  twenty-five  years  has  risen  considerably  in  im- 
portance ;  and  it  has  now  a  brisk  traffic  in  Chinese  goods  and  agricultural 
produce.  Its  population  is  about  eight  thousand.  Some  of  the  other  more 
important  towns  of  the  government  are  Yeniseisk,  Suganskoi,  Kanskoi, 
Korgina,  Tonka,  &c. 

The  government  of  Irkoutsk  lies  in  the  southern  part  of  Siberia,  be- 
tween the  forty-ninth  and  sixty-third  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the 
ninety-sixth  and  one  hundred  and  twentieth  degrees  of  east  longitude.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  the  government  of  Yakoutsk,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Lena  and  Vittim ;  on  the  southeast  and  south 
by  the  Chinese  empire  ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  government  of  Yeniseisk. 
Its  length  from  east  to  west  is  about  eleven  hundred  miles,  and  its  breadth 
about  one  thousand  miles,  comprising  an  area  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  square  miles. 

This  territory  is  divided  between  three  river-basins — the  Amur,  Amoor,  or 
Saghalien,  the  smallest  of  the  three,  which  drains  the  eastern  portion,  and 
carries  its  waters  through  Mantchouria,  in  China,  to  the  sea  of  Okhotsk ; 
the  Lena,  in  the  north,  which  it  drains  in  a  great  measure  directly,  and  by 
its  tributary,  the  Vittim  ;  and  the  Yenisei,  in  the  centre  and  west,  receiving 
its  waters  through  the  Angara,  supplied  by  numerous  small  streams,  but 
more  especially  by  Lake  Baikal,  which  lies  wholly  within  the  government. 
The  last  two  basins  belong  to  the  Arctic  ocean,  and  are  separated  from 
that  of  the  Amur  by  the  Daouria  mountains. 

The  greater  part  of  the  government  having  a  northern  exposure,  the  cli- 
mate is  more  severe  than  usual  under  the  same  latitude,  and  in  winter 
mercury  often  freezes.  The  summer  is  of  short  duration,  though  very 
warm  ;  the  air  generally  clear  and  serene.  A  great  part  of  the  surface  is 
occupied  by  forests,  which  furnish  excellent  timber,  and  abound  with  all 
kinds  of  game.  Bears  are  numerous,  many  of  whom,  during  the  severe 
winter  of  1821,  impelled  by  hunger,  made  their  appearance  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  Irkoutsk.  One  was  killed  within  a  peasant's  cottage,  and 
two  in  the  very  streets  of  the  town.  They  were  so  emaciated,  that  the 
skins  were  of  no  value. 

A  singular  accident  took  place  in  the  summer  of  the  year  above  named. 
A  peasant  who  resided  at  about  four  miles  from  the  town,  had  a  dancing- 
bear,  which  was  considered  so  tame,  that  he  had  been  exhibiting  it,  on  the 
day  in  question,  within  the  house  of  the  commandant  of  Irkoutsk,  for  the 
amusement  of  the  children.     On  their  return  home,  Mr.  Bruin  becoming 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 


ftOI3£RT:'.= 


Peasant  attacked  by  a  Beab. 


stubborn,  and  refusing  to  travel  as  fast  as  his  master  wished  him,  the  latter 
proceeded  to  beat  him ;  when  the  infuriated  animal  turned  round,  seized 
upon  him,  and  literally  crushed  him  to  a  mummy ! 

The  pastures  of  this  government  maintain  great  numbers  of  cattle  and 
sheep,  the  latter  being  chiefly  of  the  native  or  flat-tailed  variety  ;  the  breeds 
of  cattle  sent  here  and  throughout  Siberia  have  generally  diminished  in 
size,  but  improved  in  hardihood.  The  principal  cultivated  crops  are  rye 
and  barley ;  hemp  and  flax  also  succeed  well.     There  is  not  much  fruit. 

Many  indications  of  volcanic  agency  are  discoverable,  particularly  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  government,  and  earthquakes  are  not  unfrequent.  In 
the  plain  along  the  Angara,  below  the  town  of  Irkoutsk,  a  fine-grained 
sandstone,  of  the  carboniferous  system,  prevails ;  and  strata  of  pure  coal, 
nine  feet  thick,  have  been  found  in  it.  The  mountains  are  generally  gran- 
itic. The  minerals  are  very  valuable,  and  include  gold,  found  chiefly  in 
the  lateral  valleys  Avhich  run  from  the  central  ridge  of  the  Jablonnoi,  sil- 
ver, lead,  zinc,  and  tin.  The  principal  mines  are  situated  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  government,  and  are  wrought,  in  the  direction  of  the  stock,  over 
au  extent  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles.  In  working  the  tin,  splendid 
cells  of  rock-crystals,  with  green,  yellow,  and  blue  emeralds,  and  with  to- 


EASTERN  SIBERIA  —  IRKOUTSK.  337 

pazes,  are  met  with.  Salt  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  lakes  and  brine- 
springs,  but  is  not  turned  to  much  account. 

Manufactures  exist  to  a  very  limited  extent,  and  consist  chiefly  of  soap, 
leather,  and  glass.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  with  China,  through 
Kiakhta ;  and  in  furs,  which,  after  metals,  constitute  the  principal  articles 
of  export. 

A  considerable  proportion  of  the  Russian  inhabitants  are  descendants  of 
exiles  from  the  West.  The  natives  in  greatest  number  are  the  Tungusi, 
Mongols,  and  Buriats.  The  religion  of  the  Greek  church  is  generally  pro- 
fessed, but  many  continue  addicted  to  the  practices  of  Shamanism.  For 
administrative  purposes,  the  government  is  divided  into  six  districts  or 
circles,  of  which  Irkoutsk  is  the  capital. 

Irkoutsk,  the  capital  of  the  government,  is  situated  in  a  plain,  about 
twelve  hundred  feet  above  the  sea-level,  on  the  Angara,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Irkout.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Angara,  which  is  here 
about  one  thousand  feet  wide,  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  ditch,  and  well 
built,  consisting  of  wooden  houses,  which  are  all  neatly  planked  outside 
and  painted  yellow  or  light  gray.  The  streets,  though  not  paved,  have 
wooden  pathways  for  foot-passengers,  and  are  kept  in  good  order.  Its 
agreeable  climate,  picturesque  situation,  the  good  breeding  and  wealth  of 
its  inhabitants,  and  its  adaptation  for  commerce,  conspire  to  make  it  the 
most  important  and  flourishing  city  of  Siberia,  as  well  as  one  of  the  first 
towns  of  the  Russian  empire. 

One  of  the  chief  ornaments  of  Irkoutsk  is  a  noble  quadrangular  parade, 
one  side  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  residence  of  the  governor,  and  other 
public  offices ;  and  most  of  the  houses  have  kitchen-gardens  behind  them. 
The  principal  buildings  include  a  great  number  of  churches  (one  of  them 
a  cathedral),  most  of  which  have  been  erected  at  the  expense  of  rich  and 
pious  merchants  ;  two  convents  ;  a  handsome  exchange,  built  of  stone,  and 
surrounded  by  stately  poplars  and  pines ;  an  admiralty,  with  dockyards  on 
the  Angara ;  the  offices  of  the  American  Company,  which  would  be  consid- 
ered spacious  and  ornamental  in  any  town  of  Europe  or  of  the  United 
States ;  a  school  of  medicine,  a  gymnasium,  and  several  otlier  schools ;  a 
public  library  of  five  thousand  volumes,  a  mineralogical  cabinet,  two  hos- 
pitals, a  workhouse  and  house  of  correction,  and  a  large  and  Avell-ventilated 
prison  ;  the  gostimi  clvor,  or  bazar,  supplied  with  articles  of  Chinese  and 
European  manufacture  ;  and  in  its  vicinity  are  the  markets,  supplied  with 
fish,  flesh,  meal,  with  its  motley  crowd  of  Buriats,  Russian  women,  &g. 

The  manufactures  consist  of  woollen  and  linen  cloth,  hats,  leather  (com- 
mon and  Morocco),  soap,  and  glass.  There  are  also  sevei-al  distilleries. 
The  trade  is  in  hay,  tea,  and  other  articles  imported  from  China,  and  more 
especially  in  fur,  for  which  the  Russian  American  Company  have  here  large 
warehouses. 

Irkoutsk  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop ;  and,  being  the  residence  of  a  gov- 
ernor, is  regarded  as  the  capital  of  Eastern  Siberia.     The  police  of  the 

22 


338  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

city  is  so  excellently  regulated,  that  a  person  can  not  walk  out  after  dark, 
without  being  challenged  in  all  directions  by  a  watchman.  As  a  substi- 
tute for  the  watchman's  rattle  or  club,  and  as  a  mode  of  communicating 
with  each  other,  these  guardians  of  the  night  carry  with  them  a  mallet, 
with  which  they  beat  a  plank  of  wood,  when  the  signal  is  repeated  in  suc- 
cession by  each  of  them.  The  society  of  the  upper  class  is  quite  European 
in  its  character,  but  many  persons  belonging  to  it  have  the  misfortune  or 
stigma  of  being  exiles.  The  inhabitants  generally  appear  to  be  very  com- 
fortable.    The  population  is  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  thousand. 

Kiakhta  (or  Kiachta),  and  Mai-raatshin  (or  Maiinacheri) ^  constitute  a 
sort  of  double-town  (or  more  properly  two  towns,  on  the  boundary  between 
this  government  and  the  Chinese  territory  of  Mongolia,  one  hundred  and 
seventy  miles  southeast  of  Irkoutsk  ;  the  one  town,  called  Kiakhta,  belong- 
ing to  Russia,  and  the  other,  called  Mai-matshin,  to  China).  It  stands  on 
a  small  river  of  the  same  name,  two  thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and 
was  founded  in  1728,  on  the  conclusion  of  the  commercial  treaty  between 
the  Russians  and  the  Chinese.  It  derives  its  importance  from  being  the 
only  recognised  entrepot  for  the  trade  between  the  two  countries,  and  pre- 
sents a  singular  appearance  from  the  striking  contrasts  it  exhibits.  In  the 
Russian  portion  of  the  town,  the  houses  of  merchants  of  the  better  class 
have  stairs  and  balconies  in  front,  occasionally  painted  and  embellished 
with  architectural  ornaments.  Toward  Mai-matshin,  or  the  Chinese  por- 
tion, a  narrow  door  opens  in  front  of  a  long  wooden  building,  and  leads 
into  the  inner  quadrangle  of  a  Russian  warehouse.  On  the  opposite  side, 
a  con-esponding  door  opens  upon  a  wooden  barricade,  and  this  barricade 
is  the  barrier  of  China,  the  door  of  which  is  closed  at  sunset,  when  Chinese 
and  Russians  must  betake  themselves  to  their  respective  quarters.  The 
Russian  side  has  an  eagle  above  it,  with  the  cipher  of  the  reigning  empe- 
ror. The  Chinese  side,  forming  the  entrance  to  Mai-matshin,  is  surmounted 
with  a  cone  or  pyramid.  The  efiect  produced  in  passing  it  is  described  by 
Erman  as  almost  magical.  The  sober  hues  of  the  Russian  side  are,  all  at 
once,  succeeded  by  fantastic,  gaudy  finery.  The  streets  consist  of  a  bed 
of  well-beaten  clay,  kept  neatly  swept,  but  so  narrow  that  two  camels  can 
scarcely  pass  each  other.  On  either  side  are  walls  of  the  same  clay,  with 
perforations,  forming  windows  of  Chinese  paper.  These  walls  are  the 
sides  of  houses,  but  are  not  easily  seen  to  be  so,  in  consequence  of  the  flat- 
ness of  the  roofs,  and  the  gaudy  paper  lanterns  and  flags  with  inscrip- 
tions, which  line  the  streets,  and  stretch  across  from  roof  to  roof.  There 
are  two  Buddhist  temples  in  the  town,  containing  five  colossal  images  and 
numerous  smaller  idols.  The  trade  carried  on  is  very  extensive.  The 
Russians  receive  tea  to  the  amount  of  about  five  millions  of  pounds  annu- 
ally, together  with  silks,  nankeens,  porcelain,  sugar-candy,  tobacco,  rhu- 
bark,  and  musk ;  and  give  in  exchange  furs,  skins,  leather,  woollen  and 
linen  cloth,  cattle,  and  reindeer-horns,  from  the  latter  of  whicli  a  gelatine 
is  obtained  that  forms  a  much-esteemed  delicacy  among  the  Chinese. 


EASTERN  SIBEKIA  —  YAKOUTSK. 


339 


Tlie  vast  government  or  province  of  Yakoutsk  extends  from  the  Altai 
or  Stanovoy  mountains  on  the  south  to  the  Frozen  ocean  on  the  north,  hav- 
ing the  governments  of  Irkoutsk  and  Yeniseisk  on  the  west,  and  Okhotsk 
and  the  Pacific  ocean  on  the  east,  and  occupying  at  least  three  fifths  of 
Eastern  Siberia,  or  one  million  four  hundred  thousand  square  miles. 

The  province  is  watered  by  the  great  rivers  Lena,  Yana,  Indijirka,  and 
Kolima,  which  supply  vast  quantities  of  fish.  Iron,  salt,  and  excellent 
talc,  are  the  chief  mineral  products :  game,  of  many  kinds,  is  abundant. 
Large  herds  of  cattle,  &c.,  are  reared  near  the  town  of  Yakoutsk;  and, 
notwithstanding  the  severity  of  the  winters,  rye,  barley,  and  even  wheat, 
are  said  to  succeed  well  throughout  the  province,  except  in  those  parts 
wliich  are  so  far  north  as  to  render  the  summer  too  short  to  ripen  grain. 


Yakoutsk. 

Yakoutsk,  the  capital  of  this  government,  is  situated  on  the  Lena,  about 
eleven  hundred  and  fifty  miles  northeast  of  L'koutsk,  and  has  all  the  char- 
acter of  the  cold  and  gloomy  north.  It  stands  on  a  barren  flat,  near  the 
river.  The  streets  are  wide,  but  the  houses  and  cottages  are  poor  in  ap- 
pearance, and  surrounded  by  tall  wooden  fences.  Here  are  five  churches, 
a  convent,  a  stone  building  (g-ostinoi  dvor)  for  commercial  purposes,  and 
an  old  wooden  fortress  with  its  ruined  tower,  built  in  1647,  by  the  Cossack 
conquerors  of  Siberia.  The  town  has,  however,  undergone  great  improve- 
ments in  the  last  forty  years.  The  Yakute  huts  have  been  replaced  by  sub- 
stantial houses  ;  the  windows  of  ice,  or  talc,  have  given  way  to  glass  in  the 
better  class  of  houses,  and  the  more  wealthy  inhabitants  begin  to  have 
higher  rooms,  larger  windows,  double  doors,  &c. 


340  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

Yakoutsk  is  the  centre  of  the  interior  trade  of  Eastern  Siberia.  All  the 
most  costly  furs,  as  well  as  the  more  common  kinds,  walrus-teeth,  and  fos- 
sil remains,  are  brought  here  for  sale,  or  barter,  during  the  ten  weeks  of 
summer,  from  Anabor  and  Behring's  straits,  the  coasts  of  the  Polar  sea, 
and  even  from  Okhotsk  and  Kamtschatka.  It  is  not  easy  to  imagine  the 
mountain-like  piles  of  furs  of  all  kinds  seen  here  ;  their  value  sometimes 
amounts  to  nearly  three  millions  of  roubles.  Almost  all  the  Russian  set- 
tlers in  Yakoutsk  employ  their  little  capital  in  purchasing  furs  from  the 
Yakutes  during  the  winter,  on  which  they  realize  a  good  profit  at  the  time 
of  the  fair,  when  they  sell  them  to  the  Irkoutsk  merchants. 

As  soon  as  the  Lena  is  clear  of  ice,  the  merchants  begin  to  arrive  from 
Irkoutsk,  bringing  with  them  for  barter,  grain,  meal,  the  pungent  Circas- 
sian tobacco,  tea,  sugar,  rum,  Chinese  cotton  and  silk  stuffs,  yarn,  cloth  of 
inferior  quality,  hardware,  glass,  &c.  But  at  the  annual  fair  there  is  not 
the  appearance  of  animation  and  bustle  which  might  naturally  be  expected. 
The  goods  are  not  exposed  for  sale,  and  most  of  the  purchases  are  effected 
in  the  houses  or  enclosures  of  the  citizens. 

The  traveller  Dobell  says  that  the  inhabitants  of  Yakoutsk  are  hospita- 
ble and  gay.  Several  balls  were  given  during  his  stay,  and  the  dress, 
manners,  and  appearance  of  the  people,  far  surpassed  what  he  expected  in 
so  remote  a  situation.  The  variations  of  climate  here  are  extraordinary  ; 
for,  though,  on  the  whole,  cold  predominates  to  a  very  great  extent — the 
thermometer  in  winter  often  falling  to  fifty-six  degrees  below  the  zero  of 
Fahrenheit  —  the  heat  in  cummer  is  sometimes  not  inferior  to  that  of  the 
torrid  zone !     Yakoutsk  has  a  population  of  about  six  thousand. 

The  government  of  Okhotsk  forms  a  comparatively  narrow  tract,  about 
one  thousand  miles  long,  with  a  breadth  varying  from  eighty  to  about  two 
hundred  miles,  stretching  along  the  sea  of  Okhotsk,  which  v/ashes  it  on  tlie 
south,  and  partly  separates  it  from  the  peninsula  of  Kamtschatka,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  northeast  Ijy  the  country  of  the  Tchouktchis,  and  on  the 
northwest  and  southwest  by  the  government  of  Yakoutsk.  It  has  an  area 
of  one  hundred  and  seventy  thousand  square  miles. 

The  coast-line  of  Okhotsk  is  indented  by  several  large  sea-arms,  among 
which  are  those  of  Penjinsk,  Gijiginsk,  and  Tanish  ;  and  its  interior  is 
traversed  centrally,  and  nearly  throughout  its  whole  length,  by  the  chain 
of  the  Stanovoi  mountains,  which  here  form  the  water-shed  between  the 
Pacific  and  the  Arctic  oceans ;  sending  to  the  former  numerous  compara- 
tively short  and  rapid  streams,  which  fall  into  the  sea  of  Okhotsk,  and 
giving  rise  to  several  large  rivers  —  the  Omolon,  Kolima,  and  Indijirka — 
which  flow  into  the  latter. 

Notwithstanding  the  rigor  of  the  climate,  there  are  considerable  tracts 
of  heathy  pasture  and  scattered  clumps,  chiefly  of  alder  and  birch,  fre- 
quented by  animals  valual)le  for  their  furs.  The  coasts  are  well  supplied 
with  fish,  and  are  often  visited  by  large  shoals  of  the  whale-tribe.     The 


EASTERN   SIBERIA OKHOTSK KAMTSCHATKA.  341 

only  domestic  animals  are  reindeers  and  dogs.  Amber  is  occasionally 
found  along  the  shores  of  the  gulf  of  Penjinsk.  The  government  is  chiefly 
used  as  a  penal  settlement  for  the  most  hardened  offenders,  and  the  inhab- 
itants consist,  for  the  most  part,  either  of  them,  or  their  descendants. 

Okhotsk,  the  capital  of  this  government,  is  situated  on  a  narrow  tonguo 
of  land  projecting  into  the  sea  of  Okhotsk,  at  the  mouths  of  the  Okhota  and 
Kuchtiu.  It  consists  of  several  irregularly-placed  clusters  of  indifferent 
log-houses,  including  a  large  magazine  belonging  to  the  Russo-American 
Trading  Company ;  a  church,  several  government-offices,  a  school  of  navi- 
gation, and  an  infirmary.  The  building-yards  annually  turn  out  or  repair 
a  considerable  number  of  small  vessels  ;  and  the  harbor,  though  so  shallow 
as  not  to  admit  large  vessels,  yet,  being  the  best  in  the  sea  of  Okhotsk,  has 
a  considerable  trade.     The  population  is  about  one  thousand. 

Kamtschatka,  a  long  and  rather  narrow  peninsula,  lies  between  the 
fifty-first  and  sixty-first  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  the  one  hundred  and 
fifty -fifth  and  one  hundred  and  seventy-fourth  degrees  of  east  longitude. 
It  is  bounded  north  by  the  country  of  the  Tchouktchis,  west  by  the  gov- 
ernment and  sea  of  Okhotsk,  south  and  southeast  by  the  North  Pacific,  and 
east  by  the  sea  of  Kamtschatka.  Its  length  is  eight  hundred  and  seventy 
miles ;  its  breadth  is  very  irregular,  owing  to  numerous  deep  indentations, 
which  exist  on  the  eastern  and  contrast  with  the  regular  uniformity  of  the 
western  side.  At  the  middle,  where  it  is  widest,  the  breadth  is  two  hun- 
dred and  eighty  miles ;  toward  the  north  it  varies  from  eighty  to  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles ;  while  in  the  south  it  narrows  rapidly  on  both  sides, 
till  it  terminates  in  the  low  and  narrow  tongue  of  land  which  forms  Cape 
Lopatka.     It  contains  eighty-four  thousand  square  miles. 

The  country,  as  seen  from  the  sea,  is  rugged  and  desolate.  Through  its 
whole  length,  from  north  to  soutli,  it  is  traversed  by  a  lofty  chain  of  the 
Stanovoy  mountains,  crowned  with  numerous  volcanoes,  many  of  them  ex- 
tinct, but  many  also  highly  active.  That  of  Kliutshewsk  is  sixteen  thou- 
sand five  hundred  feet  in  height.  It  is  particularly  described  by  Erman, 
who,  in  1829,  ascended  within  eight  thousand  feet  of  the  summit,  and 
saw  it  in  sublime  activity,  pouring  forth  a  continuous  stream  of  lava,  which, 
at  first  opposed  in  its  progress  by  masses  of  snow  and  ice,  soon  burst  the 
barrier,  and  precipitated  itself  into  the  sea,  with  a  noise  which  was  heard 
for  a  distance  of  more  than  fifty  miles !  This  mountain  rises  from  a  large 
base,  which  swells  in  an  elliptic  curve,  furrowed  by  deep  ravines,  and 
crowned  by  four  cones.  There  is  nothing  in  its  structure  resembling  a 
granitic  mountain,  or  any  other  primitive  rock.  It  is  an  augitic,  amor- 
phous, and  strongly-blistered  mass,  with  large  crystals  of  Labrador  felspar. 
The  volcanoes  of  Kamtschatka  are  evidently  part  of  a  continuous  line  of 
volcanic  action,  which  commences  in  the  north  of  the  Aleutian  isles,  near 
Russian  America,  and  extends,  first  in  a  western  direction,  for  nearly  two 
hundred  miles,  and  then  south,  without  interruption,  through  a  space  of 


342  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

between  sixty  and  seventy  degrees  of  latitude,  to  the  Moluccas,  where  it 
sends  off  a  branch  to  the  southeast ;  while  the  principal  train  continues 
west,  through  Sumbawa  and  Java,  to  Sumatra,  and  then  in  a  northwestern 
direction,  to  the  bay  of  Bengal.  No  part  of  Kamtschatka  appears  to  be 
of  primary  formation.  Supposing  it  divided  into  two  sections,  by  a  line 
drawn  near  its  centre  from  north  to  south,  the  eastern  section  is  wholly  of 
igneous  origin.  The  western  section  may  be  divided  into  two  bands :  one 
of  which,  comparatively  narrow,  running  north  and  south,  consists  of  the 
tertiary  formation  ;  while  the  remainder,  forming  the  western  side  of  the 
peninsula,  is  wholly  secondary. 

The  only  river  of  any  extent  is  the  Kamtschatka,  which  rises  at  the  foot 
of  a  mountain-knot  in  latitude  fifty-four  degrees,  and  at  a  level  far  lower 
than  might  liave  been  anticipated  in  a  country  abounding  in  lofty  mountain- 
ranges,  the  height  of  the  source,  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  being  not  more 
than  thirteen  hundred  feet.  It  has  a  course  of  about  three  hundred  miles, 
and  is  navigable  for  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  Its  basin,  forming 
the  valley  of  Kamtschatka,  becomes  hemmed  in  by  precipitous  rocks  toward 
the  mouth  of  the  river;  but,  farther  south,  it  swells  out  sometimes  to  forty 
miles,  and  is  by  far  the  most  fertile  part  of  the  peninsula. 

The  climate  is  very  severe,  and  much  more  so  on  the  eastern  than  on 
the  western  coast.  On  the  seacoast,  vegetation  does  not  begin  before  the 
end  of  April ;  but  in  the  vale  of  Kamtschatka,  in  good  shelter,  it  is  a  month 
earlier.  Notwithstanding  the  severity  of  the  climate,  forests  of  considera- 
ble extent  occur,  consisting  of  several  species  of  birches,  pines,  poplars, 
and  willows ;  while  there  is  an  undergrowth  of  shrubs,  on  which  numerous 
berries  grow,  among  others  tlie  raspberry  and  currant.  On  many  of  the 
tundras,  or  moor-levels,  particularly  when  the  ground  is  dry  or  strong, 
grows  a  Lonicera,  called  by  the  inhaljitants  Jimolost,  bearing  a  close  re- 
semblance to  the  Lonicera  coerulea  of  our  gardens,  with  berries  of  a  par- 
ticularly pleasing  taste,  and  said  to  be  very  nourisliing.  The  natural  pas- 
tures are  also  numerous,  and  their  rank  luxuriance  sometimes  so  great  as 
to  make  journeying  across  them  almost  impossible. 

Agriculture  is  necessarily  restricted  to  a  few  favored  spots,  as  both  cli- 
mate and  animals  fit  for  proper  tillage  are  wanting.  Erman,  however,  says 
that  on  the  southern  slopes,  near  the  village  of  Kliutshe,  are  seen  patclies 
of  turnips  and  potatoes,  and  also  stems  of  hemp  of  the  tallest  growth. 
He  adds  that  both  summer  and  winter  soAvn  wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  thrive 
so  well,  that,  were  the  surrounding  plains  carefully  cultivated,  they  could 
furnish  enough  to  supply  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  penin- 
sula with  bread-grain.  In  the  same  neighborhood,  also,  he  got  richer  and 
finer-flavored  cow's-milk  than  he  had  ever  tasted. 

The  wild  animals  were  at  one  time  very  plentiful,  but  have  been  much 
thinned  by  the  hunters.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  reindeer,  wild- 
sheep,  bears,  otters,  and  beavers.  The  skins  annually  obtained,  consisting 
chiefly  of  those  of  the  fox  and  sable,  have  been  estimated  at  thirty  thou- 


EASTERN   SIBERIA KAMTSCHATKA. 


343 


sand !  Wild-fowl  abound.  Ducks,  of  which  at  least  twelve  kinds  are  enu- 
merated, ave  seen  in  all  quarters ;  and  lakes  which,  from  being  fed  chiefly 
from  hot  springs,  never  freeze,  are  the  winter  resort  of  flocks  of  swans. 
The  rivers  and  coasts  teem  witli  fish.  In  the  former  are  several  varieties 
of  salmon,  some  of  them  peculiar  to  the  peninsula;  and  on  the  latter  are 
shoals  of  herrings  and  cod.  Large  numbers  of  seals  are  caught,  and  whales 
occasionally  make  their  appearance. 

The  Kamtschatdalcs  are 
a  peculiar  race,  and  pre- 
sent many  remarkable  fea- 
tures. They  are  in  general 
below  the  common  lieight, 
have  broad  shoulders,  and 
a  large  head.  The  face, 
and  particularly  the  nose, 
is  long  and  flat,  the  eyes 
small  and  sunken,  the  lips 
thin,  and  tliey  have  scarce- 
ly any  beard.  Their  legs 
are  short,  yet  they  walk 
much,  and  with  rapidity. 
Notwithstanding  the  rude- 
ness of  the  climate,  tliey 
enjoy  great  vigor  of  consti- 
tution, and  are  proof  against  every  vicissitude  of  the  seasons,  and  are  sub- 
ject to  few  maladies.  Their  character  is  mild  and  hospitable,  and  they 
live  together  in  great  harmony.  Indolence  may  be  considered  as  their 
predominant  vice. 

Their  principal  food  is  fish,  which  they  devour  with  eager  avidity,  and 
without  the  least  regard  to  cleanliness  or  delicacy.  Having  caught  a  fisli, 
they  begin  with  tearing  out  the  gills,  which  they  suck  with  extreme  grati- 
fication. They  cut  out,  at  the  same  time,  some  slices  of  the  fish,  which 
they  devour  raw,  and  mingled  with  the  blood.  The  fish  being  then  gutted, 
and  the  entrails  given  to  the  dogs,  the  rest  is  dried,  and  is  afterward  eaten, 
sometimes  dressed,  but  more  commonly  raw.  The  fish,  however,  which  is 
reckoned  most  delicious,  is  salmon,  dressed  in  a  peculiar  manner,  called 
tchaouitcha.  As  soon  as  it  is  caught,  they  bury  it  in  a  hole  in  the  ground, 
where  it  remains  till  it  sours,  or,  properly  speaking,  becomes  perfectly  pu- 
trid. In  this  state,  when  a  European  can  scarcely  approach  without  being 
suffocated  by  the  stench,  the  Kamtschatdale  feeds  upon  it  as  upon  the  most 
delicious  morsel !  Their  plates  are  never  washed,  and  serve  indiff"erently 
the  dogs  and  their  masters !  The  eggs  of  tlie  wild-duck  are  also  collected 
by  the  natives,  and,  being  preserved  in  the  oil  of  fish,  form  one  of  their 
favorite  articles  of  food. 

The  manners  of  the  Kamtschatdalcs  are  lively  and  cheerful.     Their 


Kamtschatdai^s. 


344 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OP  RUSSIA. 


songs  are  full  of  gay  images ;  and  they  possess  the  talent  of  mimicry  in  a 
remarkable  degree.  They  are  passionately  fond  of  dancing,  in  which  ex- 
ercise they  shake  off  their  natural  indolence.  Their  favorite  dance  con- 
sists in  imitating  the  motions  of  the  bear — its  gestures  and  attitudes  in 
pursuing  its  prey,  and  in  all  other  actions  and  situations.  They  are  also 
fond  of  singing,  and  have  agreeable  voices,  but  their  tunes  are  very  rude. 
Unfortunately,  this  mirth  is  often  purchased  at  the  expense  of  decency ; 
and  the  rules  of  chastity  are  little  regarded  by  either  sex.  The  women, 
at  a  particular  season,  go  out  to  collect  roots  and  vegetables  for  winter 
consumption  ;  and  this  is  a  grand  holyday  with  them. 

They  have  two  kinds  of  habitations  ;  one  for  winter,  and  the  other  for 
summer.  The  winter  habitations  are  sunk  some  feet  under  the  ground  ; 
the  walls  are  formed  of  trees  Jaid  over  each  other,  and  plastered  with  clay  ; 
the  roof  is  made  slanting,  and  covered  with  coarse  grass  or  rushes.  The 
interior  consists  of  two  rooms,  with  a  large  lamp,  fed  with  train-oil,  and 
placed  so  as  to  warm  both  rooms,  and  at  the  same  time  to  answer  the  pur- 
poses of  cookery.  These  houses  are  often  large  enough  to  contain  two  or 
three  families ;  and  fifty  persons  have  been  known  to  take  up  their  abode 
in  one  of  them.  In  that  case,  the  dirt,  stench,  and  the  smell  and  soot  issu- 
ing from  the  lamp,  are  such  as  only  a  Kamtschatdale  could  endure. 

The  summer-house  is  of  a 
more  singular  construction. 
A  number  of  posts,  placed  at 
regular  distances  from  each 
other,  and,  serving  as  pillars, 
raise  it  to  the  height  of  ten  to 
thirteen  feet  from  the  ground. 
These  posts  support  a  plat- 
form, made  of  rafters,  and 
covered  over  with  clay,  which 
serves  as  the  floor,  whence 
the  house  ascends  from  five 
to  eight  feet,  the  roof  covered 
with  tliatch  or  dried  grass. 
This  apartment  composes  the  whole  habitation,  and  here  all  the  family  eat 
and  sleep.  There  are  several  summer-houses  to  one  wintei'-house,  and  the 
inhabitants  pass  on  a  plank  from  one  to  the  other.  The  object  of  this 
singular  construction  is  to  have  a  space  sheltered  from  the  sun  and  rain, 
yet  open  to  the  air,  in  which  their  fish  may  be  hung  up  and  dried.  It  is 
afforded  by  the  rude  colonnade  which  supports  these  structures,  to  the 
posts  and  ceiling  of  which  the  fish  are  attached. 

Another  striking  peculiarity  of  Kamtschatdale  manners  consists  in  the 
use  of  dogs  for  the  purpose  of  labor  and  draught.  Great  attention  is  paid 
to  the  rearing  of  the  sledge-dog,  a  pack  of  which,  consisting  of  from  six  to 
twenty,  every  Kamtschatdale  justly  regards  as  one  of  the  necessaries  of 


SUMMER-HoUSE   IN   KaMTSCHATKA, 


EASTERN   SIBERIA KAMTSCHATKA  345 

life.  These  dogs  arc  not  remarkably  large,  though  strongly  built,  rather 
long,  with  a  higii  step,  and  short,  smooth  hair,  of  a  color  varying  between 
yellowish-fawn  and  jet-black :  in  their  general  appearance  tliey  resemble 
the  mountain  or  shepherd  dogs  of  Europe.  They  are  sagacious,  and  seem 
to  enter  into  the  very  feelings  of  their  masters.  In  summer,  when  their 
services  are  not  required,  they  are  set  loose,  and  left  to  provide  for  them- 
selves, by  ranging  over  the  country,  and  along  the  sides  of  lakes  and  riv- 
ers ;  but,  at  the  approach  of  winter,  they  return  home  in  the  most  punctual 
manner.  They  are  harnessed  two  and  two,  in  trains  perhaps  of  forty  dogs, 
to  sledges  called  nartas,  consisting,  in  their  most  primitive  form,  of  a  box 
of  boards  about  three  feet  along  and  one  and  a  half  in  width  and  height, 
fastened  to  wooden  runners,  with  which  they  often  travel,  at  a  rapid  pace, 
forty  miles  a  day.  They  are  used  in  this  manner,  not  only  for  travelling, 
but  for  conveying  all  sorts  of  commodities  from  place  to  place,  one  particu- 
larly well  trained  being  placed  in  front  as  leader.  The  driver  usually  sits 
sidewise,  like  a  lady  on  horseback,  and  urges  the  dogs  by  throwing  at 
them  a  stick,  which  he  afterward  catches  with  great  dexterity.  Occasion- 
ally parties  travel  in  company ;  and  then,  the  eagerness  and  impatience  of 
the  dogs,  and  tlie  rivalry  of  the  kijoorshiks,  or  drivers,  are  worthy  to  be 
compared  with  the  exertions  of  the  high-blooded  horses  at  our  race-courses  ; 
nor  does  the  management  and  driving  of  the  dogs  require  much  less  skill 
and  attention  than  are  needed  in  the  latter  case,  to  arrive  at  perfection, 
and  gain  the  palm  of  victory. 

About  a  third  of  the  inhabitants  are  Russo-Cossacks.  The  remainder, 
forming  the  native  population,  consists  of  Koriaks,  or  Korjaks,  and  Kamt- 
schatdales,  the  latter  of  whom  we  have  already  described.  The  former 
belong  to  the  nomadic  tribes  of  the  north,  and  appear  to  have  cliosen  Kamt- 
schatka  as  an  asylum  after  their  defeat  by  the  Tchouktchis.  Tlie  western 
coast,  from  Tigil  northward,  and  indeed  the  whole  peninsula  beyond  lati- 
tude fifty-eight  degrees  north,  is  occupied  by  them.  They  are  of  middle 
stature,  lank  and  sinewy,  with  black,  smooth,  and  rather  long  hair.  Their 
language  differs  so  much  from  that  of  the  Kamtschatdales  as  to  indicate  a 
different  stock.  Their  great  occupation  is  hunting  the  reindeer.  The 
Kamtschatdales  present  considerable  diversity  of  both  speech  and  exte- 
rior ;  and  the  Sedankaers,  on  the  west,  regard  themselves  as  a  different 
race  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  valley  of  the  Kamtschatka.  One  of  the 
best  features  in  the  national  character  is  the  love  of  hospitality.  The 
stranger  is  always  sure  of  a  welcome  reception.  The  inhabitants  are  nom- 
inal converts  to  Christianity,  but  in  some  parts,  particularly  in  the  north- 
east, the  old  superstitions  are  said  to  linger.  There  evil  spirits,  and  what 
are  called  kiitcha,  are  the  objects  of  worship. 

The  trade  of  Kamtschatka,  owing  to  the  exactions  of  the  Russian  gov- 
ernors, who,  in  consequence  of  their  great  distance  from  St.  Petersburg,  or 
even  Tobolsk,  have  few  checks  on  their  own  cupidity,  is  of  course  extremely 
limited.     Taxes  are  taken  in  skins  ;  and  the  people  complain  bitterly  that 


346  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

no  equitable  system  of  taxation  lias  been  authorized  by  the  imperial  gov- 
ernment. Hence,  wholly  left  to  the  mercy  of  individual  officers,  they  justly 
apprehend  the  insecurity  of  property,  and  want  the  chief  motive  for  im- 
proving the  natural  resources  of  the  country.  Labor  is  confined  to  the 
supply  of  merely  temporary  necessities  ;  domestic  comforts  are  little  known 
or  cared  for,  and  affluence  is  scarcely  ever  attained  even  by  the  most  provi- 
dent and  laborious.  Furs  and  dried  fish  are  exported  from  the  port  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul,  chiefly  by  the  Russians  and  Dutch,  who  bring  in  ex- 
change rice,  flour,  cofiee,  sugar,  brandy,  and  whiskey. 

Kamtschatka  was  first  known  to  the  Russians  in  1690  ;  but  it  was  not 
until  1696  that  Vladimir  Atlassov,  with  a  body  of  Cossacks  from  Ana- 
dirsk,  invaded  the  peninsula,  and  made  great  part  of  it  tributary  to  Peter 
the  Great.  Successive  expeditions  were  afterward  sent,  and  the  Russians 
advanced  fartlier  and  farther  into  the  country,  erecting  forts  and  levying 
tribute.  The  conquest  was  completed  in  1706,  all  Kamtschatka  being- 
surveyed  and  occupied  by  the  invaders. 

The  sway  which  they  have  established  is  represented  as  generally  mild, 
with  tlie  exception  of  the  inequality  and  favoritism  in  taxation.  The  na- 
tives are  permitted  to  choose  their  own  magistrates,  in  the  same  manner, 
and  with  the  same  powers,  as  they  have  always  been  accustomed  to.  The 
country  is  divided  into  four  ostrog-s,  or  districts,  each  of  which  is  governed 
by  a  toion,  or  lieutenant,  who  is  merely  a  peasant,  like  those  whom  he  gov- 
erns, and  lias  no  outward  mark  of  distinction.  He  has  another  under  him, 
called  1/esaoid,  who  assists  him  in  the  exercise  of  his  functions,  and,  in  his 
absence,  acts  as  his  deputy.  Their  business  is  to  preserve  peace,  enforce 
the  orders  of  government,  and  collect  the  tribute,  in  furs,  for  the  governor 
of  Irkoutsk,  the  quantity  of  which  varies  according  to  the  character  of  the 
governor,  and  the  favor  which  particular  persons  happen  to  enjoy.  For- 
merly it  consisted  of  one  sable  from  each  individual,  or  more,  if  paid  in  an 
inferior  sort  of  skin. 

The  inhabitants,  like  all  savage  nations  coming  in  contact  with  civilized, 
have  sufl"ered  deeply  from  tlie  connection.  The  introduction  of  ardent 
spirits,  their  avidity  for  which  knows  no  l)onnds,  has  been  productive  of 
most  pernicious  eficcts.  The  Russian  traders,  who  are  well  aware  of  this 
weakness,  sell  it  at  an  extravagant  price,  and  inveigle  them  to  give  their 
most  precious  effects  in  exchange  for  it.  The  small-pox  also  has  been 
introduced,  and  has  made  dreadful  ravages.  The  consequence  is,  that 
their  number,  which  was  at  first  estimated  at  fifteen  thousand,  has  been  re- 
duced to  one  half  or  one  third.  The  Russian  and  Cossack  soldiers  have 
generally  adopted  all  the  habits  of  the  natives,  disuse  bread,  and  even  sell 
the  ration  allowed  by  the  government ;  live  dirtily  on  fish,  use  dogs  for 
labor  and  travelling,  and  clothe  themselves  in  skins.  There  is  a  class  of 
criminals,  convicted  of  murder  and  other  atrocious  crimes,  who,  as  a  pun- 
ishment equal  to  death,  are  banished  to  this  remote  and  inhospitable  re- 
gion :  they  amount  to  about  one  thousand,  and  are  kept  under  the  strict 


THE  ALEUTIAN  ARCHIPELAGO.  347 

guard  of  the  Cossacks  and  Russian  militia.  The  commander  of  the  troops 
resides  at  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  which  for  some  years  has  been  the  chief 
place.  Its  population,  however,  is  only  about  one  thousand,  while  Nijnei- 
Kamtschatka,  the  former  capital,  has  scarcely  a  hundred  and  fifty  persons. 
There  is  an  occasional  and  varying  population  of  merchants,  hunters,  and 
seamen,  who  make  a  temporary  residence  in  Kamtschatka. 

'  The  Aleutian  Islands  (from  the  Russian  word  Aleut,  "  a  bold  rock") 
are  an  extensive  range  of  small  islands  belonging  to  Russia,  in  the  North 
Pacific  ocean,  situated  between  Cape  Aliaska,  in  Russian  America,  and  the 
peninsula  of  Kamtschatka,  in  Asiatic  Russia ;  extending  from  longitude 
one  hundred  and  sixty-three  degrees  west  to  one  hundred  and  sixty-six 
degrees  east,  or  for  about  six  hundred  miles,  and  forming,  it  may  be  said, 
a  connecting  chain  between  the  Russian  possessions  of  both  hemispheres. 
They  were  formerly  divided  into  three  groups  —  the  Aleutian,  Andreno- 
vian,  and  Fox  islands ;  but  are  now  all  comprehended  under  the  name 
Aleutian,  and  are  subordinate  to  the  government  of  Irkoutsk. 

The  first  known  of  these  islands  was  discovered,  in  1741,  by  Behring, 
the  celebrated  Russian  navigator,  whose  name  it  bears,  and  who  died  there  ; 
the  others  were  discovered,  at  different  periods  afterward,  by  various  Rus- 
sian adventurers,  who  sought  these  regions  in  quest  of  furs,  particularly 
tlie  sea-otter.  They  were  subsequently  visited  by  Captain  Cook  in  1788, 
who  determined  their  exact  positions.  Those  nearest  Kamtschatka  are 
Behring's  and  Miednoi,  or  Copper  islands :  the  first  situated  in  latitude 
fifty-five  degrees  north,  and  longitude  one  hundred  and  sixty-six  degrees 
east.  Southeast  of  the  latter  are  the  small  islands  of  Attoo,  Semitshi,  and 
Agattoo,  between  latitude  fifty-four  and  fifty-five  degrees  north.  The  An- 
drenovian  group,  or  central  part  of  the  chain,  lies  between  latitude  fifty- 
two  and  fifty-four  degrees  north,  and  comprehends  the  islands  of  Kiska, 
Amchitka,  Tanaga,  Kanaga,  Adagh,  Atcha,  and  Amlia,  with  a  number  of 
smaller  islands.  Of  the  group  nearest  Cape  Aliaska,  called  by  the  Rus- 
sians Lyssie  Ostrova,  or  Fox  islands,  the  principal  are  Oomnak,  Oonalashka, 
and  Oonimack.  Beyond  these,  to  the  northeast,  lies  the  large  island  of 
Kodiak,  generally  considered  as  belonging  to  the  group  called  Schumagin's 
islands,  on  which  there  is  a  village  of  about  four  hundred  inhabitants.  The 
largest  of  the  whole  chain  are  Behring's  island  and  the  island  of  Oona- 
lashka. 

The  Aleutian  islands  are  of  volcanic  formation ;  and,  in  a  number  of 
them,  there  are  volcanoes  still  in  active  operation.  At  present,  there  are 
upward  of  twenty-four  in  this  state,  varying  from  three  to  eight  thousand 
feet  in  height.  In  1706,  a  volcanic  island,  now  called  Joanna  Bog-osloiva, 
rose  in  the  middle  of  the  line  or  chain  of  islands.  It  was  first  observed 
after  a  storm,  at  a  point  in  the  sea  from  which  a  column  of  smoke  had  been 
seen  to  rise.  Flames  afterward  issued  from  the  new  island,  accompanied 
by  a  frightful  earthquake.     Eight  years  after  its  emergence,  it  was  found, 


348  ILLUSTEATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

in  some  places,  to  be  so  hot  that  it  could  not  be  walked  upon.  It  is  now 
several  thousand  feet  high,  and  twenty  or  thirty  miles  in  circumference, 
and  is  still  increasing  in  size. 

Earthquakes,  also,  of  the  most  terrific  description,  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence in  this  region,  agitating  and  altering  the  bed  of  the  sea  and  surface 
of  the  land  throughout  the  whole  tract.  The  appearance  of  the  islands  is 
singularly  dismal  and  barren  :  lofty  walls  of  black  lava  rise  perpendicularly 
from  the  sea  ;  and  beyond,  steep  mountains  of  rock  shoot  up  to  the  clouds  ; 
while  the  coasts  are  so  encompassed  with  reefs  and  breakers  as  to  render 
navigation  among  them  exceedingly  dangerous. 

The  soil  is,  in  general,  very  poor ;  but,  in  some  particular  spots,  escu- 
lent vegetables  thrive  well ;  and  some  of  the  most  eastern  of  the  islands 
produce  potatoes,  and  maintain  considerable  numbers  of  domestic  cattle, 
although  the  latter  do  not  generally  thrive  on  these  islands.  Springs  of 
water  are  numerous  ;  and  valleys  clothed  witli  a  rich  herbage,  and  capable 
of  supporting  herds  of  cattle  throughout  the  year,  are  to  be  met  witli  in 
some  of  the  islands,  especially  Oonalashka.  Bears,  wolves,  beavers,  er- 
mines, and  river-otters,  are  plentiful ;  while  the  Fox  islands,  as  their  name 
implies,  abound  in  foxes  —  black,  red,  gray,  and  brown.  The  kinds  of 
fish  most  usually  caught  are  salmon  and  halibut ;  the  latter  frequently  of 
immense  size.     Seals  and  whales  are  abundant  on  the  coasts. 

The  inhabitants — who  seem  to  be  a  mixed  race  between  the  Mongolian 
Tartars  and  the  North  American  Indians  —  are  below  the  average  stature, 
but  stout  and  well  proportioned.  They  have  a  round  face,  small  eyes,  a 
brownish  complexion,  a  flat  nose,  and  black  hair.  In  the  females,  the  com- 
plexion is  of  a  lighter  shade,  and  the  liair  approaches  to  brown.  The 
dress,  wliich  is  common  to  both  sexes,  consists  of  a  frock  of  seal-skin,  fast- 
ened round  the  neck,  and  descending  below  the  knees.  This  simple  dress 
is  often  ingeniously  sewed  and  adorned  with  glass-beads,  white  goat's  hair, 
and  small  red  feathers.  In  their  native  state,  they  pierced  the  lower  lip, 
the  nose,  and  the  ears,  to  suspend  in  them  bones  or  crystal  rings.  The 
women  wore  around  the  neck,  as  well  as  the  hands  and  feet,  chaplets  of 
variegated  stones ;  and  more  especially,  when  they  could  procure  it,  am- 
ber. They  also  tattooed  the  body,  adorning  it  with  various  figures ;  and, 
when  the  female  belonged  to  a  family  of  distinction,  depicting  on  her  per- 
son a  symbolical  representation  of  the  deeds  by  which  they  had  acquired 
renown — the  number  of  enemies  slain,  or  beasts  of  prey  destroyed. 

The  most  striking  feature  in  the  constitutional  temper  of  the  Aleutians 
is  a  kind  of  passive  quiescence  and  patient  endurance,  amounting  almost 
to  insensibility.  Left  to  themselves,  they  will  pass  whole  days  in  absolute 
idleness,  scarcely  opening  their  lips  to  give  utterance  to  a  single  syllable, 
or  making  the  least  exertion  to  satisfy  the  cravings  of  appetite  ;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  wlien  placed  under  a  master,  they  will  toil  at  any  task 
which  may  be  appointed  them,  slowly,  indeed,  but  witliout  interruption, 
until  it  is  accomplished.     Instances  are  even  given  in  which  they  have 


THE   ALEUTIAN   ARCHIPELAGO.  349 

carried  this  implicit  obedience  so  far  as  to  sacrifice  their  lives  in  endeav- 
oring to  perform  impossible  tasks,  which  senseless  or  tyrannical  masters 
had  imposed  npon  them  ! 

In  the  ordinary  relations  of  life,  the  Aleutians  exhibit  much  that  is  ami- 
able. Parents  are  treated  with  great  respect  and  deference,  and  children 
are  the  objects  of  the  fondest  affection.  The  husband  is  addressed  by  the 
wife  di?,  father,  and  he  applies  to  her  the  name  of  mother.  The  whole  fam- 
ily appear  to  cling  to  each  other,  and  take  a  deep  interest  in  whatever 
affects  tlieir  common  honor  and  welfare.  To  this  happy  state  of  domestic 
life  there  must,  however,  be  numerous  exceptions.  The  existence  of  polyga- 
my, and  the  still  more  monstrous  practice  of  polyandry,  seem  almost  in- 
consistent with  the  very  idea  of  what  is  usually  understood  by  a  family. 

As  might  be  anticipated,  from  the  passive  qualities  of  the  Aleutians,  they 
are  not  remarkable  for  their  courage.  Provided  the  destruction  of  their 
enemy  can  be  accomplished,  it  seems  absolutely  indifferent  to  them  whether 
it  be  by  force  or  stratagem.  The  chief  employments  are  hunting  and  fish- 
ing, and  in  both  they  show  great  dexterity.  They  will  face  the  bear  simply 
armed  with  a  gun  or  a  bow ;  and  have  even  been  known,  when  these  weap- 
ons have  failed,  to  encounter  and  overcome  him  with  a  knife.  But  the  sea 
seems  to  be  their  proper  element.  In  the  pursuit  of  the  whale  and  the 
seal,  they  are  equally  skilful  and  intrepid.  The  boat  which  they  employ 
is  a  kind  of  canoe,  called  a  baidar,  consisting  of  a  frame  of  wood  or  bone, 
covered  with  seal-skin.  It  is  long  and  narrow,  in  general  holding  only  a 
single  person,  whose  bust  rises  out  of  a  circular  hole  cut  in  the  skin,  which 
stretches  from  gunwale  to  gunwale,  like  a  deck  ;  and  is  so  light,  that  a  man 
can  easily  carry  it.  Fleets,  consisting  perhaps  of  one  hundred  of  these 
baidars,  each  managed  by  double  paddles  about  eight  feet  long,  will  ven- 
ture fifty  or  sixty  miles  to  sea,  and  encovmter  all  the  perils  of  a  stormy 
ocean,  in  quest  of  the  sea-otter.  While  the  men  are  thus  employed,  the 
women  occupy  themselves  in  covering  canoes,  and  making  mats,  baskets, 
and  other  articles  of  straw,  which  display  much  neatness  and  dexterity. 
The  food  in  common  use  is  of  the  coarsest  description  —  whale's  flesh,  al- 
most in  a  putrid  state,  and  fish  often  of  similar  quality.  Could  anything 
add  to  the  disgust  which  the  very  idea  of  such  a  meal  inspires,  it  would  be 
the  filthy  manner  in  which  it  is  cooked  ;  both  the  place  and  the  utensils 
being  allowed  to  remain  in  the  dirtiest  state  imaginable.  Notwithstanding 
the  grave  and  almost  demure  manners  of  the  Aleutians,  they  are  not  stran- 
gers to  amusements,  and  even  theatrical  representations.  They  have  both 
songs  and  dances,  and  a  kind  of  dramas,  in  which  some  striking  incident 
connected  with  their  history  is  exhibited.  The  popularity  of  these  is  so 
great,  as  to  have  more  than  once  collected  crowds  Avhich  caused  a  famine. 

The  religion  of  the  Aleutians  was  a  ramification  of  Shamanism — a  su 
perstition  before  alluded  to,  prevalent  in  Siberia.     They  acknowledged  a 
higlier  Deity,  or  Creator,  but  paid  no  worship  to  him,  under  the  idea  that 
he  had  left  the  charge  of  the  world  to  certain  good  and  evil  spirits,  called 


350  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

Kovg-akh,  and  Aglikaiakk.  They  worshipped  the  elements,  and  the  heav- 
enly bodies,  particularly  the  sun  and  the  moon,  which  were  supposed  to 
have  great  power  in  human  affairs  :  the  sun,  when  blasphemed,  striking  the 
blasphemer  blind  by  its  rays ;  the  moon  killing  him  by  the  stones  which 
she  throws  down  upon  him ;  and  the  stars  compelling  him  to  count  them  — 
a  task,  the  performance  of  which  cost  him  his  reason.  They  had  neither 
temples  nor  idols ;  but  near  every  village,  on  a  rock,  or  other  eminence, 
was  a  supposed  holy  place,  which  the  old  men  alone,  and  the  priests,  or 
shamans,  were  permitted  to  visit.  On  these,  with  mysterious  ceremonies, 
they  deposited  offerings,  consisting  usually  of  the  skins  of  wild  beasts,  or 
the  feathers  of  aquatic  birds.  Amulets,  or  charms,  were  also  in  general 
use,  some  of  them  being  supposed  to  secure  their  fortunate  possessor  against 
all  accidents,  and  bring  him  off  scatheless  and  victorious  in  every  combat. 
The  most  effectual  of  these  talismans  was  a  girdle,  composed  of  cords  or 
grass,  with  a  particular  arrangement  of  knots.  In  regard  to  the  immortal- 
ity of  the  soul,  and  the  origin  of  the  human  race,  the  views  of  the  Aleutians 
must  have  been  originally  derived  from  a  Divine  source.  The  strongest 
proof  of  their  belief  of  the  former  is  derived  from  one  of  the  most  horrid 
of  their  practices.  On  the  death  of  a  chief,  his  slaves  were  sacrificed  on 
his  tomb,  that  they  might  go  and  continue  their  services  to  him  in  the  other 
world  !  The  general  idea  was,  that  the  disembodied  spirit  returned  invisi- 
ble to  its  family,  whom  it  accompanied  for  good  or  evil  in  all  their  excur- 
sions. It  is  even  said  to  have  been  invoked  by  them,  particularly  when 
engaging  in  war,  to  avenge  some  insult  that  had  been  offered  to  the  family. 
The  original  form  of  government  was  patriarchal.  Every  village,  which, 
from  the  frequency  of  intermarriage,  in  fact  formed  only  one  family,  was 
governed  by  its  toion,  or  chief;  and  a  union  of  villages,  under  some  supe- 
rior toidn,  on  whom  valor  or  wisdom  conferred  the  dignity,  formed  a  kind 
of  state.  Under  the  dominion  of  Russia,  all  the  primitive  institutions  and 
habits  of  the  Aleutians  have  been  greatly  modified,  and  many  of  them  liave 
rapidly  disappeared.  Unquestionably,  the  best  virtues  of  savage  life  liave 
thus  been  lost ;  and  one  of  the  first  effects  of  civilization  was  the  introduc- 
tion of  its  worst  vices,  and  one  of  its  most  disgusting  diseases.  But  these 
are  partly  compensated  by  numerous  blessings.  The  Aleutians  have  already 
acquired  some  skill  in  mechanical  arts.  Many  of  them  have  learned  to 
read,  and  actually  peruse  the  Scriptures  in  their  own  tongue.  Their  aban- 
donment of  Shamanism  for  the  religion  of  the  Greek  church,  and  the  deep 
interest  which  they  seem  to  take  in  its  ritual,  is  probably  much  less  the 
effect  of  conviction  than  of  deference  to  the  authority  of  their  masters  ;  but 
the  fact  that  there  are  already  four  churches  in  the  islands,  thronged  by 
native  worshippers — that  the  vindictive  spirit  wliicli  at  one  time  prevailed, 
and  made  family  feuds  implacable,  has  in  a  great  measure  disappeared  — 
gives  reason  to  hope  that  the  Aleutians,  instead  of  being  regarded  as  sav 
ages,  will,  at  no  distant  period,  be  entitled  to  claim  a  place  among  civil 
ized  men. 


MOSCOW.  351 


CHAPTER   XII. 

MOSCOW. 

N'O  city  has  made  a  more  conspicuous  figure  in  the  history  of  modern 
Europe  than  Moscow.  It  was  one  of  the  last  scenes  in  the  eventful 
drama  of  a  period  fraught  with  occurrences  of  mingled  wonder  and 
terror.  Long  the  wonder  of  the  world  for  its  extent,  and  for  the  riches 
of  its  nobles,  it  became  still  more  conspicuous  in  the  annals  of  the  world 
for  the  desolation  which  it  suffered  when  at  the  height  of  its  grandeur ; 
and  no  stronger  instance  perhaps  exists  of  the  power  of  human  labor,  or 
of  the  resources  of  mankind,  than  the  appearance  which  Moscow,  risen 
from  her  ashes,  presents  at  this  day. 

The  assertion  sometimes  made,  that  no  city  is  so  irregularly  built  as 
Moscow,  is  in  some  respects  true :  none  of  the  streets  are  straight ;  the 
houses,  large  and  small,  public  buildings,  churches,  and  other  edifices,  are 
mingled  confusedly  together,  but  it  gains  by  this  the  advantage  of  being 
more  picturesque.  The  streets  undulate  continually,  and  thus  ofier  from 
time  to  time  points  of  view  whence  the  eye  is  able  to  range  over  the  vast 
ocean  of  housetops,  trees,  and  gilded  and  colored  domes.  But  the  archi- 
tecture of  Moscow,  since. the  conflagration  of  1812,  is  not  quite  so  bizarre 
as,  according  to  the  accounts  of  travellers,  it  was  before  that  event ;  nev- 
ertheless it  is  still  singular  enough.  In  1813,  the  point  chiefly  in  view  was 
to  build,  and  build  quickly,  rather  than  to  carry  any  certain  plan  into  exe- 
cution ;  the  houses  were  replaced  with  nearly  the  same  irregularity  with 
respect  to  each  other,  and  the  streets  became  as  crooked  and  tortuous  as 
before.  The  whole  gained,  therefore,  little  in  regularity  from  the  fire,  but 
each  individual  house  was  built  in  much  better  taste,  gardens  became  more 
frequent,  the  majority  of  roofs  were  made  of  iron,  painted  green,  a  lavish 
use  was  made  of  pillars,  and  even  those  who  could  not  be  profuse  erected 
more  elegant  cottages.  Hence  Moscow  has  all  the  charms  of  a  new  city, 
with  the  pleasing  negligence  and  picturesque  irregularity  of  an  old  one.  In 
the  streets,  we  come  now  to  a  large,  magnificent  palace,  with  all  the  pomp 
of  Corinthian  pillars,  wrought-iron  trellis-work,  and  imposing  approaches 
and  gateways ;  and  now  to  a  simple  whitcAvashed  house,  the  abode  of  a 
modest  citizen's  family.  Near  them  stands  a  small  church,  witli  green 
cupolas  and  golden  stars.  Then  comes  a  row  of  little  yellow  wooden 
houses,  that  remind  one  of  old  Moscow ;  and  these  are  succeeded  by  one 


ILLUSTRATED  DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 


of  the  new  colossal  erections  for  some  public  institution.  Sometimes  the 
road  winds  through  a  number  of  little  streets,  and  the  traveller  might 
fancy  himself  in  a  country  town  ;  suddenly  it  rises,  and  he  is  in  a  wide 
"  place,"  from  which  streets  branch  off  to  all  quarters  of  the  empire,  while 
the  eye  wanders  over  the  forest  of  houses  of  the  great  capital ;  descending 
again,  he  comes  in  the  middle  of  the  town  to  the  banks  of  a  river  planted 
thickly  with  gardens  and  woods. 


1.  Krfmlin. 

2.  C'luirch  of  St.  Basil. 

3.  Imperial  Pfilace. 

4.  Military  School. 


5.  Convent  ot  Xovo  Devitchfi. 

6.  Convent  of  our  Lady  of  the  Don. 

7.  Convent  of  St.  Danifl. 

8.  Convent  of  Simonovskoi. 


9.  Hospital  of  St.  Paul 

10.  Hospital  ol  St.  Catlf-riiie. 

11.  Institute  of  Alexander. 

12.  FouudlingHospitul. 


The  exterior  wall  of  Moscow  is  upward  of  twenty  miles  in  extent,  of  a 
most  irregular  form,  more  resembling  a  trapezium  than  any  other  figure. 
Within  this  are  two  nearly  concentric  circular  lines  of  boulevard,  the  one 
at  a  distance  of  about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  kre7nlin*  completed  on 
both  sides  of  the  Moskva ;  the  internal  one  with  a  radius  of  about  a  mile, 
spreading  only  on  the  north  of  the  river,  and  terminating  near  the  stone 
bridge  on  the  one  side,  and  the  foundling-hospital  on  the  other.  The  river 
enters  the  barrier  of  the  vast  city,  to  which  it  has  given  a  name,t  about 
the  central  point  of  the  western  side ;  and,  after  winding  round  the  De- 
vitchei  convent  like  a  huge  serpent,  and  thence  flowing  beneath  the  Tartar 

'  In  the  ancient  Slavonic,  kreml,  or  kremen,  signifies  "  stone ;"  and  any  fortified  place  is  a  JeremL 
Many  Russian  towns,  as  we  liave  already  had  occasion  several  times  to  mention,  have  their  kreml, 
or,  as  it    i.«  more  usually   terined,  their  kremlin.     That  of  Moscow  is,  by  pre-eminence,  the  kremlin. 

t  Moscow; — Moskva  is  the  Russian  mode  of  spelling  the  name  of  the  river  and  town  ;  Mosciis. 
the  Latin  ;  Moscou,  the  French  ;  and  Moskau,  the  German. 


MOSCOW  —  THE   KREMLIN.  353 

battlements  of  the  kremlin,  and  receiving  the  scanty  stream  of  the  Jaousa, 
issues  again  into  the  vast  plain,  till  it  meets  the  Oka,  which  joins  the  Volga, 
the  king  of  the  northern  rivers,  at  Nijnei-Novgorod. 

On  the  nortli  of  the  Moskva,  streets  and  houses,  in  regular  succession, 
reach  to  the  very  barrier ;  and  though  a  vast  proportion  of  ground  is  left 
unoccupied,  owing  to  the  enormous  width  of  the  streets  and  boulevards, 
the  earthen  rampart  may  truly  be  said  to  gird  in  the  city.  But  in  the 
other  quarters,  and  particularly  to  the  south,  the  city  can  hardly  be  said 
to  extend  farther  than  the  outward  boulevard.  Beyond  this  there  are  vast 
convents  —  the  Devitchei,  Donskoi  (our  Lady  of  the  Don),  and  the  Simon- 
ovskoi ;  huge  hospitals — the  Galitzin,  the  St.  Paul,  and  the  Cheremetieff, 
the  largest  of  all ;  the  race-course,  and  the  beautiful  gardens  of  the  princess 
Galitzin  along  the  banks  of  the  Moskva ;  fields,  and  lakes,  and  marshes  ; 
but  all  these  are  within  the  outer  enclosure  of  the  outer  wall.  This  will 
account  for  its  seemingly  scanty  population  (estimated  from  the  last  census) 
of  three  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  souls. 

The  centre  of  this  vast  collection  of  buildings  is  the  kremlin,  which,  with 
its  beautiful  gardens,  forms  nearly  a  triangle  of  somewhat  more  than  a 
mile  in  circumference.  The  original  founder  of  the  city  settled,  without 
doubt,  on  the  kremlin  hill,  which  naturally  remained  the  nucleus  of  the 
city  at  a  later  period.  Adjoining  this  to  the  east  comes  the  Kitai  Gorod 
(Chinese  city),  which  still  preserves  its  ancient  fence  of  towers  and  but- 
tresses. Encircling  these  two  divisions,  and  itself  bounded  by  the  river 
and  inner  boulevard,  lies  the  Beloi  Gorod  (White  city).  The  space  en- 
closed between  the  two  circles  to  the  north  of  the  Moskva,  and  between 
the  river  and  the  outward  boulevard  on  the  south,  is  called  the  Zmelnoi 
Gorod  (Green  city).     Beyond  the  boulevards  are  the  suburbs. 

Previous  to  the  conflagration  of  1812,  each  of  the  four  quarters  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  and  bastions :  but  all  perished  in  that  mighty  blaze, 
except  the  embattled  enclosure  of  the  Kitai  Gorod,  which  escaped  almost 
unscathed ;  and  the  pious  veneration  of  the  worshippers  of  St.  Nicholas 
soon  restored  the  broken  walls  and  crumbling  turrets  of  the  kremlin, 
"  black  with  the  miner's  blast,"  to  their  present  perfect  state.  The  de- 
fences of  the  remaining  districts  have  wisely  been  dispensed  with,  and  a 
style  somewhat  resembling  that  of  its  previous  architecture  was  observed 
in  repairing  the  destruction  caused  by  the  fire.  But  this  remark  does  not 
apply  to  the  interior  of  the  kremlin,  where  the  arsenal  and  the  new  impe- 
rial palace  are  in  modern  taste,  and  quite  out  of  character  with  the  ancient 
buildings  within  the  walls. 

Before  entering  the  kremlin,  it  is  well  to  view  it  from  one  or  two  points 
on  the  outside ;  and  the  most  favorable  spot  for  this  purpose,  on  the  south 
side,  is  the  bridge  of  Moskva  RekCi.  From  the  river  that  bathes  its  base, 
the  hill  of  the  kremlin  rises,  picturesquely  adorned  with  turf  and  shrubs. 
The  buildings  appear  set  in  a  rich  frame  of  water,  verdant  foliage,  and 
snowy  wall — the  majestic  column  of  Ivan  Veliki  rearing  itself  high  above 

23 


354  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

all,  like  the  axis  round  which  the  whole  moves.  The  colors  are  every- 
where most  lively — red,  white,  green,  gold,  and  silver.  Amid  the  confu- 
sion of  the  numerous  small  antique  edifices,  the  Bolshoi  Dvoretz  (the 
large  palace  built  by  the  emperor  Alexander)  has  an  imposing  aspect. 
The  churches  and  palaces  stand  on  the  plateau  of  the  kremlin  as  on  a 
mighty  salver ;  the  little  red  and  gold  Church  of  the  Czars  coquetting  near 
the  border  like  some  pretty  little  maiden,  and  the  paler-colored  cupolas  of 
Mikhilooski  and  Uspenski  churclies  representing  the  broad  corpulence  of 
a  merchant's  wife.  The  Maloi  Dvoretz  (Little  palace),  and  the  convent 
of  the  Miracle,  draw  modestly  back,  as  beseems  hermits  and  little  people. 
All  these  buildings  stand  on  the  summit  of  the  kremlin,  like  its  crown — 
themselves  again  crowned  with  a  multitude  of  cupolas,  of  which  every 
church  has  at  least  five,  and  one  has  sixteen,  glittering  in  gold  and  silver. 
The  appearance  of  the  whole  is  most  picturesque  and  interesting,  and  it  is 
certainly  one  of  the  most  striking  city-views  in  Europe. 

The  northern  side  of  the  kremlin  is  the  least  attractive :  a  plain  high 
wall  with  two  gates  separates  it  from  the  Krasnoi  Ploschad  (the  Red 
place).  The  most  adorned  is  the  northwest  side.  Here,  in  former  times, 
was  the  Swan-lake.  It  is  now  drained,  and  its  bed  forms  the  site  of  the 
Alexander  garden,  which  stretches  from  the  Moskva  to  the  giant  wall  of 
the  kremlin. 

What  the  Acropolis  was  to  Athens,  and  the  Capitol  to  Rome,  the  krem- 
lin is  to  Moscow.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  strong  and  lofty  wall,  embattled 
with  many  towers  and  turrets,  and  several  gates.  The  most  important  of 
these  is,  beyond  doubt,  the  Spass  Vorota  (the  gate  of  the  Redeemer).  It 
is  the  porta  sacra  and  porta  triumphalis  of  Moscow.  Through  it  entered 
the  triumphant  warriors  of  Vassili-Ivanovich,  after  the  conquest  of  Kazan 
and  Astrakhan,  and  those  of  Michael  and  Alexis,  after  the  victories  ob- 
tained in  the  Ukraine.  Over  this  gate  is  a  picture  of  the  Savior,  under  a 
glass,  and  before  it  hangs  a  large,  ill-formed  lamp,  in  a  massive  metal 
frame;  this  is  suspended  by  a  heavy  chain,  and  under  it,  to  wind  it  up, 
stands  a  complicated  old  machine,  that  jarred  and  rattled  here  in  the  time 
of  the  czar  Michael.  A  man,  whose  sole  business  it  is  to  wind  it  np,  has 
a  table  beside  him  with  wax-tapers,  which  he  sells  to  be  lighted  before  the 
picture.  This  shrine  is  an  object  of  the  greatest  reverence  with  the  Rus- 
sians, although  few  know  what  it  represents,  it  hangs  so  high,  and  the 
colors  are  so  faded. 

This  gate  forms  a  passage  tlirough  the  tower,  of  about  twenty  paces  long, 
and  every  one,  be  he  what  he  may,  Mohammedan,  heathen,  or  Christian, 
must  take  off  his  hat,  and  keep  it  oft",  till  he  has  passed  through  to  the  other 
side.  Any  one  passing  through,  and  forgetting  to  uncover,  is  immediately 
reminded  of  the  fact,  nor  would  it  be  safe  to  neglect  the  hint.  This  gate 
obtairod  its  sacred  reputation  in  the  course  of  centuries,  through  many  re- 
put^Jd  miracles  wrought  by  its  means.  Often,  as  the  people  relate,  the  Tartars 
have  been  driven  back  from  it ;  miraculous  clouds  have  veiled  the  defend- 


MOSCOW  —  THE   KREMLIN. 


355 


General  View  of  the  Kremlin,  Moscow. 


ers  of  the  kremlin,  who  sought  its  shelter,  while  the  pursuing  Tartars  were 
unable  to  find  the  entrance.  Even  the  presence  of  the  "  temple-plundering 
Gauls,"  according  to  the  Russians,  only  served  to  increase  the  renown  of 
this  gate.  Tlicy  thought  the  frame  of  the  picture  was  of  gold,  and  endeav- 
ored to  remove  it.  But  every  ladder  they  planted  broke  in  the  middle ! 
This  enraged  the  French,  who  then  brought  a  cannon  to  batter  down  door 
and  picture  together ;  but,  do  what  they  would,  the  dry  powder  was  pos- 
sessed by  the  devil  of  water,  who  was  too  much  for  the  devil  of  fire,  and 
would  not  explode !  At  last  they  made  a  great  fire  with  coals  over  the 
touch-hole  :  the  powder  was  now  subdued,  but  it  exploded  the  wrong  way, 
blowing  the  cannon  into  a  thousand  pieces,  and  some  of  the  Fz-cnch  artille- 
rymen into  the  bargain,  while  gate  and  picture  remained  unharmed !  The 
spoilers,  now  overmastered  by  dread,  withdrew,  acknowledging  the  miracu- 
lous power.  Such  is  the  story  told  by  the  taper-seller  at  the  gate.  The  ori- 
gin of  the  custom  of  uncapping  at  the  "  Holy  Gate  "  is  unknown  ;  several  tra- 
ditions are  extant,  yet  the  autlienticity  of  any  fact  is  lost  in  the  darkness 
of  ages ;  but  the  feelings  of  devotion  arc  still  fresh  and  powerful,  and  it  is 
a  question  how  weighty  a  bribe  would  be  sufficient  to  induce  a  Russian  to 
pass  this  archway,  by  either  day  or  night,  without  uncovering  his  head. 
The  emperor  himself  bares  his  imperial  brow  as  he  approaches  the  Spaskoi; 
the  officer  and  soldier  in  all  the  pomp  and  circumstance  of  war  do  the  same  ; 
and  thus  tradition  says  it  has  been  since  the  wooden  walls  of  the  first  krem- 
lin were  raised.  The  greatest  care  is  taken  not  to  allow  dogs  to  enter  by 
the  Savior's  gate  —  a  proof  that  in  a  religious  point  of  view  the  Russians 
look  upon  tliis  animal  as  unclean. 

The  Nicholas  gate,  although  not  so  privileged  as  the  Spass  Vorota,  has 


356  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP  RUSSIA. 

also  a  wonder-working  picture,  that  of  St.  Nicholas,  over  it.  It*  was  near 
the  entrance  of  this  gate  that  Napoleon's  powder-wagons  exploded  and 
destroyed  a  large  part  of  the  arsenal  and  other  buildings.  The  gate  es- 
caped with  a  rent,  which  split  the  tower  in  the  middle  as  far  as  the  frame 
of  the  picture,  which  stopped  its  farther  progress.  Not  even  the  glass  of 
the  picture,  or  that  of  the  lamp  suspended  before  it,  was  injured.  So  says 
the  inscription  on  the  gate,  and  the  remarkable  rent  is  eternalized  by  a 
stone  differing  from  the  rest  in  color. 

All  the  gates  of  the  kreralin  are  connected  by  a  strong  and  lofty  wall, 
wliich  encloses  it  in  the  form  of  a  vast  triangle  with  many  towers.  Within 
this  wall  are  contained  all  the  most  interesting  and  historically  important 
buildings  of  Moscow :  the  holiest  churches,  with  the  tombs  of  the  ancient 
czars,  patriarchs,  and  metropolitans ;  the  remains  of  the  ancient  palace  of 
the  czars,  the  new  one  of  the  emperor  Nicholas,  the  arsenal,  senate-house, 
<fec.,  and  architectural  memorials  of  every  period  of  Russian  history — for 
every  Russian  monarch  has  held  it  his  duty  to  adorn  the  kremlin  with  some 
monument. 

The  two  most  important  remains  of  the  old  palace  of  the  czars  are  the 
Terema  and  the  Granovitaya  Pulata — the  former  containing  the  gymna- 
sium, the  latter  the  coronation-hall  of  the  czars.  The  main  body  of  the 
palace  was  so  much  injured  by  the  French,  that  no  restoration  was  possible. 
In  its  place  a  new  palace  was  erected,  called  the  Bolslioi  Dvoretz  (Great 
palace),  or,  from  its  builder,  the  Alexander  ski  Dvoretz.  The  ruins  of 
both  the  others  are  by  the  side  of  it,  and  connected  with  it  by  stairs  and 
galleries.  They  were  so  desolated  by  the  French,  that  door  and  window 
stood  open  to  wind  and  tempest.  The  coronation-liall  was  restored  long 
ago,  and  the  emperor  Nicholas  also  repaired  the  Terema. 

Terema,  or  terem,  is  the  name  given  in  every  Russian  peasant's  house 
to  the  upper  part  of  the  building,  round  which,  sheltered  by  the  projecting 
roof,  a  balcony  runs,  and  where  the  daughters  and  younger  children  of  the 
house  are  lodged.  It  may  easily  be  imagined  that  the  terema  plays  no  in- 
significant part  in  the  love-songs  of  the  people.  This  part  of  the  old  palace 
of  the  czars  is  called  pre-eminently  the  Terema.  The  building  consists  of 
four  stories,  of  which  the  lowest  is  the  largest,  gradually  diminishing,  till 
the  upper  floor  is  so  small  as  only  to  contain  one  room.  On  the  space  thus 
left  by  the  retreat  of  the  upper  story  from  the  ceiling  of  the  under,  a  bal- 
cony is  formed,  with  steps  both  within  and  without,  ascending  from  one 
terrace  to  the  other.  On  the  lowest  floor  are  the  throne  and  audience- 
chambers  of  the  czars ;  the  upper  one  was  the  dwelling  of  the  czarovnas 
(princesses)  and  the  children.  All  these  rooms  have  been  repaired  in  the 
old  Russian  taste.  The  stoves  are  very  peculiar  in  form,  and  all  tlie  plates 
of  which  they  are  composed  ornamented  with  paintings.  The  walls  are 
ornamented  with  decorations  almost  outvying  the  gorgeous  glories  of  the 
Alhambra.  They  display  an  extraordinary  confusion  of  foliage,  vine-trel- 
lises, singularly-imagined  flowers,  woven  in  arabesques,  and  painted  with 


MOSCOW — IMPERIAL  PALACES.  357 

the  gayest  colors.  On  the  painted  branches  are  perched  birds,  yellow, 
blue,  gold,  and  silver ;  squirrels,  mice,  and  other  small  animals ;  on  every 
bough  hangs  a  load  of  costly  fruit,  and  all  sorts  of  knots  and  figures  in  gold 
are  entwined  among  them.  Here  and  there  are  portraits  of  the  czars,  ar- 
morial bearings,  houses  in  miniature,  and  what  not.  Originals  for  these 
fancies  were  found  in  old  churches,  but  of  course  the  work  of  the  modern 
artist  is  much  more  elegant,  richer,  and  better  executed. 

From  one  of  the  terraces  of  the  Terema  there  is  an  entrance  into  the 
little  church  of  the  Redeemer,  which  was  also  plundered  by  the  French, 
but  re-endowed  most  magnificently  with  gold  and  silver  vessels  by  the  em- 
perors Alexander  and  Nicholas.  This  is  ornamented  with  twelve  gilded 
cupolas,  the  size  of  chimneys  —  the  sight  of  which,  no  doubt,  in  the  days 
of  childhood,  delighted  many  a  czar.  It  was  on  the  terrace-roof  of  the 
Terema,  whence  there  is  a  splendid  view  of  the  city  and  its  environs,  that 
Napoleon  placed  himself  on  the  first  day  of  his  very  short  stay  at  Moscow, 
to  behold  the  beauties  of  his  short-lived  and  fatal  conquest. 

Connected  also  with  the  Bolshoi  Dvoretz  is  the  singular  building  of  quad- 
rangular or  cubical  form,  the  Granovitaya  Palata.  On  the  second  story 
is  the  coronation-hall  of  the  czars,  a  low  and  vaulted  apartment,  the  arches 
uniting  in  the  centre,  where  they  rest  upon  a  thick,  square  column.  The 
crimson-velvet  hangings  used  at  Nicholas's  coronation  still  ornament  the 
walls ;  they  are  embroidered  in  gold,  with  eagles  bearing  thunderbolts, 
and  with  tlie  initials  of  the  emperor :  a  golden  candelabrum  is  worked  ho,- 
tween  each  of  these.  The  throne,  under  a  velvet  canopy,  is  opposite  the 
entrance,  and  over  the  windows  are  the  armorial  bearings  of  the  different 
governments  of  Russia.  The  pillar  in  the  centre  is  divided  by  circular 
shelves,  on  which  the  regalia  are  displayed  on  the  day  of  the  coronation. 
Here  the  emperor  sits  enthroned,  after  the  ceremony  in  the  cathedral, 
adorned  for  the  first  time  with  all  the  imperial  insignia,  and  dines  amid 
his  nobles.  After  that  royal  feast  the  room  is  untrodden,  save  by  the  curi- 
ous stranger,  until  death  calls  the  reigning  czar  to  the  sepulchre  of  his 
fathers,  and  the  gorgeous  banquet  is  spread  anew  for  his  successor. 

A  long,  low  passage,  the  walls  of  which  were  richly  painted  and  gilded 
with  barbarous  devices,  led  to  the  room  of  state  of  the  rulers  of  the  olden 
time.  They  knew  not  of  seat  or  throne,  save  the  deep  niches  cut  in  the 
painted  walls  ;  and  where,  unless  they  far  out-topped  in  stature  the  degen- 
erate mortals  of  later  times,  they  must  have  sat  with  their  royal  legs  dan- 
gling most  uncomfortably  in  mid-air,  as  the  niches  are  between  three  and 
four  feet  from  the  ground. 

It  has  been  remarked  that,  on  the  spot  where  the  main  body  of  the  old 
Tartar  palace  stood,  the  emperor  Alexander  erected  the  Bolshoi  Dvoretz 
(Great  palace).  It  is  very  lofty  compared  with  its  far-ade,  but  the  whole 
effect  is  good  when  viewed  from  the  base  upward.  The  interior  is  not 
striking  for  either  its  decorations  or  furniture ;  nevertheless,  the  palace, 
though  of  such  recent  erection,  is  not  without  interest.     The  rooms,  which 


358  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

have  been  at  various  times  inliabited  by  members  of  the  imperial  family, 
are  in  exactly  the  same  state  as  when  they  left  them ;  and  the  servants 
who  show  the  building  announce  the  history  of  each  room  —  as  the  throne- 
room  of  tlie  emperor  Alexander,  the  bath-room  of  the  empress  Maria  Feo- 
dorovna,  &c.  Almost  every  room  is  illustrated  by  silent  memorials  of 
tliose  who  once  occupied  the  apartments.  In  the  apartment  of  the  empe- 
ror Alexander  is  a  pocket-handkerchief  which  he  left  here  before  he  set 
out  for  Taganrog ;  there  are  also  some  instruments  which  indicate  what 
his  occupations  were  —  as  a  rule,  quadrant,  black-lead  pencil,  India  rubber, 
&c.  His  bedroom  is  as  simple  as  it  can  well  be  :  a  bed  with  a  straw-mat- 
tress, half  a  dozen  leather-covered  chairs,  and  a  small  looking-glass,  make 
up  the  whole  furniture. 

The  Maloi  Dvoretz  (Little  palace),  adjoining  the  Granovitaya  Palata, 
was  built  by  the  emperor  Nicholas,  and  nothing  like  magnificence  has  been 
displayed  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  furniture  and  general  arrangements  are,  as 
in  the  private  palace  at  St.  Petersburg,  of  the  simplest  kind.  Tiiis  Avas 
the  emperor's  residence  before  his  elevation  to  the  throne,  and,  having 
spent  the  first  years  of  his  married  life  here,  he  was  much  attached  to  it. 
The  musket  of  a  common  soldier  is  shown  in  one  of  the  rooms,  as  a  favor- 
ite piece  of  furniture,  and  with  it  Nicholas  used  to  go  througli  the  manual 
exercise,  while  giving  his  little  sons  their  first  lessons  in  the  art  of  war. 
Some  Polish  eagles  are  to  be  seen  here.  From  the  windows  of  this  palace, 
the  emperor,  when  residing  at  Moscow,  shows  himself  to  liis  admiring  sub- 
jects, who  assemble  to  see  him  on  the  parade-ground  below. 

There  are  some  interesting  pictures  here,  by  Bernardo  Belotto  de  Cana- 
letto,  representing  scenes  in  Polish  history.  One  is  particularly  interest- 
ing and  beautifully  executed,  portraying  very  faithfully  the  "  Election  of 
Stanislaus  Augustus  by  the  Diet  of  Warsaw,  in  1764."  The  king  is  rep- 
resented as  crowned  in  the  open  air,  on  the  field  of  Yola ;  and  round  his 
throne  sit  the  nobility  and  clergy,  the  former  with  their  swords  drawn. 

In  one  of  the  rooms  is  the  mattress  of  the  emperor  Nicholas,  on  which 
he  lay  without  any  other  bed  between,  and  stuifed  so  hard  and  liglit,  that 
a  shutter,  in  the  absence  of  it,  would  not  have  inconvenienced  liis  imperial 
majesty  !  The  library  in  the  emperor's  cabinet  contains  all  the  works  that 
have  been  written  concerning  Moscow,  in  French,  Russian,  and  German. 

In  another  of  the  apartments,  and  under  a  glass  case,  are  a  number  of 
loaves,  which  have  been  presented  to  the  emperor  on  his  various  visits  to 
Moscow.  When  the  sovereign  arrives,  it  is  customary  for  the  g-olova,  or 
chief  person,  attended  by  some  of  the  principal  citizens,  to  wait  on  him, 
and  present  on  a  silver  salver  and  a  gold  salt-cellar,  bread  and  salt,  re- 
questing him  to  taste  the  bread  of  Moscow.  The  emperor  thanks  him, 
breaks  off  a  piece  of  the  roll,  eats  it,  and  then  invites  the  g-olova  to  eat 
his  bread  —  that  is,  to  partake  of  a  splendid  dinner,  prepared  at  the  palace, 
at  which  lie  is  presented  to  the  empress  and  the  different  members  of  the 
imperial  family. 


MOSCOW CATHEDRAL   OF   THE   ASSUMPTION.  350 

It  is  difficult  to  say  how  many  churches  there  are  in  Moscow,  the  several 
accoiuits  difter  so  widely.  Some  speak  of  fifteen  hundred,  others  five  hun- 
dred, and  one  writer  places  their  number  under  three  hundred.  Some 
include  chapels,  public  and  private,  and  those  in  convents,  in  the  category  ; 
also  the  winter  and  summer  churches,  separately,  for  there  is  one  for  each 
season,  as  well  as  those  which  are  joined  together — and  this  mode  of  cal- 
culation would  soon  swell  their  numbers  to  thousands.  There  is  exagger- 
ation in  this,  but  there  are  some  churches  in  the  old  capital  which  do  in 
fact  consist  of  several  joined  together,  of  which  each  has  its  own  name, 
and  is  quite  separate  from  the  rest ;  in  this  manner  the  church  of  the  Pro- 
tection of  the  Holy  Virgin  might  be  set  down  as  twelve. 

It  is  sufficient  to  say,  therefore,  that  the  buildings  in  Moscow  destined 
for  Divine  service  are  almost  countless,  but  the  quintessence  and  holiest 
of  them  all,  in  the  eyes  of  the  Russians,  is  on  the  height  of  the  kremlin. 
This  consecrated  spot,  the  Sabornoi  Ploschad  (Cathedral  place),  has  been 
surrounded  by  the  emperor  Nicholas  with  a  lofty  and  magnificent  iron  gra- 
ting, and  contains  the  Uspenski  Sabor  (catliedral  of  the  Assumption),  the 
Arkhang-e/skoi  Sabor  (church  of  the  Archangel  Michael),  and  our  Lady  of 
the  Cave.  It  is  hard  to  say  which  is  the  most  important,  but  perhaps  the 
preference  belongs  to  the  Uspenskoi  Sabo)',  as  the  emperors  are  crowned 
in  it,  and  the  patriarch  of  the  Greek  church  formerly  officiated  here. 

The  name  of  a  cathedral  leads  a  western  European  or  an  American  to 
expect  great  space  and  lofty  arches,  in  which  the  voice  returns  in  echo, 
and  the  eye  loses  itself  in  distance ;  but  these  expectations  will  not  be  ful- 
filled in  a  Russian  one.  According  to  the  national  taste,  a  church  must 
be  crowded  with  pictures  and  shrines:  and  thus,  in  this  cathedral,  eye  and 
spirit  are  bewildered  with  the  glitter  of  gold  and  the  glare  of  color.  The 
whole  church  is  gilt  wdthin ;  even  the  heavy  pillars  that  support  the  five 
cupolas  are  covered  with  this  material  from  top  to  bottom,  and  the  walls 
the  same  ;  and  on  this  golden  ground  large  fresco-paintiiigs-  have  been  exe- 
cuted, tiie  subjects  taken  from  the  Bible.  The  figure*  arc  gigantic,  and 
distinguished  by  astonishing  strength  of  grimace ;  they  are  said  to  have 
been  painted  by  foreign  artists  at  the  command  of  the  czar  Vassili-Ivano- 
vich,  but  they  are  entirely  Russian  as  well  as  the  church,  and  the  artists 
must  have  yielded  to  the  national  spirit.  There  is  more  gilding  than  gold 
in  this  church,  for  the  French  seem  to  have  distinguished  the  true  metal 
from  the  false  better  here  than  in  the  castle-chapel,  where  they  left  a  quan- 
tity of  gold,  mistaking  it  for  copper. 

The  priests  contrived,  however,  to  secure  a  pretty  little  salvage  out  of 
the  shipwreck  of  1812  —  among  other  things  a  Mount  Sinai  of  pure  ducat 
gold,  a  present  from  Prince  Potemkin.  On  the  summit  stands  a  golden 
Moses,  with  a  golden  table  of  the  law  ;  and  within  the  mountain  is  a  golden 
coffin  to  contain  the  host:  it  is  said  to  weigh  a  hundred  and  twenty  thou- 
sand ducats.  A  bible,  the  gift  of  Natalia  Xarishkin,  the  mother  of  Peter 
the  Great,  is  so  large,  and  the  cover  so  laden  with  gold  and  jewels,  that  it 


360 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 


requires  two  men  to  carry  it  into  the  church  ;  it  is  said  to  weigh  a  hundred 
and  twenty  pounds.     The  emeralds  on  the  cover  are  an  inch  long,  and  the 


Cathedral  of  the  Assumption,  Moscow.* 


whole  binding  cost  one  million  two  hundred  thousand  roubles,  a  sum  for 
which  all  the  books  in  Moscow  might  be  handsomely  bound. 

Among  the  other  remarkable  objects  in  this  church  is  the  great  chestnut- 

A  view  of  the  interior  of  this  cathedral  is  given  on  page  559. 


MOSCOW  —  HOUSE  OP  THE  HOLY  SYNOD.  361 

colored  wooden  tlirone-seat  of  Vladimir  tlie  Great,  enclosed  within  a  liouso 
of  brass-work,  which  the  Russians  say  is  an  imitation  of  the  tomb  of  Ciirist ; 
and  also  a  miraculous  picture  of  the  Savior.  Here  too  is  to  be  seen  a  nail, 
claimed  to  be  of  the  true  cross,  a  robe  of  the  Savior's,  and  part  of  one  of 
the  Virgin  Mary's.  There  is  likewise  a  picture  of  her,  which,  it  is  said, 
was  painted  by  St.  Luke,  and  brought  from  Constantinople  by  one  of  the 
early  czars !  The  face  is  dark,  almost  black,  the  head  encircled  with  a 
glory  of  precious  stones,  and  the  hands  and  body  gilded.  From  the  cen- 
tre of  tlie  roof  is  suspended  a  crown  of  massive  silver,  with  forty-eight 
chandeliers,  all  in  a  single  piece,  and  weighing  nearly  three  tliousand 
pounds.  The  pictures  of  the  saints  on  the  walls  are  twenty-three  hundred 
in  number ;  and  besides  these  there  are  portraits  of  the  ancient  Greek  and 
Roman  historians,  whose  names,  to  prevent  confusion,  are  attached  to  their 
resemblance. 

The  cathedral  of  the  Assumption  was  founded  in  1325,  and  rebuilt  in 
1472.  Here  are  the  tombs  of  the  patriarchs  of  the  Greek  church,  one  of 
whom,  St.  Philip,  and  honored  by  a  silver  monument,  dared  to  say  to  Ivan 
the  Terrible,  "  We  respect  you  as  an  image  of  the  Divinity,  but  as  a  man 
you  partake  of  the  dust  of  the  earth !"  The  most  notable  object  of  the 
whole  collection,  however,  is  the  golden  shrine  of  the  patriarch  Nicon,  in 
the  sacristry,  whose  mouldering  skeleton  is  here  preserved,  together  with 
his  wooden  spoon.  When  he  held  the  crosier,  it  was  mightier  than  the 
sceptre  in  Russia,  for  he  governed  the  indolent  prince  Alexis-Michaelovich 
(father  of  Peter  the  Great)  ;  but  a  conspiracy  of  the  nobles  drove  him  from 
power  to  the  Bielosersk  convent,  Avhere  he  had  begun  his  career  as  a  priest. 

Behind  the  cathedral  of  the  Assumption  stands  the  house  wliich  formerly 
belonged  to  the  patriarchs  of  Moscow,  now  called  the  Synodalni  Do?n,  be- 
cause a  section  of  the  "  Holy  Synod"  lias  its  offices  here.  It  contains  the 
library  of  the  patriarchs,  their  treasury,  and  their  wardrobe ;  and  in  the 
church  attached  to  it  is  preserved  the  miV ,  the  holy  oil  that  is  used  in  bap- 
tizing all  the  children  in  Russia. 

The  books  are  kept  in  glass  cases  in  the  church  itself;  and  in  the  mid- 
dle, round  the  pillar  that  sustains  the  vaulted  roof,  the  vessels  used  in  pre- 
paring and  preserving  the  oil  are  ranged  on  semicircular  shelves.  At  the 
baptism  of  the  child,  the  priest  crosses,  with  a  small  camel's-hair  pencil 
dipped  in  the  oil,  the  mouth,  eyes,  ears,  hands,  and  feet :  the  eyes,  that  the 
child  may  only  see  good  ;  the  ears,  that  they  may  admit  only  what  is  good  ; 
the  mouth,  that  he  may  speak  as  beseems  a  Christian ;  the  hands,  that  he 
may  do  no  wrong;  the  feet,  that  they  may  tread  in  the  path  of  the  just. 

The  holy  oil,  the  mir,  which  is  to  effect  all  this,  is  of  course  no  common 
oil.  The  finest  Florence  is  used,  mingled  with  a  number  of  essences,  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  which  are  strictly  defined  ;  but  the  soul  of  the  mix- 
ture consists  of  some  reputed  drops  from  the  oil-flask  of  the  Magdalen  who 
wasiied  the  feet  of  the  Savior ! 

Two  great  silver  kettles,  the  gift  of  Catherine  II.,  are  used  in  the  prepa- 


862  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

ration  of  the  sacred  oils :  four  weeks  elapse  before  the  mass  is  perfectly 
mingled,  before  the  due  number  of  prayers  have  been  made,  and  before, 
amid  pious  psalmody,  every  drop  has  been  refined  and  signed  with  the 
cross.  From  the  kettles  the  oil  is  poured  into  silver  jars,  thirty  in  num- 
ber, the  gift  of  the  emperor  Paul,  and  these  are  sealed  with  the  seal  of  the 
synod,  and  placed  on  stages  round  the  central  pillar  of  the  church.  The 
quantity  made  at  one  time  —  about  three  and  a  half  gallons  —  supplies  all 
llussia  for  one  and  a  half  or  two  years.  Every  bishop  either  comes  him- 
self or  sends  a  confidential  person  to  Moscow,  to  fetch  a  supply  for  his 
diocese,  who  receives  it  from  the  metropolitan.  The  cost  of  the  whole  is 
about  five  thousand  roubles.  Everything  employed  in  the  operation  is 
silver,  as  well  as  the  kettles  and  tlie  jars  to  keep  it  in,  the  sieve  for  strain- 
ing, the  spoons  for  stirring,  &c. 

Among  the  patriarchs'  books  there  are  a  number  of  rare  bibles  in  differ- 
ent languages,  so  inestimably  jjrecious,  that  they  are  always  kept  under 
lock  and  key,  and  shown  to  no  one.  Thus,  in  time,  tliey  will  be  eaten  by 
the  worms  without  any  person  being  the  wiser.  The  four  gospels,  trans- 
cribed by  the  daughter  of  Michael  RomanoflF,  and  sister  of  the  czar  Alexis, 
are  shown  here.  Every  letter  is  carefully  and  beautifully  painted.  There 
is  probably  nowhere  to  be  found  such  a  monument  of  pious  industry  of  so 
recent  a  date. 

« 

The  Arkhangehkoi  Sabor  (cathedral  of  the  Archangel  Michael),  also  in 
the  kremlin,  although  dedicated  to  the  angel  of  the  flaming  sword,  has  such 
very  diminutive  windows,  that  all  the  light  of  its  jewels,  and  all  the  glitter 
of  its  gold,  are  barely  sufficient  to  enlighten  its  blackened  walls.  The 
shrine  that  shines  the  brightest  in  the  night  of  this  church  is  that  of  a  little 
boy,  in  whose  name  more  blood  has  been  shed  than  in  that  of  any  child  in 
the  world,  and  whose  memory  is  now  worshipped  here.  It  is  the  last  false 
Dmitri  (Demetrius),  who  has  long  rested  here,  and  enjoyed  the  homage 
of  q,ll  Russia ;  and  as  he  now  makes  no  claim  to  an  earthly  kingdom,  he 
enjoys  his  share  in  the  heavenly  kingdom  uncontested.  Of  course,  the 
Russians  do  not  esteem  him  the  false  but  the  real  Dmitri.  The  fact  they 
adduce  in  proof  of  this  is  exactly  what  raises  in  others  the  greatest  doubt. 
Tliey  say  that,  after  the  body  of  the  royal  child  had  been  in  vain  sought 
for  in  Uglitsh,  where  he  was  murdered  by  the  emissaries  of  Boris  Godunofi", 
it  arose,  coffin  and  all,  from  the  ground,  at  God's  command,  and  presented 
itself  to  the  longing  people,  whereby  its  genuineness  was  palpal)ly  mani- 
fested !  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  nmmmy  of  a  boy  of  five  or  six  years  of  age, 
magnificently  clad,  is  exposed  on  festivals  in  an  open  coffin.  Every  part 
is  veiled  but  the  forehead,  which  is  kissed  by  his  adorers.  Above  the  cof- 
fin is  the  portrait  of  tlie  little  canonized  prince,  attached  to  a  pillar,  and 
set  in  a  raised  frame  of  the  finest  gold.  Being  well  concealed,  it  escaped 
the  French  in  1812. 

How  strong  is  the  affection  the  Russians  still  feel  for  this  last  offshoot 
of  tlie  old  Rurik  dynasty  was  recently  testified  by  a  gift  made  to  the  young 


MOSCOW — CHURCH   OF  THE   ANNUNCIATION.  3G3 

martyr,  by  tlic  inhabitants  of  Uglitt^li,  of  ii  now  silver  candlestick,  as  tall 
as  an  ordinary  man,  with  a  })rofiisely-decoratcd  pedestal,  and  a  large,  fUit 
top.  On  this  top  is  a  cavity  in  the  centre  for  the  reception  of  a  thick  wax- 
candle,  witli  a  number  of  smaller  cavities  around,  for  candles  of  different 
dimensions. 

A  whole  body  must  necessarily  take  precedence  of  a  few  drops  of  blood. 
Hence,  a  ^c\v  drops  claimed  to  be  of  tlie  veritable  blood  of  John  Baptist 
after  he  was  beheaded,  are  little  regarded  by  the  Russians,  althougli  set  in 
gold,  with  diamond  rays  like  the  centre  of  a  star.  One  would  think  that 
the  blood  of  John  Baptist  was  immeasurably  dearer  to  Christendom  than 
that  of  this  royal  child  ;  but  in  Russia  the  Christian  religion  is  everywhere 
overshadowed  by  the  Russian.  The  pictures  of  Paul,  Peter,  and  the  other 
apostles,  are  seldom  seen,  in  either  the  churches  or  private  houses  ;  whereas 
St.  Vladimirs,  Dmitris,  Nicholases,  and  Gregorys,  are  met  with  at  every 
turn.  Even  the  Savior  and  Mary  his  mother  must  take  a  Greek  or  Rus- 
sian title  before  they  enjoy  meet  reverence.  The  Iberian  Boshia  Mater, 
and  she  of  Kazan,  are  quite  other  godheads  from  the  suffering  Virgin. 

The  czars  down  to  Peter  the  Great  (since  whom  the  sovereigns  have 
been  buried  in  the  fortress  of  Peter  and  Paul,  at  St.  Petersburg)  lie  in  the 
church  of  the  Archangel  Michael.  Their  portraits,  as  large  as  life,  are 
painted  in  fresco  round  the  walls,  each  wrapped  in  a  white  mantle,  by  liis 
own  tomb,  as  if  watching  it.  They  are  all  evidently  made  after  one  pat- 
tern, and  that  no  very  choice  one.  The  tombs  are  nothing  better  than 
heaps  of  brick  whitened  over.  On  the  walls  and  cover  of  the  sarcophagi 
are  inscribed  the  names  and  paternal  names  of  the  czars,  with  the  years  of 
their  birth  and  death.  The  tomb  of  Ivan  the  Terrible  and  his  ill-fated  son 
arc  liere. 

A  portion  of  the  screen  in  this  church  is  one  sheet  of  pure  gold.  Close 
to  this  cathedral  is  an  odd-looking  church,  which  is  constantly  thronged 
with  devotees.  It  is  said  to  be  the  most  ancient  in  Moscow.  The  walls 
are  of  immense  strength. 

The  church  of  the  Annunciation  has  its  floor  paved  with  stones  of  all 
sizes  and  shapes — jasper,  agate,  and  cornelian.  Here  is  tlic  royal  seat  of 
the  czars,  made  of  wood,  covered  with  silver  gilt,  and  shaped  like  a  sugar- 
bowl,  with  a  cover  to  match.  T'liis  church  is  rich  in  relics  of  all  the  saints 
in  the  calendar,  not  a  few  in  number ;  but  the  most  remarkable  object  is  a 
fresco-|)ainting  on  the  wall,  representing  an  assembly  of  good  and  evil 
spirits,  the  latter  headed  by  Satan  himself,  breathing  flame  and  smoke,  and 
horned,  hoofed,  and  tailed  !  "  The  French,"  says  Kolil,  "  left  a  large  ham 
in  pickle  on  the  kremlin.  The  priests  repeated  with  deep  emotion  the 
story  of  the  French  stabbing  tlieir  horses  in  this  church,  and  people  from 
the  provinces  never  hear  this  witliout  shuddering,  and  swearing  eternal 
hatred  to  that  nation." 

In  addition  to  the  clmrches  and  palaces  already  enumerated,  there  is  in 
the  kremlin  an  immense  pile  of  buildings  called  "  the  Senate,"  within  the 


864  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

walls  of  wliicli  arc  the  offices  of  all  the  various  departments  of  the  local 
government.  This  building  forms  one  side  of  a  triangle,  the  remaining 
two  being  composed  of  the  treasury  and  arsenal.  In  the  vestibule  of  the 
treasury,  or  OrovjiePallast,  is  a  collection  of  busts  of  noble  Poles,  "  quiet 
memorials  of  very  unquiet  gentlemen,"  mostly  of  the  seventeenth  and  eigh- 
teenth centuries,  finely  executed,  and  evident  likenesses ;  and  on  this,  the 
ground-floor,  there  is  also  a  very  curious  and  large  collection  of  the  state- 
carriages  of  former  sovereigns.  Among  them  is  that  of  a  Russian  patri- 
arch, which  has  talc  windows  ;  likewise  a  very  small  one  that  belonged  to 
Peter  the  Great  when  a  child  ;  and  a  sledge  fitted  up  like  a  drawing-room, 
in  which  the  empress  Elizabeth  and  twelve  of  her  suite  used  to  dine  when 
on  her  journeys  between  the  two  capitals :  it  is  not  unlike  the  cabin  of  a 
sliip,  with  a  table  in  the  centre ;  the  interior  is  well  but  not  luxuriously 
fitted  up.  Some  of  these  ancient  equipages  have  whole  fir-trees  for  their 
axles !     One  of  them  is  said  to  have  been  built  in  England. 

Here  also  is  a  model  of  an  ill-conceived  and  extravagant  design  for  a 
palace,  which  Catherine  II.  is  said  to  have  contemplated  erecting  on  the 
kremlin  hill.  Everything,  with  the  exception  of  the  old  churches  and 
tower,  was  to  have  been  levelled  with  the  ground,  and  this  giant  palace, 
forming  a  screen  round  the  whole,  was  intended  to  replace  them.  The 
circumference  of  the  walls  of  this  building  would  have  been  two  miles  ;  the 
model  is  said  to  have  cost  twelve  thousand  dollars !  Luckily,  some  new 
freak  of  fancy  interfered  to  save  the  kremlin  from  this  threatened  desecra- 
tion ;  and  the  model,  beautifully  executed,  and  capable  of  being  taken  en- 
tirely to  pieces  by  means  of  numerous  sliding  panels,  remains  a  memorial 
of  the  skill  and  dexterity  of  the  artist. 

Here,  too,  is  preserved  the  alarm-bell  of  "  the  mighty  Novgorod,"  which, 
in  the  days  of  its  power  and  celebrity,  was  looked  upon  as  the  palladium 
of  that  proud  city,  and  the  removal  of  which  to  Moscow  was  considered 
by  the  citizens  as  the  final  blow  to  its  prosperity.  Its  size,  though  con- 
siderable, is  here  scarcely  appreciated,  from  the  immediate  contrast  with 
the  "  monarch  bell,"  in  the  adjoining  square. 

The  chief  attraction,  however,  is  in  the  upper  story  of  the  treasury, 
where,  in  a  suite  of  rooms,  are  collected  and  arranged  the  crowns  of  tlie 
early  czars,  warlike  trophies  and  trappings,  and  a  host  of  historical  knick- 
knacks  too  numerous  to  mention.  In  one  room  is  a  man's  saddle  and 
trappings  belonging  to  Catherine  II.,  on  which  she  used  to  exhibit  herself 
to  her  loving  subjects  in  the  uniform  of  her  guards  —  a  very  favorite  amuse- 
ment of  that  empress  ;  and  certainly,  to  judge  from  the  full-length  picture, 
the  costume  became  her  bravely.  The  bridle-head  and  reins,  as  well  as 
the  stirrups  and  saddle-cloth,  are  most  lavishly  strewn  with  diamonds, 
amethysts,  and  large  turquoises. 

Nor  are  memorials  of  the  great  Peter  wanting.  Among  them  are  his 
huge  pocket-book,  of  coarse  leather ;  his  immense  drinking-cup ;  also  a 
glass  cup,  with  a  ducat  enclosed  in  it,  blown  by  the  czar  himself;  and  nu 


.      MOSCOW  —  TREASURY  —  PALACE   OP   ARMS  —  THE   MONARCH   BELL.        365 

nierous  specimens  of  his  mechanical  skill  and  unwearied  industry.  A 
curious  model  of  a  ship,  of  silver  gilt,  sent  to  him  from  Holland,  is  worthy 
of  notice. 

A  large  recess  is  occupied  with  a  most  miscellaneous  assortment  of 
clothes,  belonging  to  five  or  six  successive  occupants  of  the  Russian  throne  ; 
the  coarse  brown  frock  of  Peter  the  Great  is  ranged  beside  the  splendidly- 
embroidered  robes  of  his  consort,  and  the  still  more  gorgeous  apparel  of 
the  second  Catherine.  Here,  too,  is  the  canopy  of  state  beneath  which, 
at  the  coronation,  the  emperor  walks  from  his  palace  to  the  cathedral  of 
the  Assumption  ;  while  the  whole  extent  of  one  long  wall  is  occupied  by  an 
array  of  boots,  from  the  massive  and  iron-bound  jack-boots  of  Peter  to  the 
delicate  beaver-skin  of  the  emperor  Alexander,  apparently  but  little  fitted 
for  a  Russian  winter. 

In  a  court  near  the  treasury,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  termed,  the  Orushei- 
naya  Palata  (palace  of  Arms),  are  arranged  the  cannon  taken  by  the  Rus- 
sians during  tlie  disastrous  retreat  of  the  French  in  1812.  A  trophy  com- 
posed of  them,  erected  in  tlie  most  conspicuous  spot  in  the  kremlin,  would 
make  an  excellent  pendant  to  the  column  in  the  Place  Vendome  at  Paris, 
erected  by  Napoleon  from  cannon  taken  at  Marengo  and  Austerlitz.  Most 
of  these  guns,  and  others,  are  ranged  in  long  rows,  with  small  shields, 
erected  on  staves,  to  indicate  to  which  nation  they  originally  belonged. 
The  arsenal,  to  the  right  of  the  senate,  contains  a  magazine  of  weapons 
sufficient  to  arm  a  hundred  thousand  men,  and  a  collection  of  standards  of 
Russia's  enemies.  The  spoils  of  Pougatchefif  are  the  only  objects  of  inter- 
est. This  rebellious  Cossack  once  terrified  the  Russian  empire  with  can- 
non at  which  Russian  children  would  now  laugh.  They  are  nothing  more 
than  clumsy  iron  tubes,  and  the  coarse  seam  of  the  joining  is  visible.  The 
flag  carried  before  this  plunderer  is  wortliy  of  the  ordnance,  being  of  coarse 
sackcloth,  with  a  Madonna  painted  on  it.  This  rag  was  fastened  to  a  staff 
which  looks  as  if  it  had  been  fashioned  by  a  bill-hook.  The  standard,  how- 
ever, possessed,  in  all  probability,  a  kind  of  sanctity,  for  a  breach  in  the 
centre  is  carefully  repaired  with  an  iron  ring.  The  muskets  are  principally 
of  Toula  manufacture,  and  in  a  press  are  kept  specimens  of  the  muskets  of 
other  nations. 

Close  to  the  tower  of  Ivan  Veliki,  and  reared  on  a  massive  pedestal  of 
granite,  stands  the  mighty  bell,  most  justly  named  "  the  Monarch"  (^Czar 
Kolokol),  for  no  other  in  the  world  may  dispute  its  sovereignty.  It  was 
cast  by  the  command  of  the  empress  Anne,  in  1730,  and  bears  her  figure 
in  flowing  robes  upon  its  surface,  beneath  which  is  a  deep  border  of  flow- 
ers. It  is  said  that  the  tower  in  which  it  originally  hung  was  burnt  in 
1737,  and  its  fall  buried  tlie  enormous  mass  deep  in  the  earth,  and  broke 
a  huge  fragment  from  it.  There  it  lay  for  many  years,  visited  in  its  sub- 
terraneous abode  by  the  enterprising  traveller  only,  and  carefully  guarded 
by  a  Russian  sentinel.  In  the  spring  of  1837,  exactly  a  century  after  it 
fell,  the  emperor  Nicholas  caused  it  to  be  removed,  and,  rightly  deeming 


366 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 


The  Great  Bell  of  Moscow. 


it  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  wonders  of  this  wondrous  city,  placed  it  upon 
its  present  pedestal,  with  the  broken  fragment  beside  it.  The  fracture 
took  place  just  above  the  bordering  of  flowers  that  runs  round  the  bell, 
and  this  piece  is  about  six  feet  high  and  three  feet  wide.  The  height  of 
the  whole  bell  is  twenty-one  feet  three  inches,  and  twenty-two  feet  five 
inches  in  diameter,  and  it  is  in  no  part  less  than  three  inches  in  thickness. 
Seen  from  even  a  short  distance,  surrounded  as  it  is  on  all  sides  by  objects 
on  such  an  immense  scale,  with  the  lofty  Ivan  A'eliki  towering  immediately 
beliind  it,  the  impression  of  its  magnitude  is  by  no  means  striking :  it  is 
only  when  the  spectator  comes  near  to  it,  and  stands  beside  the  broken 
fragment  of  this  metal  mountain,  or  descends  the  stairs  that  lead  beneath 
it  and  looks  up  into  its  capacious  cavern,  that  lie  becomes  sensible  of  its 
enormous  bulk.  This  giant  communicator  of  sound  has  been  consecrated 
as  a  chapel,  and  the  entrance  to  it  is  by  an  iron  gate,  and  down  a  few 
steps  that  descend  into  a  cavity  formed  by  the  wall  and  the  excavation 
under  it. 

The  "  Czar  Kolokol"  is  highly  venerated,  for  the  religious  feelings  of 
the  people  were  called  into  action  when  it  was  cast,  and  every  one  Avho 
had  a  fraction  of  the  precious  metals  threw  into  tlie  melting  mass  some 
offering  of  either  silver  or  gold  ;  the  decorative  parts  of  it  are  in  low  relief, 
and  badly  executed.  The  largest  bell  in  France,  that  of  Rouen,  weighs 
but  thirty-six  thousand  pounds  ;  the  famous  "  Tom"  of  Lincoln,  in  England 
cast  in  1610,  and  afterward  cracked,  was  not  quite  ten  thousand  pounds, 
though  the  new  one  is  somewhat  larger ;  the  great  fire-bell  in  the  tower  of 


MOSCOW  —  THE   TOWER   OF   IVAN   VELIKI.  367 

the  citj-hall  at  New  York  is  only  about  twenty-one  thousand  pounds  ;  but 
the  bell  of  the  kremlin  weighs  between  three  and  four  hundred  thousand 
pounds  !  The  value  of  this  mass  of  metal,  estimated  from  tlic  present  price 
of  copper,  must  be  upward  of  a  million  and  a  half  of  dollars.  Bells,  as 
well  as  evervthino-  else  connected  in  tlic  remotest  degree  with  ecclesinstical 
purposes,  are  held  in  great  respect  by  the  Russian  people,  but  that  of  the 
kremlin  is  recommended  to  especial  veneration  by  the  name  of  the  "  Eter- 
nal Bell." 

The  tower  of  Ivan  Veliki  (John  the  Great)  is  a  most  singular  building ; 
rising  without  ornament  of  any  kind  to  the  height  of  more  than  two  hun- 
dred feet,  surmounted  by  a  gilded  dome,  upon  which,  as  on  all  the  other 
gilded  domes  within  the  kremlin  (about  sixty  in  number),  the  cross  is  dis- 
played above  the  crescent.  This  tower,  the  loftiest  and  most  remarkaljlc 
in  Moscow,  is  the  campanile  to  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas  the  ]\Iagician. 
The  summit  is  gained  by  a  good  staircase,  and  the  view  from  eacli  story, 
which  serves  as  a  belfry,  stimulates  the  visiter  to  renew  his  exertions  to 
reach  the  top.  In  the  first  of  these  stories  hangs,  in  solitary  grdndeur,  a 
bell,  which,  but  for  the  mightier  one  below,  would  appear  stupendous.  It 
weighs  sixty-four  tons  ;  it  is  consequently  four  times  as  heavy  as  tlie  famous 
bell  of  Rouen,  and  six  times  that  of  the  city-hall  in  New  York.  To 
ring  it  is,  of  course,  impossible  :  even  to  toll  it  requires  tlie  united  strengtii 
of  three  men,  who,  pulling  with  separate  ropes,  swing  the  vast  clapper 
round,  making  it  strike  the  bell  in  three  different  places.  Standing  under 
it,  and  with  liis  arm  stretclied  out  above  his  head,  the  traveller,  even  if  a 
tall  man,  will  fail  to  touch  the  top.  In  the  belfry  above  that  in  which  this 
is  suspended  are  two  other  bells  of  far  smaller  but  still  of  immense  propor- 
tions ;  and  above  these  are  forty  or  fifty  more,  which  diminish  in  size  in 
each  tier  successively.  The  tones  of  these  various  bells  are  said  to  be  very 
beautiful. 

A  superior  dexterity  in  casting  metals,  traditionally  preserved  in  this 
part  of  the  earth  from  the  earliest  times,  is  proved  by  the  bells  now  hang- 
ing in  this  tower,  which  were  cast  soon  after  the  erection  of  tlie  church  in 
1600.  The  largest,  described  above,  is  held  so  sacred,  that  it  is  sounded  but 
three  times  a  year,  and  then  alone ;  the  others  are  rung  all  together,  and 
an  extraordinary  noise  they  must  make  :  but  this  din  and  jumble  of  sounds 
is  that  which  is  most  pleasing  to  Russian  ears !  On  Easter  eve  a  death- 
like silence  reigns  in  all  the  streets,  until  on  a  sudden,  at  midnight,  the 
thunders  of  tlie  guns  of  the  kremlin,  and  the  uproar  of  its  bells,  supported 
by  those  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  otlier  churches,  are  heard.  The  streets 
and  church-towers  are  illuminated,  and  a  dense  throng  of  four  hundred 
thousand  people  seems  inspired  with  but  one  thought  and  feeling:  with 
mutual  felicitations  and  embraces,  all  repeat  the  words  "  Christ  is  risen," 
and  all  evince  joy  at  the  glad  tidings. 

The  view  from  the  summit  of  this  tower  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  In 
Europe.     Clustered  round  it  are  the  numerous  gilt  domes  of  the  churches 


368  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

within  the  kremlin,  and  those  of  the  ancient  and  peculiar  building  called 
the  tower  of  the  kremlin  ;  among  these  are  grouped  the  treasury,  the 
bishop's  palace,  and  other  modern  edifices,  strangely  out  of  keeping  with 
the  eastern  architecture  of  the  place,  all  of  wliich  are  enclosed  by  the  lofty 
embattled  walls  and  fantastic  towers  of  the  fortress. 

Near  the  "  Holy  Gate,"  the  green  towers  of  which  are  surmounted  by 
golden  eagles,  is  the  cathedral  of  St.  Basil,  grotesque  in  form  and  color ; 
and  winding  under  the  terrace  of  the  kremlin  gardens  is  the  Moskva,  the 
silvery  though  narrow  line  of  which  may  be  traced  far  into  the  country. 
Roui'd  this  brilliant  centre  stretches  on  every  side  the  city  and  its  suburbs, 
radiant  in  all  the  colors  of  tlie  rainbow,  which  are  used  in  the  decoration 
of  the  roofs  and  walls  of  the  churclies  and  houses  ;  the  effect  of  this  mosaic 
is  heightened  by  the  foliage  of  the  trees  which  grow  in  many  parts  of  the 
town  as  well  as  on  the  banks  of  the  river.  The  Greek  fagade  of  the  found- 
ling-hospital attracts  attention  from  its  extreme  length  and  the  style  of  its 
architecture,  in  such  striking  contrast  with  that  of  the  town  generally. 
The  old  monasteries,  with  their  bright-blue  domes  spangled  with  golden 
stars,  and  minarets  gilt  or  colored,  particularly  of  the  Simonov  and  Don- 
skoi,  surrounded  by  groves  of  trees,  lie  scattered  on  the  skirts  of  the  town. 
Beyond  these  are  the  Sparrow  hills,  on  which  Napoleon  paused  ere  he  de- 
scended to  take  possession  of  the  devoted  city.  No  view  of  any  capital  in 
Europe  can  be  compared  witli  that  of  Moscow  from  this  tower,  except  that 
of  Constantinople  from  the  Galata  or  Seraskier's,  which  surpasses  it  in 
beauty,  for  the  horizon  here  is  one  unbroken  line  of  dreary  steppe,  while 
at  Stamboul  the  distance  is  formed  by  the  sea  of  Marmora  and  the  snowy 
summits  of  Olympus.  In  St.  Petersburg,  all  is  whitewash,  and  stiff  and 
stately,  but  in  her  ancient  rival  all  is  picturesque ;  tlie  city  seems  to  work 
gradually  upon  the  feelings  as  by  a  spell :  her  wild  Tartar  invaders  and 
boyard  chiefs  of  the  olden  time  rise  up  in  the  imagination  and  people  again 
in  fantastic  array  the  wide  terrace  of  the  old  fortress ;  while  the  deeds  of 
the  foreign  invaders  of  our  own  times  impart  a  thrilling  interest  to  the 
scene  —  the  northern  limit  of  the  long  career  of  Napoleon's  conquests. 

Descending  from  the  tower  of  Ivan  Veliki,  the  traveller  may  pass  by 
the  emperor's  palace  to  the  western  gate  of  the  kremlin,  which,  like  the 
other  three  entrances,  has  a  lofty,  tapering  tower  of  green  and  white,  and 
a  gilt  eagle  for  its  vane.  Here  a  flight  of  steps  lead  into  the  kremlin 
gardens,  Avhich  bound  the  whole  western  part  of  the  fortress ;  these  are 
beautifully  laid  out,  and  on  this  spot  fireworks  are  let  off  on  the  eve  of 
every  festival. 

The  cathedral  of  St.  Basil,  also  called  the  church  of  the  Protection  of 
Mary,  is  situated  on  the  Krasnoi  Ploschad  (Red  place),  between  the  walls 
of  the  kremlin  and  those  of  the  Kitai  Gorod  (Chinese  city),  and  an  edifice 
more  bizarre,  in  point  of  both  form  and  color,  can  not  well  be  imagined. 
Standing  alone  at  the  extremity  of  this  wide  area,  the  Vassili  Blag-ennoi 
seems  erected  in  this  conspicuous  situation  as  if  to  show  how  grotesque  a 


MOesCOW  —  CATHEDRAL   OF  ST.   BASIL. 


3G9 


Cathedral  of  St.  Basil,  Moscow. 

building  the  ingenuity  of  man  could  devote  to 
the  service  of  his  Maker.  There  are  no  less 
tlian  twenty  towers  and  domes,  all  of  different  shapes  and  sizes,  and  jDainted 
in  every  possible  color :  some  are  covered  with  a  network  of  green  over  a 
surface  of  yellow,  another  dome  is  a  briglit  red  with  broad  white  stripes, 
and  a  third  is  gilded !  Some  historians  affirm  that  it  was  built  to  com- 
memorate the  capture  of  Kazan ;  others  that  it  was  a  whim  of  Ivan  the 
Terrible,  to  try  how  many  distinct  chapels  could  be  erected  under  one 
roof,  on  a  given  extent  of  ground,  in  such  a  manner  that  divine  service 
could  be  performed  in  all  simultaneously  without  any  interference  one  with 
another.  It  is  also  said  that  the  czar  was  so  delighted  with  the  architect, 
an  Italian,  who  had  thus  admirably  gratified  his  wislies,  that  when  the  edi- 
fice was  finished  he  sent  for  him,  pronounced  a  warm  panegyric  on  his 
work,  and  then  had  his  eyes  put  out,  in  order  that  he  might  never  build 
such  another!  —  a  strange  caprice  of  cruelty,  if  true  —  punishing  the  man, 
not  for  failing,  but  succeeding,  in  gratifying  his  employer. 

The  entire  structure  is  far  from  forming  a  whole,  for  no  main  building 
is  discoverable  in  this  architectural  maze ;  in  every  one  of  the  towers  or 
domes  lurks  a  separate  church,  in  every  excrescence  a  chapel ;  or  they 
may  be  likened  to  chimneys  expanded  to  temples.  One  tower  stands  forth 
prominently  amid  the  confusion,  yet  it  is  not  in  the  centre,  for  there  is  in 
fact  neither  centre  nor  side,  neither  beginning  nor  end  ;  it  is  all  here  and 
there.  Strictly  speaking,  this  tower  is  no  tower  at  all,  but  a  church,  and 
the  chief  one  in  the  knot  of  churches,  the  "  church  of  the  Protection  of 
Holy  Mary."     This  tower,  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  is  quite 

24 


370  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

hollow  within,  having  no  division  of  any  kind,  and  lessening  by  degrees  to 
the  summit ;  and  from  its  small  cupola  the  portrait  of  the  "  protecting 
Mother"  looks  down  as  if  from  heaven.  This  church  is  placed  as  it  were 
upon  the  neck  of  another,  from  the  sides  of  which  a  number  of  chapels  pro- 
ceed—  Palm-Sunday  chapel,  the  chapel  of  the  Three  Patriarchs,  of  Alex- 
ander Svirskoi,  and  others.  Service  is  performed  in  these  on  one  day  in 
tlie  year  only.  The  greater  part  is  so  filled  up  with  sacred  utensils  and 
objects  of  adoration,  that  there  is  hardly  any  room  left  for  the  pious  who 
come  to  pray.  Some  of  the  chapels  have  a  kind  of  cupola  like  a  turban, 
as  if  they  were  so  many  Turks'  heads  from  which  Ivan  had  scooped  the 
Mohammedan  brains  and  supplied  their  place  with  Christian  furniture ! 
Some  of  the  stones  of  the  cupolas  are  cut  on  the  sides,  others  not ;  some 
are  three-sided,  some  four-sided  ;  some  are  ribbed,  or  fluted  ;  some  of  the 
(lutes  are  perpendicular,  and  some  wind  in  spiral  lines  round  the  cupola. 
.To  render  the  kaleidoscope  appearance  yet  more  perfect,  every  rib  and 
every  side  is  painted  of  a  different  color.  Those  neither  cut  in  the  sides 
nor  ribbed  are  scaled  with  little  smooth,  glazed,  and  painted  bricks  ;  and, 
when  these  scales  are  closely  examined,  they  even  are  seen  to  differ  from 
one  another  ;  some  are  oval,  others  cut  like  leaves.  The  greater  part  of 
the  cupola-crowned  towers  have  a  round  body,  but  not  all ;  there  are  six- 
sided  and  eight-sided  towers. 

From  remote  times  wax-taper  sellers  have  established  themselves  be- 
tween the  entrances,  and  there  they  display  their  gilded  and  many-colored 
wares.  From  one  corner  the  upper  churches  are  gained  by  a  broad,  cov- 
ered flight  of  steps,  which  is  beset  day  and  night  by  hungry  beggars  who 
look  to  be  fed  by  the  devout.  These  steps  lead  to  a  gallery  or  landing- 
place  which  branches  off  right  and  left  to  a  labyrinth  of  passages  leading 
to  the  separate  doors  of  the  temple  on  the  roof,  so  narrow  and  winding 
that  it  costs  many  a  painful  effort  to  work  one's  way  through.  In  some 
parts  they  are  convenient  enough,  and  even  expand  into  spacious  terraces. 
Where  they  lead  outward  they  are  of  course  covered,  and  their  roofs  are 
supported  by  pillars  of  different  forms  and  sizes.  Whole  flocks  of  half- 
wild  pigeons,  that  build  their  nests  here,  are  constantly  flying  in  and  out. 
Imagine,  then,  all  these  points  and  pinnacles  surmounted  by  crescents,  and 
by  very  profusely-carved  crosses,  fancifully  wreathed  with  gilded  chains  ; 
imagine,  further,  with  how  many  various  patterns  of  arabesques  every  wall 
and  passage  is  painted ;  how  from  painted  flower-pots  gigantic  thistles, 
flowers,  and  shrubs,  spring  forth — vary  into  vine-wreaths  —  wind  and 
twist  further  till  they  end  in  simple  lines  and  knots ;  imagine  the  now 
somewhat-faded  colors  —  red,  blue,  green,  gold,  and  silver — all  fresh  and 
gaudy — and  the  reader  may  in  some  degree  comprehend  how  these  build- 
ings must  have  deliglited  the  eye  of  the  barbarous  Ivan ! 

The  chapel  of  the  "  Iberian  Mother  of  God"  (called  in  Russian  the  Tver- 
skaya  Boshia  Mater')  stands  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  by  which  the  Krasnot 
Ploschad  is  reached,  and  close  to  the  "Sunday  Gate"  (^Voskressenskaia 


MOSCOW — CHAPEL   OF  THE   IBERIAN   MOTHER   OF  GOD.  371 

Vorota),  the  most  frequented  entrance  to  Moscow.  The  Red  place  is  liere 
entered  by  a  double  archway  in  the  barrier-wall  of  the  old  Tartar  division 
of  the  city ;  and  between  the  two  gateways,  in  a  space  about  twenty  feet 
wide,  is  the  oratory  in  question.  Georgia  gave  birth  to  the  miraculous 
picture  of  the  Iberian  Mother :  thence  it  passed  to  a  monastery  on  Mount 
Athos,  in  Macedonia ;  and  some  centuries  after,  her  reputation  for  miracu- 
lous powers  spread  to  Russia,  when  the  czar  Alexis-Michaelovich,  who 
flourished  in  1650,  "  invited  her  to  Moscow,  and  fixed  her  abode  at  the 
Yoskressensk  gate."  The  figure  of  the  saint,  resplendent  with  gold  and 
precious  stones,  is  placed  in  a  kind  of  sanctuary,  at  one  end  of  the  chapel. 

Striking  as  the  devotion  of  the  Russian  appears  to  be  at  St.  Petersburg 
and  elsewhere,  it  is  not  for  a  moment  to  be  compared  with  what  one  wit- 
nesses daily  in  Moscow,  not  only  in  the  churches,  but  also  before  the  shrines 
and  chapels  in  the  streets  ;  and  no  Russian  leaves  or  arrives  at  Moscow, 
on  or  from  a  journey,  without  invoking  the  Iberian  Mother's  blessing. 
Pass  when  he  pleases,  the  traveller  will  remark  that  this  chapel  is  beset 
by  worshippers :  the  first  step  is  always  fully  occupied,  while  others,  una- 
ble to  reach  that  more  favorite  spot,  kneel  on  various  parts  of  the  pave- 
ment ;  and  a  greater  degree  of  earnestness  will  be  observed  in  the  devo- 
tions of  those  who  pray  here  than  in  any  other  church  of  Moscow. 

The  doors  of  the  chapel  stand  open  the  whole  day,  and  all  are  admitted 
who  are  in  sorrow,  and  heavy  laden  ;  and  this  includes  here,  as  everywhere 
else,  a  considerable  number,  and  the  multitudes  that  stream  in  testify  the 
power  which  this  picture  exercises  over  their  minds.  None  ever  pass,  how- 
ever pressing  their  business,  without  bowing  and  crossing  themselves  ;  the 
greater  part  enter,  kneel  devoutly  down  before  the  picture  of  "  the  Mother," 
and  pray  with  fervent  sighs.  Here  come  the  peasants  early  in  the  morn- 
ing, before  going  to  market,  who  lay  aside  their  burdens,  pray  a  while, 
and  then  go  their  way ;  hither  comes  the  merchant  on  the  eve  of  a  new 
speculation,  to  ask  the  assistance  of  "  the  Mother ;"  hither  come  the  healthy 
and  the  sick,  the  wealthy,  and  those  who  would  become  so  ;  the  arriving 
and  the  departing  traveller,  the  fortunate  and  the  unfortunate,  the  noble 
and  the  beggar — all  pray,  thank,  supplicate,  sigh,  laud,  and  pour  out 
their  hearts.  Fashionable  ladies  leave  their  splendid  equipages  and  gal- 
lant attendants,  and  prostrate  themselves  in  the  dust  with  the  beggars. 
On  a  holyday  two  or  three  hundred  passing  pilgrims  may  be  seen  kneeling 
before  "  the  Iberian  Mother."  Since  the  time  of  Alexis,  the  czars  have 
never  failed  to  visit  it  frequently  ;  the  emperor  Nicholas  never  neglected 
it  when  he  came  to  Moscow,  and  it  is  said  also  that  he  more  than  once  in 
the  middle  of  the  niglit  wakened  the  monks,  in  order  that  he  might  perform 
his  devotions. 

The  picture  is  also,  if  desired,  carried  to  the  houses  of  sick  persons ; 
and  a  carriage  with  four  horses  is  kept  constantly  ready,  in  which  it  is 
transported  with  pomp  to  the  bed  of  the  dying.  The  visit  costs  five  rou- 
bles, and  a  present  is  usually  made  to  the  monks. 


372  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP  RUSSIA. 

The  churches  of  Moscow,  as  we  have  already  stated,  are  almost  count 
less.  Scarcely  a  street  can  be  traversed  without  a  cluster  of  green  or  red 
domes  and  minarets  meeting  the  traveller's  eye.  The  convents  and  mon- 
asteries are  also  numerous,  and  situated,  some  in  the  interior  and  oldest 
parts  of  the  city,  others  in  the  meadows  and  gardens  of  the  suburbs,  their 
walls  embracing  so  many  churches,  buildings,  gardens,  and  fields,  and 
crowned  with  such  numerous  towers,  that  each  looks  like  a  little  town. 

Those  monasteries  most  deserving  mention  are  the  Donskoi  (dedicated 
to  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don),  situated  near  the  southern  barrier,  surrounded 
with  ancient  walls,  painted  in  broad  streaks  of  white  and  red,  surmounted 
by  battlements  like  those  of  the  kremlin,  and  containing  within  its  enclo- 
sure six  churches  and  chapels,  several  courts,  a  plantation  of  birch-wood, 
and  dwellings  for  the  archimandrate  and  monks  ;  the  Simonovskoi,  at  the 
southeast  corner  of  the  city-wall,  near  where  the  Moskva  quits  it,  and  with 
more  of  the  appearance  of  a  fortress  than  a  monastery,  its  lofty  battle- 
mented  walls  being  actually  mounted  with  a  few  small  pieces  of  ordnance  , 
and  the  Devitchei  convent,  at  the  southwest  corner,  with  walls,  flanked  by 
sixteen  towers ;  a  number  of  churches,  one  of  them  containing  the  tombs 
of  several  czarinas  and  princesses ;  and  a  churchyard,  beautifully  laid  out 
with  shrubs  and  flowers,  and  containing  a  great  number  of  fine  monuments. 
Close  to  this  convent  is  the  Devitchei-pole,  or  Maidens'  Field,  where  the 
emperors,  on  their  coronation,  entertain  their  subjects.  The  emperor  Nich- 
olas here,  on  that  occasion,  dined  fifty  thousand  persons  ! 

Among  educational  establishments,  the  only  one  deserving  of  particular 
notice  is  the  university,  whose  jurisdiction  is  not  confined  to  the  city  or 
government  of  Moscow,  but  extends  over  the  governments  of  Tver,  Yaro- 
slav,  Kostroma,  Vladimir,  Eiazan,  Tambov,  Orel,  Toula,  Kalouga,  and 
Smolensk.  It  was  established  by  the  empress  Elizabeth,  in  1755 ;  it 
consists  of  four  faculties,  and  is  attended  by  about  nine  hundred  students. 
Its  scientific  collections  are  poor,  compared  with  the  best  of  those  in  the 
west  of  Europe,  but  it  is  tolerably  rich  in  anatomical  preparations.  In 
connection  with  it  is  a  gymnasium,  a  library  of  fifty  thousand  volumes,  an 
observatory,  botanical  garden,  &c. 

Among  benevolent  establishments  are  the  Alexander  hospital  and  St. 
Catherine's  hospital,  both  situated  near  the  northern  barrier  of  the  city, 
and  another  hospital  of  St.  Catherine,  near  the  northeastern  corner ;  two 
military  hospitals  in  the  eastern,  a  widow's  hospital  in  the  western,  and 
St.  Paul's  hospital  and  the  Galitzin  hospital  in  the  southern  sections  of  the 
city.  Another,  the  foundling-hospital,  situated  on  the  northern  bank  of 
the  Moskva,  a  little  to  the  east  of  the  Kitai  Gorod,  has  acquired  more 
celebrity  than  all  the  rest ;  but  whether  it  is  entitled  to  be  ranked  among 
benevolent  establishments  is  questionable,  as  all  children,  up  to  a  certain 
age,  are  received  on  presentation,  and  no  questions  asked.  The  number 
actually  in  the  house,  or  supported  in  some  way  or  other  by  the  institution, 
is  upward  of  twenty-five  thousand  ! 


MOSCOW — PUBLIC   BUILDINGS — COMMERCE  —  HISTORY.  373 

Moscow  possesses  two  theatres — one,  where  the  performances  are  in 
French ;  and  the  other,  or  Alexander  theatre,  where  they  are  in  Russian. 
Among  the  other  buildings  or  places  worthy  of  notice  are  the  great  riding- 
Bchool,  situated  to  the  west  of  the  kremlin,  and  supposed  to  be  the  largest 
building  in  the  world  unsupported  by  ])illar  or  prop  of  any  kind  ;  the  prin- 
cipal bazar,  or  gostin'oi  dvor,  in  the  Kilai  Gorod,  a  colossal  building  of 
three  stories,  where  wholesale  merchants,  to  the  number  of  more  than  a 
thousand,  carry  on  their  trade ;  the  Riadi,  an  open  space  in  the  same 
vicinity,  occupied  by  narrow  streets  of  shops  ;  the  barracks,  along  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  inner  boulevard ;  and  the  race-course,  a  large  oval  space, 
elongated  north  and  south,  and  almost  touching  the  southern  barrier.  The 
number  of  open  and  planted  spaces  throughout  the  city  is  very  great.  Sev- 
eral of  these,  including  the  boulevards,  have  been  already  mentioned  ;  and 
we  may  now  add  the  princess  Galitzin's  gardens,  stretching  along  the  right 
bank  of  the  Moskva,  and  beautifully  laid  out,  but  now  partly  occupied  by 
the  empress's  villa ;  and  the  Sparrow  hills  to  the  southwest. 

Manufactures  of  various  kinds  are  carried  on  to  a  great  extent  within 
the  city  ;  but  they  bear  only  a  small  proportion  to  those  which  are  carried 
on,  on  its  account,  in  the  surrounding  towns  and  villages.  The  principal 
establishments  are  for  textile  fabrics,  chiefly  woollen,  cotton,  and  silk,  in 
all  of  which  much  steam-power  and  the  most  improved  machinery  are  em- 
ployed ;  the  other  principal  articles  are  hats,  hardware,  leather,  chemical 
products,  beer,  and  brandy. 

From  its  central  position,  Moscow  is  the  great  entrepot  for  the  internal 
commerce  of  the  empire.  Great  facilities  for  this  commerce  are  given  by 
water-communication,  which  extends,  on  one  side,  to  the  Baltic ;  on  an- 
other, to  the  Caspian ;  and,  on  a  third,  to  the  Black  sea ;  and  also  by  the 
railway  to  St.  Petersburg.  In  winter,  the  traffic  over  the  snow  in  sledges 
is  enormous :  as  many  as  three  thousand  six  hundred,  loaded  with  goods 
for  Teflis  alone,  have  been  known  to  leave  the  city  in  a  single  year. 

Moscow,  for  administrative  purposes,  is  divided  into  twenty-one  districts  ; 
and  is  under  the  immediate  charge  of  a  general  and  military  governor.  It 
is  the  seat  of  important  civil  and  criminal  courts,  and  of  various  superin- 
tending boards  of  police,  manufactures,  trade,  &c. ;  and  has  several  liter- 
ary, scientific,  and  other  societies  ;  among  which,  one  of  the  most  prominent 
is  the  Bible  Society,  established  in  1813. 

The  foundation  of  Moscow  dates  from  the  year  1147.  Its  nucleus  was 
the  kremlin,  which,  at  first,  was  nearly  surrounded  by  a  palisade,  and 
formed  an  important  military  station.  For  a  long  time  it  continued  to  be 
a  dependency  on  the  principality  of  Vladimir ;  and,  in  1238,  when  the 
cruel  Tartar  chieftain  Batou  Khan,  a  follower  of  the  great  Zinghis,  devas- 
tated Russia,  it  was  both  sacked  and  burnt.  In  1293  it  was  again  sacked, 
and  the  inhabitants  were  dragged  away  into  slavery,  by  Khan  Nagai,  an- 
other Tartar  invader.  It  afterward  became  a  prey  to  intestine  dissen- 
sions—  several  princes  disputing  the  possession  of  it;  but  at  last,  Dmitri, 


374  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

surnamed  Donskoi,  became  sole  master,  and  died  in  1389,  after  having 
done  more  for  its  prosperity  than  any  one  into  whose  hands  it  had  previ- 
ously fallen.  From  this  time  it  became  the  capital  of  Muscovy,  and  con- 
tinued to  advance  in  prosperity,  though  not  without  repeated  interruptions 
by  fire,  pestilence,  famine,  and  war.  In  1536,  the  town  was  nearly  con- 
sumed by  fire,  and  two  thousand  of  the  inhabitants  perished  in  the  flames ; 
and  in  1571,  the  Tartars  fired  the  suburbs,  and,  a  furious  wind  driving  the 
flames  into  the  city,  a  considerable  portion  of  it  was  reduced  to  ashes,  and 
not  less  than  a  hundre'd  thousand  persons  are  said  to  have  perished  in  the 
flames  or  by  the  less  lingering  death  of  the  sword.  In  1611,  a  great  por- 
tion of  the  city  was  again  destroyed  by  fire,  wlien  the  Poles  had  taken 
possession  of  it,  under  the  pretence  of  defending  the  inhabitants  from  the 
adlierents  of  Andrew  Nagui,  a  pretender  to  the  crown.  And,  lastly,  in 
1812,  the  emperor  Alexander,  unable  successfully  to  oppose  the  triumphal 
advance  of  Napoleon's  grand  army,  and  rightly  foreseeing  that  if  the  latter 
should  winter  in  Moscow,  the  ensuing  year  would  see  him  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, resolved  to  sacrifice  the  ancient,  holy,  and  beautiful  city,  and  thus 
insure  the  destruction  of  the  modern  Caesar  and  his  invincible  legions.  It 
was  a  dreadful  alternative ;  but  in  the  stern  and  barbarous  governor  of 
Moscow,  Count  Jlostopchin,  the  emperor  found  a  ready  and  willing  instru- 
ment to  execute  the  terrible  mandate.  The  city  was  the  idol  of  every 
Russian's  heart,  her  shrines  were  to  him  the  holiest  in  the  empire — hal- 
lowed by  seven  centuries  of  historical  associations,  it  was  abandoned  to 
destruction  by  the  bigoted  and  fanatical  populace,  who  had  been  taught 
by  their  rulers  and  priests  to  believe  that  "  Napoleon  wished  to  drive  the 
Russians  from  the  face  of  the  earth !"  Accordingly,  having  cleared  out 
the  inhabitants  before  the  entrance  of  the  French,  as  soon  as  the  latter 
were  established  within  its  walls  the  governor  commanded  the  city-prisons 
to  be  thrown  open  and  their  miscreant  inmates  to  fire  the  devoted  town  in 
all  directions.  The  French  made  every  endeavor  to  extinguish  the  flames, 
but  in  vain.  Nearly  four  thousand  houses  built  of  stone,  and  seven  thou- 
sand five  hundred  of  wood,  were  destroyed  in  this  conflagration. 

Although,  since  the  foundation  of  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow  has  ceased  to 
be  the  capital  of  the  Russian  empire,  it  is  still,  from  the  salubrity  of  its 
climate  and  its  central  position,  a  desirable  place  of  residence.  As  such, 
it  is  the  favorite  resort  of  many  of  the  nobles,  who  pass  the  winter  in  the 
greatest  splendor,  not  being  overshadowed,  as  at  St.  Petersburg,  by  the 
superior  display  of  the  court.  Its  present  population  is  probably  about 
three  hundred  and  sixty  thousand. 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  ITS  SITE. 


375 


CHAPTER   XIII 


ST.    PETERSBURG. 


Inundation  of  6t.  Pkte'-.sbukg  in  1824. 


site  of  the  modern  capital  of  the  Rus- 
sian empire  is  one  of  the  most  singular 
tliat  has  ever  been  voluntarily  selected  for 
the  foundation  of  a  great  metropolis  ;  and 
yet,  owing  mainly  to  the  genius  and  per- 
severance which  have  been  displayed  in 
overcoming  natural  disadvantages,  St.  Petersburg  has,  within  a  compara- 
tively short  period,  acquired  a  magnitude  and  splendor  which  justly  entitle 
it  to  rank  among  the  first  of  European  cities. 

The  Neva,  on  approaching  the  termination  of  its  course,  turns  first  north 
and  then  west.  After  proceeding  a  short  distance  in  the  latter  direction, 
it  divides  into  three  main  branches ;  the  first  of  which,  under  the  name  of 
the  Great  Nevka,  proceeds  northward  ;  the  next,  or  central  branch,  flows 
west-northwest,  under  the  name  of  the  Little  Nova  ;  and  the  third,  forming 
properly  a  continuation  of  the  main  stream,  and  therefore  called  the  Great 


376  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RDSSIA.  « 

Neva,  flows  soutliwest,  and  encloses  a  large  tract  or  peninsula  surrounded 
by  water  on  three  sides,  and  contiguous  to  the  mainland  only  on  the  south. 
The  branches  form  a  number  of  islands,  the  two  largest  of  which,  separated 
from  the  peninsula  by  the  main  stream  and  Great  Nevka,  are  the  Aptekar- 
skoi  or  Apothecaries'  island  on  the  north,  and  the  Vasiliestrov  or  Basilius 
island  on  the  west.  In  the  northwest,  subordinate  arms  of  the  river  form 
a  number  of  smaller  islands,  of  which  the  more  important  are  the  Petrof- 
skoi,  Krestofskoi,  Kammenoi,  and  Elaghinskoi.  These  islands,  particu- 
larly the  two  largest,  a  small  portion  of  the  right  bank,  and  the  whole  of 
the  peninsula  on  the  left  bank  (forming  a  series  of  flats  which,  taken  as  a 
whole,  liave  nearly  an  oval  shape,  and  are  so  low  as  to  be  constantly  ex 
posed  to  inundation),  constitute  the  site  of  St.  Petersburg. 

The  Neva,  though  a  broad,  lively,  and  pellucid  stream,  is  generally  shal 
low ;  and  at  its  mouth  is  encumbered  by  a  bar  with  not  more  than  nine 
feet  water,  so  that  the  large  vessels  which  are  built  at  the  city  docks  can 
only  be  transported  as  hulls,  to  be  fitted  out  at  the  great  naval  station  of 
Kronstadt,  about  sixteen  miles  below.  Though  an  attack  of  the  city  hj 
sea  may  be  all  but  impossible,  the  approach  by  land  presents  no  obstruc- 
tion to  an  invading  force,  except  a  deep  ditch  or  canal,  stretching  across 
the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  and  a  citadel,  situated  on  a  low  island, 
so  near  the  centre  of  the  city,  that  its  guns,  so  far  from  defending,  could 
not  be  used  without  demolishing  it. 

The  larger  and  finer  part  of  St.  Petersburg  being  built  on  the  peninsula, 
takes  the  name  of  the  Bolshaia  Storona,  or  Great  side ;  all  the  rest  to  the 
north,  on  the  islands  and  right  bank,  is  designated  the  Petersburg  side. 
The  communication  between  the  former  and  the  latter  is  maintained  only 
by  one  cast-iron  and  three  boat  bridges,  but  the  deficiency  is  supplied  by 
numerous  ferry-boats  of  uncouth  shape  and  fantastic  coloring,  which  are 
constantly  plying  to  and  fro. 

The  iron  bridge  was  built  as  late  as  1850,  and  is  a  beautiful  embellish- 
ment to  the  city.  It  being  the  first  permanent  structure  ever  thrown  across 
the  Neva,  deserves  more  than  a  passing  mention.  The  building  of  it  was 
an  engineering  work  of  great  difficulty  ;  the  unstable  nature  of  the  mud- 
bed  of  the  river  having  thitherto  been  an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  the 
very  necessary  formation  of  a  permanent  communication  between  these  two 
portions  of  the  city.  This  was,  however,  eftected  by  driving  piles  into  the 
river-bed,  and  filling  up  the  interstices  with  stones.  Thus  a  solid  founda- 
tion was  obtained  to  support  the  weight  of  the  granite  piers,  and  to  resist 
the  pressure  of  the  vast  and  rapid  volume  of  water  which,  by  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  river,  has  here  a  depth  of  thirty  feet.  The  entire  length  of  tlie 
bridge  is  about  eleven  hundred  feet,  the  centre  arch  being  one  hundred  and 
fifty-six  feet  span.  The  arches  at  one  extremity  rest  on  a  massive  pier 
constructed  at  one  hundred  feet  from  the  northern  shore,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  two  bridges  moving  on  pivots,  to  allow  the  craft  to  pass  u]) 
and  down  the  river. 


ST.    PETERSBURG — THE   IRON   BRIDGE  —  GENERAL   ASPECT. 


379 


V\  ST.  PETERSBURGH 


1. 

AilminiltT. 

7. 

Palace    of  the  Graud-Duke 

."» 

Imiieiinl  or  VVintor  Prtlace. 

chael. 

3. 

Equestrian   Stiitur   of   Peter    the 

8. 

Exchiiiisre. 

Great. 

9. 

Catheriiihof  Pulace. 

4. 

Church  of  8t.  Isanc. 
Tiiuricia  Pnhioe. 

10. 

Monastery  of  St.  Alexander 

5. 

skoi. 

6. 

Catheilnil  Church  of  Kazan. 

11. 

Smoluoi  Monastery. 

Mi-     12.  Alexandrovskoi  Platz  Parad. 

13.  I'reobrajen-ikoi  Platz  Parad. 

14.  .Semennvskoi  Platz  Parad. 
1.1  li-maiioff  Platz  Parad. 

■  Nrv-     16.  Winter  Provieiim  Market. 

a.  New  Cast-iron  Bridge,  with  gran- 
ite pillars,  across  the  Neva. 

The  bridge  was  completed  on  the  21st  of  November,  and  was  opened  by 
the  emperor  in  person,  after  the  priests  had  performed  the  ceremony  of 
consecration,  &c.  In  the  accompanying  view  the  artist  has  shown  the 
bridge  during  the  act  of  consecration.  With  the  broad  and  lofty  buildings 
on  the  quay,  it  forms  a  very  effective  coup  d'ceil.  It  is  remarkable  that 
this  day  was  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  the  accession  of  Nicholas  to  the 
throne  —  a  day  considered  fatal  to  Russian  monarclis  —  and  yet  his  confi- 
dence was  so  great,  that  he  ventured  without  an  escort,  and  attended  only 
by  his  staff,  who  were  almost  immediately  separated  from  him  by  the 
throng ;  not  a  soldier  was  to  be  seen  in  the  neighborhood. 

The  boat-bridges,  previously  mentioned,  consist  merely  of  boarded  car- 
riage-ways resting  on  pontoons,  and  are  so  constructed  that  they  may  be 
easily  taken  to  pieces  and  quickly  be  put  together  again,  which  is  neces- 
sary to  be  done  every  season,  to  protect  them  from  destruction  when  the 
Neva  is  filled  with  ice. 

Owing  to  the  lowness  of  the  site  of  St.  Petersburg,  though  the  loftier 
pinnacles  and  domes  are  seen  at  a  considerable  distance,  the  city,  whether 
approached  by  land  or  water,  can  not  be  said  to  become  distinctly  visible 
before  it  is  actually  entered,  and  hence  the  general  impression  produced  is 
greatly  heightened  by  a  feeling  of  surprise.  The  stranger  suddenly  finds 
himself  between  noble  granite  quays,  bordered  by  edifices  of  almost  unri- 
valled splendor,  or  in  spacious  streets  of  apparently  interminable  length, 
straight  as  an  arrow,  unbroken  by  the  slightest  unevenness,  and  lined  witli 
lofty  buildings  of  uniform  structure,  often  lavishly  adorned,  and,  in  color 
at  least,  resembling  marble.     It  is  true  that  the  impression  is  somewhat 


380 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 


weakened  by  a  narrower  inspection,  the  greater  part  of  the  houses  proving 
to  be  only  of  wood  or  brick,  garnished  with  plaster. 

As  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  a  complete  view  of  the  city  from  without, 
recourse  is  often  had  to  the  numerous  towers,  on  which  watchmen  stand 
sentinel  day  and  night,  to  give  the  alarm  of  fire ;  but  by  far  the  best  sta- 
tion is  the  tower  of  the  Admiralty,  centrically  situated  on  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  peninsula  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Great  Neva,  and  provided 
with  galleries,  from  which  all  parts  of  the  city  may  be  seen  in  succession 
to  the  greatest  advantage.  Looking  southward  over  the  peninsula  from 
this  commanding  position,  three  canals  —  the  nearest  called  the  Moika, 
next  the  Catharina,  and  last  the  Fontanka — may  be  traced,  stretching 
circuitously  from  east  to  west,  and  dividing  the  whole  space  into  three 
quarters,  called  respectively  the  first,  second,  and  third  Admiralty  sections. 

Radiating  immediately  from  the 
tower,  intersecting  these  canals, 
and  spanning  them  by  beautiful 
granite  bridges,  are  the  three 
principal  streets  —  the  Nevskni 
Prospekt,  or  Neva  Perspective, 
on  the  right ;  the  Gorokhovaia 
Oalitza,  or  Pease  street,  in  the 
centre  ;  and  the  Vosnosenskoi 
Prospekt,  or  Resurrection  Per- 
spective, on  the  right.  The  eye 
wanders  along  these  splendid 
streets  from  end  to  end  without 
obstruction.  They  are  all  of 
great  length,  width,  and  beau- 
ty ;  but  the  finest  every  way, 
and  the  greatest  thoroughfare 
of  the  city,  is  the  Nevskoi  Pros- 
pekt, which  is  two  miles  long, 
and  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
in  width,  and  has  a  double  car- 
riage-way, with  footpaths  paved  with  granite,  or  avenues  shaded  with  lime- 
trees.  Beyond  the  Fontanka  canal,  both  on  the  south  and  east,  and  bound- 
ed in  the  former  direction  by  tlie  city  fosse,  and  on  the  latter  by  the  main 
stream  of  the  Neva,  is  a  large  space,  almost  entirely  covered  with  build- 
ings, and  forming,  in  addition  to  the  three  Admiralty  sections  already 
mentioned,  the  Narva,  Karetznoi,  Kojestvenskoi,  and  Foundry  quarters. 
Considerably  to  the  east,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  may  be  seen  the 
large  villages  of  Great  and  Little  Okhta. 

Turning  now  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  town  and  looking  north,  the 
busy  scene  presented  by  the  river  immediately  below  first  attracts  the  eye, 
which  then  wanders  along  the  splendid  quay  which  lines  the  south  side  of 


Nevskoi  Prospekt,  St.  Petebsburg. 


ST.   PETERSBURG — FOUNDATION.  881 

the  Yasiliestrov,  and  is  bordered  by  a  succession  of  noble  edifices.  The 
buildings  of  this  island  are  chiefly  confined  to  its  southern  and  eastern  por- 
tions ;  the  western  and  northwestern,  forming  the  far  larger  portion  of  the 
whole,  is  covered  with  trees  or  is  under  garden-cultivation.  On  the  north- 
east the  most  conspicuous  object  is  the  citadel,  situated  chiefly  on  the  small 
island  of  Petersburg,  but  also  possessing  an  extensive  outwork  on  the  island 
of  Aptekarskoi,  from  which  it  is  only  separated  by  a  narrow  channel.  On 
the  north  of  this  outwork  another  quarter  of  the  city  commences,  and  takes 
the  name  of  the  Petersburg  quarter.  It  is  much  less  compactly  built  than 
the  Admiralty  sections,  the  buildings  gradually  becoming  more  isolated, 
and  giving  place  to  extensive  parks  and  gardens.  The  same  remark  is  still 
more  applicable  to  the  islands  of  the  northwest,  which  are  chiefly  occupied 
by  places  of  amusement,  public  gardens,  villas,  and  country-seats.  On  the 
northeast,  beyoud  the  Nevka,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  is  the 
Yiborg  quarter,  which  has  already  acquired  considerable  extent,  and  is 
rapidly  advancing  in  importance. 

A  century  and  a  half  ago,  the  locality  of  St.  Petersburg  was  inhabited 
only  by  a  few  scattered  Finnish  fishermen.  But  commanding  the  entrance 
to  Lake  Ladoga,  it  was  a  military  position  of  some  importance,  and  the 
Swedes  had  long  maintained  there  a  fortress,  the  possession  of  which  had 
been  unavailingly  contested  by  the  Russians,  up  to  1703,  when  Peter  the 
Great  made  himself  master  of  it.  He  determined  to  found  upon  this  deso- 
late spot  the  future  capital  of  liis  vast  empire  ;  and  at  once  commenced  the 
task,  without  waiting  for  peace  to  confirm  the  possession  of  the  site.  He 
assembled  a  vast  number  of  the  peasantry  from  every  quarter  of  his  empire, 
and  pushed  forward  the  work  with  the  energy  of  an  iron  will  armed  with 
absolute  power.  The  surrounding  country,  ravaged  by  long  years  of  war, 
could  furnish  no  supplies  for  these  enormous  masses,  and  the  convoys 
which  brought  them  across  Lake  Ladoga  were  frequently  detained  by  con- 
trary winds.  Ill  fed  and  worse  lodged,  laboring  in  the  cold  and  wet,  mul- 
titudes yielded  to  the  hardships  ;  and  the  foundations  of  the  new  metropolis 
were  laid  at  the  cost  of  a  hundred  thousand  lives,  sacrificed  in  less  than 
six  months ! 

With  Peter,  to  will  was  to  perform :  he  willed  that  a  capital  city  should 
be  built  and  inhabited,  and  built  and  inhabited  it  was.  In  April,  1714,  a 
ukase  was  issued,  directing  that  all  bnildings  should  be  erected  in  a  par- 
ticular manner ;  another,  three  months  later,  ordered  a  large  number  of 
nobles  and  merchants  to  erect  dwellings  in  the  new  city.  In  a  few  months 
more  another  ukase  prohibited  the  erection  of  any  stone  mansion  in  any 
other  portion  of  the  empire,  while  the  enterprise  of  the  capital  was  in  prog- 
ress ;  and,  that  the  lack  of  building-materials  should  be  no  obstacle,  every 
vessel,  whether  large  or  small,  and  every  peasant's  car,  which  came  to  the 
city,  was  ordered  to  binng  a  certain  specified  number  of  building-stones. 
The  work  undertaken  with  such  rigid  determination,  and  carried  on  with 
such  remorseless  vigor  by  Peter,  was  continued  in  the  same  unflinching 


382  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

spirit  by  his  successors ;  and  the  result  was  the  present  St.  Petersburg, 
in  its  aspect  more  imposing  than  that  of  any  other  city  on  the  globe,  but 
bearing  in  its  bosom  the  elements  of  its  own  destruction,  the  moment  it  is 
freed  from  the  control  of  the  iron  will  which  created  and  now  maintains 
it — a  fitting  type  and  representative  of  the  Russian  empire. 

The  whole  enterprise  of  founding  and  maintaining  St.  Petersburg  was 
and  is  a  struggle  against  nature.  The  soil  is  a  marsh,  so  deep  and  spongy, 
that  a  solid  foundation,  in  many  places,  is  obtained  only  by  a  subterra- 
nean scaffolding  of  piles.  Were  it  not  for  these,  the  city  would  sink  into 
the  marsh,  like  a  stage-ghost  through  the  trap-door !  Every  building  of 
any  magnitude  rests  on  piles ;  the  granite  quays  which  line  the  Neva  rest 
on  piles.  The  very  foot-pavements  can  not  be  laid  upon  the  ground,  but 
must  be  supported  by  piles.  The  remark  was  made  by  an  Englisli  resident 
of  St.  Petersburg  that  larger  sums  had  been  expended  under  ground  than 
above.  A  great  commercial  city  is  maintained,  the  harbor  of  which  is  as 
inaccessible  to  ships,  for  six  months  in  the  year,  as  the  centre  of  the  desert 
of  Sahara!  In  the  neighboring  country  no  part  produces  anything  for 
human  sustenance  save  the  Neva,  which  furnishes  ice  and  fish.  The  sever- 
ity of  the  climate  is  most  destructive  to  the  erections  of  human  hands  ;  and 
St.  Petersburg,  notwithstanding  its  gay  summer  appearance,  when  it  emerges 
from  the  winter  frosts,  resembles  a  superannuated  belle  at  the  close  of  the 
fashionable  season ;  and  can  only  be  put  in  proper  visiting  order  by  the 
assiduous  services  of  hosts  of  painters  and  plasterers.  Leave  the  capital 
for  a  half-century  to  the  unrepaired  ravages  of  its  wintry  climate,  and  it 
would  need  a  Layard  to  unearth  its  monuments. 

But  sure  as  are  the  wasting  inroads  of  time  and  the  climate,  St.  Peters- 
burg is  in  daily  peril  of  an  overthrow  whose  accomplishment  would  require 
but  a  few  hours.  The  gulf  of  Finland  forms  a  vast  tunnel  pointing  east- 
ward, at  the  extremity  of  which  stands  the  city.  No  portion  of  the  city 
is  fifteen  feet  above  the  ordinary  level  of  the  water.  A  strong  westerly 
wind,  blowing  directly  into  the  mouth  of  the  tunnel,  piles  the  water  up  so 
as  to  lay  the  lower  part  of  the  city  under  water.  Water  is  as  much  dreaded 
here,  and  as  many  precautions  are  taken  against  it,  as  in  the  case  of  fire 
in  other  cities.  In  other  cities,  alarm-signals  announce  a  conflagration ; 
here,  they  give  notice  of  an  inundation.  The  firing  of  an  alarm-gun  from 
the  Admiralty,  at  intervals  of  an  hour,  denotes  that  the  lower  extremes  of 
the  islands  are  under  water,  when  flags  are  hung  out  from  the  steeples  to 
give  warning  of  danger.  When  the  water  reaches  the  streets,  alarm-guns 
are  fired  every  quarter  of  an  hour.  As  the  water  rises,  the  alarms  grow 
more  and  more  frequent,  until  minute-guns  summon  boats  to  the  assistance 
of  the  drowning  population. 

So  much  for  the  lower  jaw  of  the  monster  that  lies  in  wait  for  the  Rus- 
sian capital ;  now  for  the  upper :  Lake  Ladoga,  which  discharges  its  wa- 
ters through  the  Neva,  is  frozen  over  to  an  enormous  thickness  during  the 
long  winter.     The  rapid  northern  spring  raises  its  waters  and  loosens  the 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  GREAT   INUNDATION   OF    1824.  383 

ice  simultaneously.  Wlicn  the  waters  of  the  gulf  are  at  their  usual  level, 
the  accumulated  ice  and  water  find  an  easy  outlet  down  the  broad  and 
rapid  Neva.  But  let  a  strong  west  wind  heap  up  the  waters  of  the  gulf 
just  as  the  breaking  up  of  Lake  Ladoga  takes  place,  and  the  waters  from 
above  and  from  below  would  suffice  to  inundate  the  whole  city,  while  all 
its  palaces,  monuments,  and  temples,  would  be  crushed  between  the  masses 
of  ice,  like  "Captain  Aliab's"  boat  in  the  ivory  jaws  of  "Moby  Dick." 
Nothing  is  more  probable  than  such  a  coincidence.  It  often  l)lows  from 
the  west  for  days  together  in  the  spring ;  and  it  is  almost  a  matter  of  cer- 
tainty that  the  ice  will  break  up  between  the  middle  and  the  end  of  April. 
Let  but  a  westerly  storm  arise  on  the  fatal  day  of  that  brief  fortnight,  and 
farewell  to  the  "  City  of  the  Czars  ! "  Any  steamer  that  bridges  the  At- 
lantic may  be  freighted  with  the  tidings  that  St.  Petersburg  has  sunk 
deeper  than  plummet  can  sound  in  the  Finnish  marshes  from  which  it  has 
so  magically  risen ! 

It  is  said  that  Peter  the  Great  was  warned  of  the  danger  to  be  appre- 
hended from  the  rising  of  the  Neva,  but  that  he  would  nevertheless  persist 
in  his  enterprise.  The  following  incident  is  related  on  this  subject.  He 
had  already  laid  a  part  of  the  foundation  of  his  new  city  in  the  marshes  of 
Ingria,  when  he  accidentally  perceived  a  tree  marked  around  the  trunk. 
He  approached  a  Finnish  peasant,  and  asked  him  what  that  mark  was  in- 
tended to  indicate.  "  It  is  the  height  to  which  the  inundation  rose  in  the 
year  1680,"  said  the  man,  with  naive  simplicity.  "  You  lie !"  cried  the 
czar  in  wrath,  "  what  you  have  uttered  is  impossible  !"  and  with  his  own 
hand  he  cut  down  the  warning  tree. 

But,  alas  !  neither  the  wrath  nor  the  incredulity  of  the  monarch  changed 
the  habits  of  the  waters.  During  the  life  of  Peter,  the  river  seemed,  in- 
deed, to  respect  his  new  creation ;  but  scarcely  was  the  founder  of  St. 
Petersburg  laid  in  the  tomb,  when  the  inundations  succeeded  one  another 
quickly.  There  were  terrific  ones  in  1728,  1729,  1735,  1740,  1742,  and 
above  all  in  1777,  a  few  days  before  the  birth  of  Alexander.  In  the  last 
instance,  the  waters  of  the  Neva  rose  ten  feet  higher  tliau  their  ordinary 
level.* 

A  catastrophe  of  the  same  kind,  but  still  more  fearful,  was  to  close  the 
life  of  that  sovereign.  On  the  17th  of  November,  1824,  a  wind  blowing 
from  the  west  and  southwest  with  extreme  violence,  heaped  the  waters  of 
the  gulf  up  into  the  narrow  funnel  of  the  Neva,  and  poured  them,  slowly  at 
first,  along  the  streets.  As  night  began  to  close  in,  the  waters  continued 
to  rise  higher  and  higher — came  streaming  through  the  streets  —  lifted  all 
the  carts  and  equipages  from  the  ground  —  rushed  in  mighty  cataracts 
through  the  windows  and  into  the  cellars,  and  rose  in  huge  columns  from 
the  common  sewers.     On  Vasilicfskoi  island  and  on  the  St.  Petersburg 

*  One  of  the  unhappy  victims  of  this  frightful  disaster  was  the  princess  Tarakannff,  daug^hter  of 
the  empress  Elizabeth  and  of  the  count  Alexis  Rasoumoffski,  wJio  had  been  for  ten  years  confined 
in  the  fortress,  after  having  been  seduced  from  Rome  by  Alexis  Orloflf. 


384  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF    RUSSIA. 

side  the  suflFering  was  greatest,  particularly  on  the  latter  island,  where 
many  of  the  poor  were  lodged  in  tenements  of  no  very  solid  construction. 
Some  of  the  wooden  houses  were  lifted  from  the  ground,  and  continued  to 
float  about,  with  all  their  inhabitants  in  them,  without  going  to  pieces. 
Equipages  were  abandoned  in  the  streets,  and  the  horses,  unable  to  disen- 
gage themselves  from  their  harness,  were  miserably  drowned,  while  their 
masters  had  sought  safety  in  some  more  elevated  spot.  The  trees  in  the 
public  squares  were  as  crowded  with  men  as  they  had  ever  before  been 
with  sparrows.  Still  the  water  kept  rising,  and  toward  evening  had  at- 
tained such  a  height,  that  it  was  feared  the  storm  would  tear  the  men-of- 
war  from  their  moorings,  and  drive  them  in  among  the  houses.  The  ca- 
lamity was  the  more  destructive,  as  it  had  come  so  noiselessly  upon  the 
city,  that  none  had  imagined  the  danger  so  great  as  it  really  was.  The 
emperor  speedily  gathered  a  few  resolute  men  around  him,  sent  some  of 
them  with  assistance  in  all  directions,  and  with  others  got  into  a  bark,  vis- 
ited the  spots  where  the  suffering  was  most  appalling,  and  did  not  hesitate 
to  expose  his  life  to  a  thousand  dangers,  in  order  to  rescue  all  whom  he 
could  reach,  and  to  whom  he  could  afford  aid.  The  worst  effects  of  the 
inundation  were  those  that  were  operated  unseen.  Many  houses  fell  in 
only  on  the  following  day,  when  the  river  had  already  returned  into  its 
accustomed  bed  ;  but  from  those  that  remained  standing,  it  was  long  before 
the  damp  could  be  expelled.  Sickness  became  general,  and  deadly  epi- 
demics continued  to  rage  in  some  quarters  for  many  weeks  afterward. 

The  night  was  terrible.  The  waters  had  continued  to  rise  until  the 
evening,  and  should  they  continue  to  do  so,  there  seemed  to  be  no  chance 
of  escape  during  the  pitchy  darkness  that  might  be  looked  for.  Thousands 
of  families,  the  members  of  which  were  separated,  spent  the  night  in  tor- 
turing anxiety. 

Even  the  most  serious  things  have  often  a  ludicrous  side  on  which  they 
may  be  viewed,  and,  along  with  the  gloomy  recollections  of  that  calamitous 
day,  a  variety  of  amusing  anecdotes  have  also  been  preserved.  A  gardener 
had  been  busy  clipping  some  trees,  and  had  not  noticed  the  rising  of  the 
water  till  it  was  too  late  for  him  to  attempt  to  seek  refuge  anywhere  but 
on  the  roof  of  an  adjoining  garden-pavilion,  where  lie  was  soon  joined  by 
such  a  host  of  rats  and  mice,  that  he  became  apprehensive  of  being  de- 
voured by  them.  Fortunately,  however,  a  dog  and  a  cat  sought  refuge  in 
the  same  place.  With  these  he  immediately  entered  into  an  offensive  and 
defensive  alliance,  and  the  three  confederates  were  able  to  make  good 
their  position  during  the  night. 

A  merchant  was  looking  out  of  his  window  on  the  second  floor,  when 
there  came  floating  by  a  fragment  of  a  bridge,  with  three  human  beings 
clinging  to  it.  They  stretched  out  their  hands  to  him  for  help.  He  threw 
out  a  rope,  and,  with  the  assistance  of  his  servant,  succeeded  in  rescuing 
all  three  from  their  perilous  position.  The  first  whom  they  lauded  was  a 
poor  Jew,  who  trembled  like  an  aspen-tree ;  the  second  was  a  bearded  be- 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  CLIMATE.  385 

liever  in  the  orthodox  Rosso-Greek  church  ;  tlie  tliird  was  a  barelicaded 
Mohammedan  Tartar ;  and  the  rescuer  liimself  a  protestant,  who  supplied 
liis  drenched  and  motley  guests  with  dry  clothing  and  a  supper. 

Many  believe  that,  what  with  merchandise  spoiled,  houses  destroyed, 
furniture  injured,  damage  to  the  pavement,  &c.,  this  inundation  cost  the 
city  more  than  a  hundred  millions  of  roubles,  and  that  directly  and  indi- 
rectly several  thousands  of  the  inhabitants  lost  their  lives  on  the  occasion. 
In  every  street  the  highest  point  attained  by  the  water  is  marked  by  a  line 
on  the  sides  of  the  houses.  May  the  house-painters  never  again  be  em- 
ployed in  so  melancholy  an  office  !  Every  inch  that  they  miglit  have  had 
to  place  their  marks  higher,  would  have  cost  the  city  several  millions  in 
addition,  and  would  liave  plunged  at  least  a  hundred  more  families  into 
i>..ourin'i,i>-. 

The  climate  of  St.  Petersburg  oscillates  continually  between  two  ex- 
tremes. In  summer  the  heat  often  rises  to  one  hundred  degrees  of  Fahren- 
heit,* and  in  winter  the  cold  as  often  falls  to  forty  degrees  below  zero. 
This  gives  to  the  temperature  a  range  of  one  hundred  and  forty  de- 
grees of  Fahrenheit,  which  probably  exceeds  that  of  any  other  city  in 
Europe.  It  is  not  merely  in  the  course  of  the  year,  however,  but  in  the 
course  of  the  same  twenty-four  hours,  that  the  temperature  is  liable  to 
great  variations.  In  summer,  after  a  hot,  sultry  morning,  a  rough  wind 
will  set  in  toward  evening,  and  drive  the  thermometer  down  thirty  degrees 
immediately.  In  winter,  also,  there  is  often  a  difference  of  thirty  or  forty 
degrees  between  the  temperature  of  the  morning  and  that  of  the  night. 
The  winter  is  considered  to  begin  in  October,  and  end  in  May ;  and  in  the 
beginning  of  October  every  man  puts  on  his  furs,  which  are  calculated  for 
the  severest  weather  that  can  come,  and  these  furs  are  not  laid  aside  again 
until  the  winter  is  legitimately  and  confessedly  at  an  end.  The  stoves, 
meanwhile,  are  always  kept  heated  in  winter,  that  tlie  house  may  never 
cool.  Inconsiderate  foreigners  attempt  sometimes  to  follow  the  caprices 
of  the  climate,  and  often  pay  for  their  termerity  with  illness  and  death. 

Wlien  the  mercury  is  at  its  lowest  point,  faces  are  not  to  be  seen  in  the 
streets,  for  every  man  has  drawn  his  furs  over  his  head,  and  leaves  but 
little  of  his  countenance  uncovered.  Every  one  is  uneasy  about  his  nose 
and  his  ears ;  and  as  the  freezing  of  these  desirable  appendages  to  the  hu- 
man face  divine  is  not  preceded  by  any  uncomfortable  sensation  to  warn 
the  sufferer  of  his  danger,  he  has  enough  to  think  of  if  he  wish  to  keep  his 
extremities  in  order.  "  Father,  father,  thy  nose ! "  one  man  will  cry  to 
another  as  he  passes  him,  or  will  even  stop  and  apply  a  handful  of  snow 
to  the  stranger's  face,  and  endeavor,  by  briskly  rubbing  the  nasal  promi- 
nence, to  restore  the  suspended  circulation.     These  are  salutations  to  which 

*  Throughout  tho  present  work,  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  must  always  be  understood  to  be  the 
Standard  by  which  the  temperature  is  measured.  Each  degree  of  Reaumiu-  (zero  or  0  being  at 
the  freezing  point)  is  equivalent  to  two  and  a  quarter  degrees  of  Fahrenheit,  and  each  degree  of 
Centigrade  equal  to  one  and  four  fifths  of  Fahrenheit. 

25 


386  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

people  are  accustomed,  and  as  no  man  becomes  aware  of  the  fact  when  liis 
own  nose  has  assumed  the  dangerous  chalky  hue,  custom  prescribes  among 
all  who  venture  into  the  streets  a  kind  of  mutual  observance  of  each  oth- 
er's noses  —  a  custom  by  which  many  thousands  of  these  valued  organs  are 
yearly  rescued  from  the  clutches  of  the  Russian  Boreas. 

In  this  temperature,  ladies  venture  abroad  only  in  close  vehicles,  of 
which  every  aperture  is  closed  by  slips  of  fur.  There  are  families  who  at 
this  season  will  spend  weeks  without  once  tasting  a  mouthful  of  fresh  air, 
and,  at  last,  when  the  cold  has  reached  its  extreme  point,  none  are  to  be 
seen  in  the  streets  but  the  poorest  classes,  unless  it  be  foreigners,  people 
in  liusiness,  or  ofiScers.  As  to  these  last,  the  parades  and  mountings  of 
guard  are  never  interrupted  by  any  degree  of  cold  ;  and  while  the  frost  is 
liard  enough  to  cripple  a  stag,  generals  and  colonels  of  the  guard  may  be 
seen  in  their  glittering  uniforms  moving  as  nimbly  and  unconcernedly  about 
the  windy  Admiralty  square  as  though  they  were  promenading  a  ballroom. 
Xot  a  particle  of  cloak  must  be  seen  about  them  ;  not  a  whisper  of  com- 
plaint must  be  heard.  The  emperor's  presence  forbids  both,  for  he  exposes 
himself  unhesitatingly  to  wind,  snow,  hail,  and  rain,  and  expects  from  his 
officers  the  same  disregard  of  the  inclemencies  of  the  season. 

The  Russian  stove  is  built  in  a  partition-wall,  of  eitlier  brick  or  stone, 
and  therefore  heats  two  rooms.  These  stoves  are  frequently  faced  with 
the  glazed  Dutch  tile,  which  increases  their  power  as  to  heat,  as  well  as 
improves  their  appearance.  On  one  side  there  is  an  iron  door,  inside 
which  is  placed  a  large  quantity  of  split  wood ;  and  after  this  has  been 
thoroughly  burnt  through,  the  man,  whose  business  it  is  to  look  after  all  the 
stoves  in  the  house,  rakes  the  ashes  well  over  to  ascertain  that  every  par- 
ticle of  wood  is  literally  calcined,  and  then  shuts  the  yiislika,  a  plate  of  iron 
which  closes  the  chimney,  and  thereby  prevents  the  heat  of  tlie  embers  from 
escaping :  thus  the  mass  of  brickwork  is  kept  hot  for  many  hours.  The 
utmost  care  is  required  to  ascertain  with  accuracy  that  not  the  smallest 
piece  of  wood  is  left  burning  when  the  yushka  is  put  on  ;  for,  sliould  tliat 
be  the  case,  a  poisonous  gas  is  emitted  by  the  wood,  and  fatal  consequences 
may  ensue  to  those  who  are  exposed  to  its  inflaence.  It  is  by  no  means 
an  uncommon  circumstance  to  hear  of  people  being  suffocated  by  the  fumes 
of  their  stoves. 

The  temperature  maintained  by  these  stoves  over  the  whole  of  a  Russian 
house  is  remarkably  constant  and  even  —  so  much  so,  that,  in  spite  of  the 
great  external  cold,  there  is  a  perpetual  summer  in-doors.  No  additional 
blankets  are  necessary,  and  no  shivering  and  shaking  is  to  be  dreaded  on 
turning  out  in  the  morning.  Almost  the  only  wood  used  in  St.  Petersburg 
as  fuel  is  that  of  the  birch-tree.  It  is  the  cheapest  to  be  had  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, and  its  embers  are  more  lasting  than  those  of  the  pine  or  fir. 

The  double  windows,  which  are  universal  at  this  season  in  the  houses  of 
the  rich,  and  common  in  those  of  the  poor  also,  contribute  in  a  great  de- 
gree to  keep  them  warm.     Early  in  the  autumn  every  crack  and  cranny  is 


ST.  PETERSBURG WINTER THE  NEVA.  S87 

closed  with  either  putty  or  paper,  save  and  except  a  single  pane  in  each 
room,  constructed  so  as  to  open  like  a  door ;  tliis  is  called  a  forteslika. 
The  interstice  between  the  inner  and  outer  windows  is  covered  to  the 
depth  of  a  few  inches  with  sand  or  salt,  to  imbibe  the  moisture.  The  salt 
is  piled  up  in  a  variety  of  fanciful  forms,  and  the  sand  is  usually  formed 
into  a  kind  of  garden  decorated  with  artificial  flowers.  These  bloom  and 
blossom  through  the  winter  in  their  glassy  cases,  and  as  in  these  arrange- 
ments every  family  displays  its  own  little  fancies  and  designs,  it  furnishes 
amusement,  to  those  wlio  are  not  above  being  amused  by  trifles,  to  walk 
the  streets  on  a  fine  winter-morning,  and  admire  the  infinite  variety  of 
decorations  presented  by  the  double  windows. 

Quite  as  much  care  is  expended  upon  the  doors  as  upon  the  windows. 
It  is  a  common  thing  to  pass,  not  merely  two,  but  three  doors,  before  you 
enter  the  warmed  passage  of  a  house  ;  and  this  is  the  case,  not  only  in  pri- 
vate houses,  but  also  in  public  buildings,  such  as  theatres,  churches,  &c. 

In  the  imperial  palaces  there  are  English  grates,  but  these  would  be 
poor  substitutes  indeed  for  the  peetch  (stove)  in  such  a  climate ;  still  they 
are  very  agreeable  accessories  to  comfort.  In  the  large  riding-schools  and 
public  buildings  the  stoves  are  of  gigantic  proportions,  and  highly  orna- 
mented with  trophies  and  warlike  decorations.  The  heat  emitted  by  these 
peetches  is  tremendous,  and  the  sudden  change  from  the  intense  frost  with- 
out to  the  close  atmosphere  of  a  room  thus  incessantly  heated,  and  never 
ventilated  for  months,  must  be  enough  to  try  the  hardiest  frame.  In  the 
cottages  the  whole  family  sleep  on  or  round  the  stove  in  their  clothes,  and 
without  any  bedding ;  this  is  also  the  case  with  the  servants  in  some  gen- 
tlemen's houses. 

The  poor  suff'er  far  less  from  cold  in  St.  Petersburg  than  in  cities  under 
a  milder  heaven.  In  difierent  parts  of  the  town  there  are  large  rooms, 
which  are  constantly  kept  warm,  and  to  which  every  one  has  at  all  times 
free  access.  In  front  of  the  theatres,  large  fires  are  kept  burning  for  the 
benefit  of  coachmen  and  servants  ;  but  the  furs  and  warm  apparel  in  which 
even  beggars  are  sure  to  be  chid,  and  the  air-and-water-tight  construction 
of  their  houses,  are  the  chief  security  of  all  classes  against  the  severity  of 
their  climate.  As  soon  as  the  tlicrmometer  falls  some  fifteen  or  twenty 
degrees  below  zero,  the  sentinels  all  receive  fur  cloaks,  in  which  they  look 
grotesque  enough,  when  marching  up  and  down  in  front  of  the  palaces. 
With  all  these  precautions,  however,  the  intense  cold  that  sometimes  pre 
vails  for  weeks  together  converts  many  a  specimen  of  living  humanity  into 
a  senseless  statue  of  ice.  This  is  owing  more  to  the  manners  of  the  i)eo- 
ple  than  to  the  want  of  suitable  protection ;  to  drunkenness  and  idleness 
among  the  poor ;  and  to  inconsiderateness  among  the  rich. 

The  northern  winter  imprisons  the  lovely  nymph  of  the  Neva  in  icy 
bands  for  five  months  in  the  year.  It  is  seldom  till  after  the  beginning  of 
April  that  the  water  acquires  sufficient  warmth  to  burst  her  prison.  The 
moment  is  always  anxiously  expected,  and  no  sooner  have  the  dirty  masses 


H88 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 


The  Neva  in  Winter. 


of  ice  advanced  sufBciently  to  display  as  much  of  the  bright  mirror  of  the 
river  as  may  suffice  to  bear  a  boat  from  one  side  to  the  other,  than  the 
glad  tidings  are  announced  to  the  inliabitants  by  the  artillery  of  the  for- 
tress. At  that  moment,  be  it  day  or  night,  the  commandant  of  the  fortress, 
arrayed  in  all  tlie  insignia  of  his  rank,  and  accompanied  by  the  officers  of 
his  suite,  embarks  in  an  elegant  gondola,  and  repairs  to  the  emperor's 
palace  which  lies  immediately  opposite.  He  fills  a  large  crystal  goblet 
with  the  water  of  the  Neva,  and  presents  it  to  the  emperor  as  the  first  and 
most  precious  tribute  of  returning  spring.  He  informs  liis  master  that  the 
force  of  winter  has  been  broken,  that  the  waters  are  free  again,  that  an 
active  navigation  may  nOw  again  be  looked  for,  and  points  to  his  own  gon- 
dola, as  the  first  swan  tliat  has  swum  o^\  the  river  that  year.  He  then 
presents  the  goblet  to  the  emperor,  who  drinks  it  off  to  the  health  of  tlie 
dear  citizens  of  his  capital.  There  is  not  probably  on  the  face  of  the  globe 
another  glass  of  water  that  brings  a  better  price,  for  it  is  customary  for 
the  emperor  to  fill  the  goblet  with  ducats  before  he  returns  it  to  the  com- 
mandant. Such,  at  least,  was  the  custom ;  but  the  goblet  Avas  found  to 
have  a  sad  tendency  to  enlarge  its  dimensions,  so  that  the  emperor  began 
to  perceive  tliat  he  had  every  year  a  larger  dose  of  water  to  drink,  and  a 
greater  number  of  ducats  to  pay  for  it.  At  last  he  tliought  it  high  time  to 
compromise  matters  with  his  commandant,  who  now  receives  on  each  occa- 
sion a  fixed  sum  of  two  hundred  ducats.  Even  tliis,  it  must  bo  admitted, 
is  a  truly  imperial  fee  for  a  draught  of  water,  l)nt  the  compromise  is  said 
to  have  effectually  arrested  tlie  alarming  growth  of  the  goblet ! 

It  is  generally  between  the  6th  and  tlie  14th  of  April  (old  style),  or 
between  the  18th  and  the  2Gth,  according  to  the  calendar  in  use  in  this 
country,  that  the  Neva  throws  off  her  icy  covering.  The  6th  is  the  most 
general  day.  It  is  usually  about  tlie  middle  of  November,  and  more  fre- 
quently on  the  20th  (2d  of  December  new  style)  than  on  any  other  day, 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  OUT-DOOR  LIFE.  ^89 

iliat  the  ice  is  brought  to  a  stand-Ptill.  The  departure  of  the  ice,  on  the 
breaking  up  of  the  river  iu  the  spring,  always  forms  an  exciting  spectacle, 
and  crowds  are  sure  to  be  attracted  to  the  quays  by  the  first  gun  fired  from 
the  citadel.  The  golden  gondola  of  the  commandant  is  not  long  alone  in 
its  glory,  for  liundreds  of  boats  are  quickly  in  motion,  to  re-establish  the 
communication  between  the  different  quarters  of  the  city. 

All  the  other  harbors  of  the  Baltic  are  usually  free  from  ice  before  that 
of  St.  Petersburg  ;  and  a  number  of  vessels  arc  almost  always  awaiting,  in 
the  sound,  the  news  that  the  navigation  of  tlic  Russian  capital  has  been 
resumed.  The  first  spring  ship  tliat  arrives  in  the  Neva  is  the  occasion  of 
great  rejoicing,  and  seldom  fails  to  bring  its  cargo  to  an  excellent  market. 
It  is  mostly  laden  with  oranges,  millinery,  and  such  articles  of  taste  and 
vanity  as  are  likely  to  be  most  attractive  to  the  frivolous  and  wealthy,  who 
seldom  fail  to  reward  the  first  comer  by  purchasing  his  wares  at  enormous 
prices.  The  first  ship  is  soon  followed  by  multitudes,  and  the  most  active 
life  succeeds  to  a  stillness  like  that  of  death. 

A  stranger  accustomed  to  the  crowds  and  bustle  of  London,  Paris,  or 
New  York,  is  struck  on  his  arrival  at  St.  Petersburg  by  the  emptiness  of 
the  streets.  He  finds  vast  open  spaces  in  which  at  times  he  l)cliolds  noth- 
ing but  a  solitary  drosky,  that  wends  its  way  along  like  a  boat  drifting  on 
the  open  sea.  He  sees  spacious  streets  bordered  by  rows  of  mute  palaces 
with  only  here  and  there  a  human  figure  hovering  about,  like  a  lurking 
freebooter  among  a  waste  of  rocks.  The  vastness  of  the  plan  on  which  the 
city  has  been  laid  out  shows  that  its  founders  speculated  on  a  distant  fu- 
ture. Rapidly  as  tlic  population  has  been  increasing,  it  is  still  insufficient 
to  fill  the  frame  allotted  to  it,  or  to  give  to  the  streets  that  life  and  move- 
ment which  we  look  for  in  the  capital  of  a  great  empire.  On  the  occasion, 
indeed,  of  great  public  festivals  and  rejoicings,  and  at  all  times  in  the 
Nevskoi  Prospekt  and  about  the  Admiralty,  the  movement  is  very  consid- 
erable, but  this  only  tends  to  leave  the  throng  and  bustle  of  the  other 
quarters  of  the  town  far  below  the  average. 

The  population  of  St.  Petersburg  is  the  most  varied  and  motley  that 
mind  can  imagine.  To  begin  with  the  military.  We  have  the  Caucasian 
guards,  the  Tartar  guards,  the  Finland  guards,  besides  a  fourth  and  fifth 
division  of  the  guards  for  the  various  tribes  of  Cossacks.  Of  these  nations 
the  elite  are  tlms  always  retained  as  hostages  in  the  capital,  and  their  sev- 
eral uniforms  are  alone  sufficient  to  present  an  ever-changing  picture  to 
the  eye  of  an  observer.  Here  may  be  seen  a  Cossack  trotting  over  one  of 
the  Platz  Farads  with  his  lance  in  rest, 'as  tliougli  iu  his  imagination  he 
were  pursuing  a  flying  enemy.  Farther  on,  perchance  a  Circassian  cava- 
lier, in  his  shirt-of-mail,  and  harnessed  from  head  to  foot,  is  going  through 
his  warlike  exercises.  The  moslem  from  the  Taurus  may  be  seen  gravely 
moving  througli  the  throng ;  wdiile  the  well-drilled  Russian  soldiers  defile 
in  long  columns  through  the  streets.  Of  all  the  endless  variety  of  uniforms 
that  belong  to  the  great  Russian  army,  a  few  specimens  are  always  to  be 


390  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

seen  in  the  capital.  There  are  guards,  and  hussars,  and  cuirassiers,  and 
grenadiers,  and  pioneers,  and  engineers  ;  horse-artillery  and  foot-artillery  ; 
to  say  nothing  of  dragoons,  lancers,  and  those  military  plebeians  the  troops 
of  the  line.  All  these,  in  their  various  uniforms,  marching  to  parade,  re- 
turning to  their  barracks,  mounting  guard,  and  passing  through  the  other 
multifarious  duties  of  a  garrison-life,  are  in  themselves  enough  to  give  life 
and  diversity  to  the  streets. 

If,  then,  we  turn  to  tlie  more  pacific  part  of  the  population,  devoted  to 
the  less  brilliant  but  certainly  not  less  useful  pursuit  of  commerce,  we  find 
every  nation  of  Europe,  and  almost  every  nation  of  Asia,  represented  in 
the  streets  of  St.  Petersburg.  Spaniards  and  Italians,  English  and  French, 
Greeks  and  Scandinavians,  may  be  seen  mingling  together ;  nor  will  the 
silken  garments  of  the  Persian  and  the  Bokharian  be  wanting  to  the  pic- 
ture, nor  the  dangling  tail  of  the  Chinese,  nor  the  pearly  teeth  of  the 
Arabian. 

The  infima  plebs  bears  an  outside  as  motley  as  the  more  aristocratic  por- 
tion of  the  community.  The  German  baiter  (peasant)  may  be  seen  loun- 
ging among  the  noisy,  bearded  Russians  ;  the  slim  Pole  elbows  the  diminu- 
tive Finlander ;  and  Esthonians,  Lettes,  and  Jews,  are  running  up  against 
each  other,  while  the  raussulman  studiously  avoids  all  contact  with  the 
Jew.  Yankee  sailors  and  dwarfish  Kamtschatdales,  Caucasians,  Moors, 
and  Mongolians  —  all  sects,  races,  and  colors,  contribute  to  make  up  the 
populace  of  the  Russian  capital. 

Nowhere  does  the  street  life  of  St.  Petersburg  display  itself  to  better 
effect  than  in  the  Nevskoi  Prospekt.  This  magnificent  street  intersects  all 
the  rings  of  the  city — the  suburbs  of  the  poor,  the  showy  regions  of  com- 
merce, and  the  sumptuous  quarters  of  the  aristocracy.  A  walk  along  the 
whole  length  of  this  street  is  one  perhaps  as  interesting  as  any  that  can 
be  made  in  St.  Petersburg.  Starting  from  the  extreme  end,  where  a  mon- 
astery and  a  cemetery  remind  you  of  death  and  solitude,  you  first  arrive  at 
little  low,  wooden  houses,  which  lead  you  to  a  cattle-market,  where  around 
the  spirit-shops  may  be  seen  swarms  of  noisy,  singing  Russian  peasants, 
presenting  a  picture  not  unlike  what  may  daily  be  seen  in  the  villages  of 
the  interior.  A  little  farther  on,  the  liouses  improve  in  appearance  :  some 
are  even  of  stone,  and  boast  of  an  additional  floor ;  the  houses  of  public 
entertainment  are  of  a  better  description,  and  shops  and  warehouses  are 
seen  similar  to  those  of  the  small  provincial  towns.  Next  follow  some 
markets  and  magazines  for  the  sale  of  invalided  furniture  and  superannu- 
ated apparel,  which,  having  spent  their  youth  in  the  service  of  the  central 
quarters,  are  consigned  in  old  age  to  the  mercy  of  the  suburbs.  Tlie 
houses,  in  the  old  Russian  fashion,  are  painted  yellow  and  red,  and  every 
man  you  meet  displays  a  beard  of  venerable  length,  and  a  yet  longer  caftan 
(jacket  or  roundabout).  A  little  farther  on,  and  you  see  a  few  ivoshtshiks 
(drosky-drivers)  who  have  strayed  by  chance  so  far  from  their  more 
central  haunts  ;  a  shaven  chin  and  a  swallow-tailed  coat  may  be  seen  at  in- 


ST.  PETERSBURG  —  NEVSKOI  PROSPEKT.  391 

tcrvals,  and  here  and  tlicrc  a  house  assumes  something  like  an  air  of  statc- 
llness  and  splendor.  On  arriving  at  a  bend  in  the  street,  the  huge  gilt 
spire  of  the  Admiralty  is  descried  at  a  distance,  floating  apparently  over 
the  intervening  mist.  You  cross  a  bridge,  and  begin  to  feel  that  you  are 
in  a  mighty  city.  The  mansions  rise  to  three  and  four  stories  in  height, 
the  inscriptions  on  the  houses  become  larger  and  more  numerous,  carriages- 
and-four  become  more  frequent,  and  every  now  and  then  the  waving  plume 
of  a  staff-officer  dashes  by.  At  length  you  arrive  at  the  Fontanka  canal, 
cross  tlie  Anitshkof  bridge,  and  enter  the  aristocratic  quarter  of  the  capi- 
tal. From  this  bridge  to  the  Admiralty  is  what  may  be  called  tlie  fash- 
ionable part  of  the  Prospekt ;  and  as  you  advance,  the  bustle  and  the  throng- 
become  greater  and  greater-  There  are  carriages-and-four  at  every  step ; 
generals  and  princes  elbowing  through  the  crowd ;  sumptuous  shops,  impe- 
rial palaces,  and  cathedrals  and  churches  of  all  the  various  religions  and 
sects  of  St.  Petersburg. 

The  scene  in  this  portion  of  the  street,  at  about  mid-day,  may  challenge 
comparison  with  any  street  in  the  world,  and  the  splendor  of  the  spectacle 
is  enhanced  by  the  magnificence  of  the  decorations.  This  part  of  tlie  thor- 
oughfare, though  about  a  mile  in  length,  does  not  contain  more  than  fifty 
houses,  each  of  which,  it  may  easily  be  inferred,  must  be  of  colossal  mag- 
nitude. Most  of  these  buildings  are  the  property  of  the  several  churches 
that  border  the  street — the  Dutch,  the  catholic,  the  Armenian,  and  others 
— that  received  from  Peter  the  Great  large  grants  of  land,  of  little  value 
probably  when  first  bestowed,  but  from  which,  as  tliey  are  now  in  the  heart 
of  the  city,  splendid  revenues  are  derived. 

The  street  from  the  Anitshkof  bridge  to  the  Admiralty  is  the  favorite 
promenade  with  the  beau  monde  of  St.  Petersburg.  The  buildings  are 
magnificent,  the  equipages  roll  noiselessly  over  the  wooden  pavement  of 
the  centre,  and  the  trottoirs  (foot-pavements)  on  each  side  are  broad  and 
commodious.  The  northern,  being  the  sunny,  is  the  favorite  side  of  the 
street  for  the  promenaders,  and  on  that  side  accordingly  are  the  most  mag- 
nificent shops.  The  people  are  civil,  and  quarrels  and  disputes  are  seldom 
heard.  The  Slavonian  is  by  nature  ductile  and  tractable ;  and  the  lower 
classes,  from  their  childhood,  are  taught  to  behave  respectfully  toward 
their  more  fortunate  fellow-men. 

The  garrison  of  St.  Petersburg  seldom  amounts  to  less  than  sixty  thou- 
sand men,  and  constitutes,  therefore,  about  one  eighth  of  the  entire  popu- 
lation. Neither  officer  nor  private  must  ever  appear  in  public  otherwise 
than  in  full  uniform,  and  this  may  suffice  to  give  some  idea  of  the  prepon- 
derance of  the  military  over  the  civil  costumes  seen  in  the  streets.  The 
wild  Circassian,  with  his  silver  harness  and  his  coat-of-mail,  gayly  con- 
verses and  jests  with  the  more  polished  Russian  officer,  wliile  their  several 
kinsmen  are  busily  engaged  in  cutting  each  other's  throats  in  the  Caucasus. 
Even  in  the  streets  of  St.  Petersburg,  however,  it  is  more  safe  to  avoid 
collision  with  these  fierce  and  chivalric  mountaineers,  who  are  sudden  in 


392  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 

quarrel,  quick  to  avenge  insult,  wear  sharp  daggers,  and  always  carry 
loaded  firearms  about  their  persons. 

It  would  not  be  saying  too  much  to  affirm  that  half  the  inhabitants  of 
St.  Petersburg  are  clad  in  a  uniform  of  one  sort  or  another ;  for,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  sixty  thousand  soldiers,  there  are  civil  uniforms  for  the  public 
officers  of  every  grade  —  for  the  police,  for  the  professors  of  the  university, 
and  not  only  for  the  teachers,  but  likewise  for  the  pupils,  of  the  public 
schools.  Nor  must  the  private  uniforms  be  forgotten  that  are  worn  by  the 
numerous  servants  of  the  noble  and  wealthy  families.  Still  there  remain 
enough  of  plain  coats  to  keep  up  the  respectability  of  the  fraternity.  The 
whole  body  of  merchants,  the  English  factory,  the  German  barons  from  the 
Baltic  provinces,  Russian  princes  and  landowners  from  the  interior,  for- 
eigners, private  teachers,  and  many  others,  are  well  pleased  to  be  exempt 
from  the  constraint  of  buttons  and  epaulettes.  Indeed,  so  much  that  is 
really  respectable  walks  about  in  simple  black  and  blue,  that  a  plain  coat 
is  felt  by  many  to  be  rather  a  desirable  distinction,  although  the  wearer  is 
obliged  on  all  public  occasions  to  yield  the  pas  to  the  many-colored  coats 
of  the  civil  and  military  emploijes. 

The  seasons  and  the  variations  of  the  weather  bring  about  many  and 
often  very  sudden  changes  in  the  street-population  of  St.  Petersburg,  where 
the  temperature  is  always  capricious  and  unstable.  In  winter,  every  one  is 
cased  in  furs  ;  in  summer,  light  robes  of  gauze  and  silk  are  seen  fluttering 
in  the  breeze.  In  the  morning  the  costumes  are  perhaps  all  ligiit  and 
airy,  and  in  tlie  evening  of  the  same  day  none  will  venture  to  stir  abroad 
otherwise  than  in  cloaks  and  mantles.  The  sun  shines,  and  swarms  of 
dandies  and  petites  maitresses  come  fluttering  tlirough  the  fashionable  thor- 
oughfares :  it  rains,  and  the  streets  are  abandoned  to  the  undisputed  pos- 
session of  the  "  black  people."  One  day  all  snow  and  sledges,  the  next 
all  mud  and  clattering  wheels. 

Nor  is  it  merely  the  change  of  weather  that  alters  the  physiognomy  of 
the  streets.  The  various  sects  that  make  up  the  population  of  the  town 
give  often  a  peculiar  character  to  the  day.  On  Friday,  the  holyday  of  the 
moslems,  the  turbaned  Turk,  the  black-bearded  Persian,  and  the  Tartar, 
with  his  shorn  head,  take  their  leisure  in  the  streets.  On  Saturday,  the 
black-silk  caftans  of  the  Jews  come  abroad  in  great  numbers  :  and  on  the 
Sunday,  the  Christians  of  all  denominations  come  forth  to  their  pious  exer- 
cises or  their  various  diversions.  The  dilTerent  sects  of  the  Christians, 
again,  tend  to  vary  the  scene.  To-day  the  Lutherans  celebrate  their  yearly 
day  of  penance,  and  Grerman  burghers,  with  their  wives  and  children,  and 
with  their  neat,  black,  gilt-edged  hymn-books  under  their  arms,  sally  forth 
on  their  pilgrimage  to  the  church ;  to-morrow  the  catholics  are  summoned 
to  some  feast  or  otlier  of  the  immaculate  Virgin,  and  Poles  and  Lithua- 
nians, Frenclmien,  and  Austrians,  hurry  to  their  stately  temples.  The  next 
day  are  licard  the  thousand  bells  of  the  Greek  ko/okolniks,  and  the  wives 
and  daughters  of  the  Russian  merchants  come  humming  and  fluttering  about 


ST.  PETERSBURG  —  STREET  POPULATION.  393 

the  streets  in  their  jraudy  plumages  of  green,  blue,  yellow,  and  red.  But 
the  great  days  arc  the  public  holydays,  "  the  emperor's  days,"  as  they  are 
caUcd,  Avhen  all  the  modes  and  fashions  current,  from  Paris  to  Pekin,  are 
certain  to  be  paraded  to  tlie  public  gaze. 

It  has  often  been  remarked  that  there  are  few  cities  where  one  sees  so 
many  handsome  men  as  in  St.  Petersburg.  This  is  partly  owing  to  the 
prevalence  of  uniforms,  which  certainly  set  off  the  person  to  advantage, 
partly  also  to  the  fact  that  all  the  handsomest  men  in  the  provinces  are 
constantly  in  demand  as  recruits  for  the  various  regiments  of  the  guards. 
Something  must  also  be  attributed  to  tlie  constant  efforts  of  the  Russians 
to  ffive  themselves  the  most  agreeable  forms.  In  no  other  town  are  there 
so  few  cripples  and  deformed  people  ;  and  tliis  is  not  owing  merely  to  their 
being  less  tolerated  here  than  elsewhere,  but  also,  it  is  said,  to  the  fact 
that  the  Slavonian  race  is  less  apt  than  any  other  to  produce  deformed 
children.  On  the  other  hand,  at  every  step  you  meet  men  whose  exterior 
you  can  not  but  admire,  and  a  moment's  reflection  must  fill  you  with  regret 
that  there  should  be  so  few  fair  eyes  to  contemplate  so  many  handsome 
specimens  of  manhood.  St.  Petersburg  is  unfortunately  a  city  of  men,  the 
male  sex  being  in  a  majority  of  at  least  a  hundred  thousand,  and  the  women 
by  no  means  equally  distinguished  for  their  charms.  The  climate  seems 
to  be  unfavorable  to  the  development  of  female  beauty ;  the  tender  plants 
quickly  fade  in  so  rude  an  atmosphere,  and  as  they  are  few  in  numbers, 
tliev  are  all  the  more  in  demand  for  the  ballroom  and  the  soiree,  and  the 
more  quickly  used  up  by  the  friction  of  dissipation.  Whether  this  be  the 
cause,  or  whether  the  Russian  women  are  naturally  less  handsome,  com- 
paratively, than  the  men,  certain  it  is  that  a  fresli,  handsome-looking  girl 
is  but  rarely  to  be  seen  at  St.  Petersburg.  The  German  ladies  from  the 
Baltic  provinces  form  the  exception ;  and  it  is  from  Finland,  Livonia, 
Esthonia,  and  Courland,  that  the  gay  circles  of  the  capital  receive  their 
chief  supjjly  of  beauty.  To  this  it  may  be  owing  that  the  Russians  have 
so  high  an  opinion  of  German  beauty  that  they  rarely  withhold  from  a 
Nyemka  (German  woman)  the  epitliet  of  krassivaya,  or  beautiful.  The 
ladies  of  St.  Petersburg,  though  in  such  great  demand  on  account  of  their 
scarcity,  are  liable,  from  the  same  cause,  to  many  inconveniences.  For 
instance,  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  walk  in  the  streets,  even  in  broad 
daylight,  without  a  male  escort. 

The  best  hour  for  walking  on  the  Prospekt  is  from  twelve  till  two,  when 
the  ladies  go  shopping,  and  the  men  go  to  look  at  the  fair  purchasers. 
Toward  two  or  three  o'clock,  the  purchases  have  been  made,  the  parade  is 
over,  the  merchants  are  leaving  the  exchange,  the  world  of  promenaders 
wend  their  way  to  the  English  quay,  and  the  real  promenade  for  the  day 
begins,  the  imperial  family  usually  mingling  with  the  rest  of  the  loungers. 
This  magnificent  quay,  constructed,  like  all  the  quays  of  St.  Petersburg, 
of  huge  blocks  of  granite,  runs  along  the  Neva  from  the  New  to  the  Old 
Admiralty,  and  was  built  during  tlie  reign  of  the  empress  Catherine  II., 


394  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

who  caused  the  canals  and  rivers  of  her  capital,  to  th(j^length  of  not  less 
than  twenty-four  miles,  to  be  enclosed  in  granite.  As  in  all  water-construe 
tions,  the  colossal  part  of  the  work  is  not  that  which  meets  the  eye.  Tlie 
mighty  scafltblding,  on  which  the  quay  rests,  stands  deeply  imbedded  in 
the  marshy  soil  below.  Handsome  steps,  every  here  and  there,  lead  down 
to  the  river ;  and  for  carriages  large,  broad  descents  have  been  constructed, 
and  these  in  winter  are  usually  decorated  with  all  sorts  of  fanciful  columns 
and  other  ornaments,  cut  out  of  the  ice.  The  houses  along  the  English 
quay  are  deservedly  called  palaces.  They  were  originally,  for  the  most 
part,  built  by  Englishmen,  but  are  now,  nearly  all  of  them,  the  property 
of  wealthy  Russians. 

On  the  English  quay  may  be  seen  daily  the  elite  of  the  Russian  empire 
wearing  away  the  granite  with  their  princely  feet.  The  carriages  usually 
stop  at  the  New  Admiralty,  where  their  noble  owners  descend,  and  honor 
the  quay  by  walking  up  and  down  it  some  two  or  three  times.  There  are 
no  shops ;  and  as  the  English  quay  is  not  a  convenient  thoroughfare,  the 
promenaders  are  seldom  disturbed  by  the  presence  of  any  chance  passen- 
gers. The  emperor  and  the  imperial  family  are  a  centre  to  the  groups 
that  come  to  salute  them  and  to  be  saluted  by  them.  This  forms  a  kind 
of  connection  for  the  promenaders,  and  gives  a  oneness  to  the  assembled 
company.  The  emperor  walks  up  and  down  upon  an  apparent  footing  of 
equality  with  his  subjects  around  him  ;  though  these,  in  point  of  fact,  stand 
about  in  the  same  relation  to  him  that  a  child's  doll  does  to  the  colossus 
of  Rhodes.  The  Englishman  buttons  up  his  hatred  of  despotism  in  his 
great-coat,  and  scarcely  condescends  to  touch  his  hat  when  he  meets  the 
"  giant  of  tiie  North ;"  while  to  the  Russian  by  his  side,  a  submissive  de- 
meanor has  by  habit  become  a  positive  source  of  enjoyment,  till  he  feels  a 
real  affection  for  those  to  whom  the  law  gives  the  right  of  ordering  him 
about !  The  master  of  some  vast  estate,  in  the  Ural  mountains  or  on  the 
arid  steppes,  where  thousands  of  souls  must  labor  away  for  his  exclusive 
profit,  walks  along  the  quay  with  as  little  pretension  as  the  poor  shopman, 
who  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  a  property  in  his  own  soul,  embodied  as 
it  is  in  the  gay  garments  which  he  has  such  evident  delight  in  displaying 
to  an  admiring  world. 

The  Russian  of  the  lower  orders  is  anything  but  an  inviting  personage, 
at  first  sight.  The  name  by  which  they  have  been  designated,  in  their  own 
language,  time  out  of  mind,  describes  them  precisely.  It  is  tschornoi  narod, 
"  the  dirty  people,"  or,  as  we  might  more  freely  render  it,  "  the  great  un- 
washed." An  individual  of  this  class  is  called  a  mujik,  which  is  also  a 
general  name  for  peasant  or  serf.  He  is  usually  of  middle  stature,  with 
small,  light  eyes,  level  checks,  and  flat  nose,  of  which  the  tip  is  turned  up 
so  as  to  display  the  somewhat-expanded  nostril.  His  pride  and  glory  is 
his  beard,  which  he  wears  as  long  and  shaggy  as  nature  will  allow.  The 
back  of  the  head  is  shaved  closely ;  and,  as  he  wears  nothing  about  his 
neck,  his  head  stands  distinctly  away  from  his  body.     His  ideal  of  the 


ST.   PETERSBURG  —  THE   MUJIK  —  DRUNKENNESS.  095 

beauty  of  the  human  head,  as  seen  from  behind,  seems  to  be  to  make  it 
resemble,  as  nearly  as  may  be,  a  turnip.  He  is  always  noisy,  and  never 
clean ;  and  when  wrapped  in  his  sheepskin  mantle,  or  caftan  of  blue  cloth 
reaching  to  his  knees,  might  easily  enough  be  taken  for  a  bandit.  As  he 
seldom  thinks  of  changing  his  inner  garments  more  than  once  a  week,  and 
as  his  outer  raiment  lasts  half  his  lifetime,  and  is  never  laid  aside  during 
the  night,  and  never  washed,  he  constantly  affords  evidence  of  his  presence 
anything  but  agreeable  to  the  organs  of  smell.  But  a  closer  acquaintance 
will  bring  to  light  many  traits  of  character  which  belie  his  rude  exterior, 
and  will  show  him  to  be  at  bottom  a  good-natured,  merry,  friendly  fellow. 
His  most  striking  characteristic  is  pliability  and  dexterity.  If  he  does  not 
possess  the  power  of  originating,  he  has  a  wonderful  faculty  of  copying 
the  ideas  of  others,  and  of  yielding  himself  up  to  carry  out  the  conceptions 
of  any  one  who  wishes  to  use  him  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  ends. 
There  is  an  old  German  mytli  which  says  that  the  Teutonic  race  was 
framed,  in  the  depths  of  time,  out  of  the  hard,  unyielding  granite.  The 
original  material  of  the  Russian  race  must  have  been  India  rubber,  so 
easily  are  they  compressed  into  any  form,  and  so  readily  do  they  resume 
their  own  when  the  pressure  is  removed.  The  raw,  untrained  mujik  is 
drafted  into  the  army,  and  in  a  few  weeks  attains  a  precision  of  movement 
more  like  an  automaton  than  a  human  being.  He  becomes  a  trader,  and 
tlie  Jews  themselves  can  not  match  him  in  cunning  and  artifice. 

The  miijik  is  a  thoroughly  good-tempered  fellow.  Address  him  kindly, 
and  his  face  unbends  at  once,  and  you  will  find  that  he  takes  a  sincere 
delight  in  doing  you  a  kindness.  In  no  capital  of  Europe  are  the  tempta- 
tions to  crimes  against  the  person  so  numerous  as  in  St.  Petersburg,  with 
its  broad,  lonely  streets,  unlighted  at  night,  and  scantily  patrolled ;  but  in 
no  capital  are  such  crimes  of  so  rare  occurrence. 

But  the  mujik  has  two  faults  :  he  is  a  thorough  rogue,  and  a  great 
drunkard !  He  will  cheat  and  guzzle  from  sheer  love  for  the  practices  ; 
and  without  the  least  apparent  feeling  that  there  is  anything  out  of  the 
way  in  so  doing.  But  in  his  cups  he  is  the  same  good-natured  fellow. 
The  Irishman,  or  Scotchman,  when  drunk,  is  quarrelsome  and  pugnacious; 
the  German  or  the  Englishman,  stupid  and  brutal;  the  Spaniard  or  the 
Italian,  revengeful  and  treacherous.  The  first  stages  of  drunkenness  in  the 
vwjik  are  manifested  by  loquacity.  The  drunker  he  is,  the  more  gay  and 
genial  does  he  grow ;  till  at  last  he  is  ready  to  throw  himself  upon  the 
neck  of  his  worst  enemy,  and  exchange  embraces  with  him.  When  the 
last  stage  has  been  reached,  and  he  starts  for  home,  he  does  not  reel,  but 
marches  straight  on,  till  some  accidental  obstruction  trips  him  up  into  the 
mire,  where  he  lies  unnoticed  and  unmolested  till  a  policeman  takes  charge 
of  him.  This  misadventure  is  turned  to  public  advantage,  for  by  an  old 
custom  every  person,  male  or  female,  of  what  grade  soever,  taken  up  drunk 
in  tlie  street  l)y  the  police,  is  obliged  the  next  day  to  sweep  the  streets  for 
a  certain  number  of  hours.     In  early  morning  rambles  through  the  city, 


396 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCEIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 


Punishment  for  Drunkenness  —  Sweeping  the  Streets. 


tlie  traveller  may  very  frequently  encounter  a  wofiil  group,  thus  improving 
the  ways  of  others,  in  punishment  for  having  taken  too  little  heed  of 
their  own. 

Jerrmann  thus  speaks  of  a  party  of  females  he  saw  atoning,  broom  in 
hand,  for  their  improper  nocturnal  rambles  :  "  Startling  contrasts  abound 
in  St.  Petersburg.  One  morning,  before  four  o'clock,  I  was  driving  to  the 
Neva  baths,  when  suddenly,  to  my  astonished  eyes,  the  strangest  scene 
presented  itself.  I  beheld  before  me  an  al-fresco  ball.  A  number  of 
elegantly-attired  ladies  —  some  with  handsome  shawls,  and  featliers  in 
their  hats  —  were  performing  the  strangest  sort  of  dance,  which  they  ac- 
companied with  a  sort  of  bowing  motion,  incessantly  repeated.  I  could 
recognise  no  French  or  German  dance  in  their  singular  evolutions.  Could 
it  be  some  Russian  national  dance,  thought  I.  What  kind  of  dance  could 
it  be  that  was  thus  danced  in  broad  daylight  on  the  public  highway,  and 
without  male  dancers  ?     A  few  men  were  certainly  there,  but  merely  as 


ST.    PETERSBURG NATIONAL   TRAITS.  397 

lookers-on.  I  toiiciiod  tlio  arm  of  my  ivoshtshik,  called  his  attention  to 
the  group,  and  made  an  interrogative  gesture.  The  explanation  he  gave 
me  was  doubtless  very  lucid  and  circumstantial,  and  would  have  been 
higlily  satisfactory,  had  it  only  been  intelligible  to  me.  Unable  to  under- 
stand a  word  he  said,  I  ordered  him,  by  the  vigorous  articulation  of  '  Pa- 
c/io/,^  to  drive  up  to  the  strange  ball  before  the  weary  dancers  could  seek 
repose  upon  the  stones  at  the  street-corners.  Drawing  nearer  and  nearer, 
I  yet  heard  no  sound  of  music.  At  last  we  reached  the  Anitshkof  palace, 
and  found  ourselves  close  to  the  scene  of  this  untimely  activity.  A  repul- 
sive and  horrible  sight  met  my  eyes.  A  number  of  young  women,  appa- 
rently still  fresh  and  blooming,  with  ruddy  cheeks — but  whether  of  artifi- 
cial or  natural  colors  their  incessant,  monotonous  bowing  movement  pre- 
vented my  distinguishing — elegantly  dressed  in  silks,  jewels,  and  feathers. 
\\'erc  sweeping  tV.o  NPL^nvi  Tioapclu  nnucr  the  supenntenaencc  of  police- 
men. Some  of  them  appeared  overwhelmed  with  shame ;  others  stared  at 
me,  at  the  ivoshtshik  and  horse,  with  perfect  indifference,  and  seemed 
rejoiced  at  our  passage,  which  suspended  for  a  moment  their  painful  and 
disgraceful  occupation.  They  were  a  detachmentof  nocturnal  wanderers, 
who,  when  returning  too  tardily  to  their  homes  from  pursuing  their 
wretched  calling,  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  patrol,  had  passed  the 
remainder  of  the  night  in  the  watch-house,  and  were  now  atoning,  broom 
in  hand,  their  untimely  rambles.  I  hurried  off  to  the  bath,  glad  to  escape 
from  tl\is  degrading  and  deplorable  spectacle." 

Drunkenness  and  night-walking,  however  (we  may  add,  en  passant^,  are 
not  the  only  misdemeanors  thus  punished,  nor  do  the  lower  classes  alone 
expiate  their  offences  by  "  doing  the  state  some  service"  in  wielding  the 
broom  in  the  streets  of  Russian  cities.  Oliphant  instances  the  governor 
of  Sevastapol,  whose  peculations  in  the  way  of  bribes  and  other  perquisites 
were  brought  to  light  by  a  sudden  visit  of  the  emperor.  No  dilatory  trial 
procrastinated  the  day  of  his  condemnation.  The  emperor  had  scarcely 
terminated  his  flying  visit,  and  the  smoke  of  tlie  steamer  by  which  he  re- 
turned to  Odessa  still  hung  upon  the  horizon,  when  the  general  command- 
ing became  the  convict  sweeping.  In  a  significant  white  costume,  he  was 
prominently  displayed  with  the  rest  of  the  gang  upon  the  streets  he  had  a 
fortnight  before  rolled  proudly  through,  with  all  the  pomp  and  circum- 
stance befitting  his  high  station  ! 

In  vino  Veritas  may  perhaps  be  true  of  the  juice  of  tlie  grape ;  but  it  is 
not  so  of  the  bad  brandy  which  is  the  favorite  drink  of  the  miijik.  He  is 
never  too  drunk  to  be  a  rogue,  but  yet  you  do  not  look  upon  his  roguery 
as  you  do  upon  that  of  any  other  people.  He- never  professes  to  be  honest, 
and  does  not  see  any  reason  why  he  should  be  so.  He  seems  so  utterly 
unconscious  of  anything  reprehensible  in  roguery,  that  you  unconsciously 
give  him  the  benefit  of  his  ignorance.  If  he  victimizes  you,  you  look  upon 
him  as  upon  a  clever  professor  of  legerdemain,  who  has  cheated  you  in 
spite  of  your  senses  ;  but  you  hardly  hold  him  morally  responsible.     Upon 


398 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 


tlie  whole,  though  you  can  not  respect  the  miijik,  you-  can  hardly  avoid 
having  a  sort  of  liking  for  liiui. 

Notwithstanding  the  general  characteristic  of  laxity  of  principle,  in- 
stances are  by  no  means  wanting  of  the  most  scrupulous  and  even  roman- 
tic fidelity  on  the  part  of  the  Russians  of  the  lower  orders.  It  would  be 
an  interesting  subject  of  investigation  how  far  this  patent  trait  of  national 
character  is  to  be  attributed  to  inherent  constitutional  defects  in  the  race, 
and  how  far  to  the  state  of  serfdom  in  which  they  have  existed  from  gen- 
eration to  generation  ;  but  the  investigation  does  not  fall  within  the  scope 
of  this  volume. 

Our  friends  in  the  greasy  sheepskins  or  woollen  caftans  have  strong  re- 
ligious tendencies,  though  they  may  smack  a  little  too  much  of  those  of  the 
light-fingered  Smyrniote  who  was  detected  purchasing  candles  to  light 
before  his  patron-saint,  with  the  first-fruits  of  the  purse  of  which  he  had 
not  ten  minutes  before  relieved  a  gentleman's  pocket !  In  all  places  where 
men  congregate  there  are  pictures  of  saints  before  which  the  miijik  crosses 
himself  on  every  occasion.  In  an  inn  or  restawant  each  visiter  turns  to 
the  picture  and  crosses  himself  before  he  sits  down  to  eat.  If  a  miijik 
enters  your  room,  he  crosses  himself  before  saluting  you.  Every  church 
is  saluted  with  a  sign  of  the  cross.  At  frequent  intervals  in  the  streets 
little  shrines  are  found,  before  which  everybody  stops  and  makes  the  sacred 
sign,  with  bared  head.  The  merchant  in  the  g-ostinoi  dvor  or  bazar,  every 
now  and  then  walks  up  to  his  hog  or  saint,  and  with  a  devout  inclination 
prays  for  success  in  trade. 


Nevskoi  Pbospekt,  St.  Pktkbsbcbg.— fSecond  View.) 


ST.   PETERSBURG  —  THE  WINTER  PALACE.  399 


CHAPTER   XIY. 

ST.  PETERSBURG  —  IMPERIAL  PALACES,  ETC. 

NO  modern  city  can  boast  that  it  is  so  entirely  composed  of  palaces 
and  colossal  public  edifices  as  St.  Petersburg.  In  some  of  these 
several  thousand  persons  reside  —  six  thousand,  for  instance,  are 
said  to  inhabit  the  Winter  palace  during  the  emperor's  residence  in  the 
capital ;  and  the  traveller,  when  he  looks  on  this  gigantic  pile  of  building, 
will  not  fail  to  remember  that  it  once  fell  a  prey  to  the  ravages  of  fire,  at 
least  the  interior  of  it,  and  in  a  few  hours  the  greedy  flames  destroyed 
much  of  those  treasures  and  works  of  art  which  had,  with  extraordinary 
zeal,  been  collected  during  the  prosperous  reigns  and  magnificent  courts 
of  Elizabeth  and  Catherine  II.,  and  the  less  gorgeous  but  more  elegant 
ones  of  Alexander  and  Nicholas. 

Kohl,  speaking  of  the  immense  extent  of  this  palace  previous  to  its  de- 
struction on  the  29th  of  December,  1837,  remarks  that  "  the  suites  of 
apartments  were  perfect  labyrinths,  and  that  even  the  chief  of  the  imperial 
household,  who  had  filled  that  post  for  twelve  years,  Avas  not  perfectly 
acquainted  witli  all  the  nooks  and  corners  of  it.  As  in  the  forests  of  the 
great  landholders  many  colonies  are  settled  of  which  the  owner  takes  no 
notice,  so  there  nestled  many  a  one  in  this  palace  not  included  among  tlie 
regular  inhabitants.  For  example,  the  watchmen  on  the  roof,  placed  there 
for  different  purposes  —  among  others  to  keep  the  water  in  the  tanks  from 
freezing  during  the  winter,  by  casting  in  red-hot  balls — built  themselves 
huts  between  the  chimneys,  took  their  wives  and  children  there,  and  even 
kept  poultry  and  goats,  who  fed  on  the  grass  of  the  roof !  It  is  said  that 
at  last  some  cows  were  introduced,  but  tliis  abuse  had  been  corrected 
before  the  palace  was  l)urnt." 

The  conflagration  of  the  "Winter  palace  originated  in  some  defect  in  the 
flues  by  which  it  was  heated  ;  and,  though  the  crown-jewels  and  much  val- 
uable property  were  saved  from  the  flames,  still  the  destruction  of  property 
must  have  been  immense,  spread  as  it  was  over  a  surface  of  such  enormous 
extent :  the  principal  rooms  alone,  nearly  one  hundred  in  number,  occupied 
on  the  first  floor  an  area  of  four  hundred  thousand  square  feet. 

After  the  destruction  of  the  palace,  it  is  said  that  Count  Barincky  offered 
the  emperor  a  million  roubles  toward  the  erection  of  the  new  edifice ;  a 
small  tradesman  fifteen  hundred  ;  and  two  days  subsequent  to  the  calamity. 


400  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

:i  man  with  a  long  beard,  and  dressed  in  the  caftan  of  a  common  mvjik 
met  the  emperor  in  his  drosky,  and  laid  at  his  feet  bank-notes  to  the  value 
of  twenty-five  thousand  roubles.     It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  the 
emperor  did  not  accept  these  generous  offers  of  assistance. 

The  inundations  of  the  Neva,  and  the  destruction  by  fire  of  the  Winter 
palace,  are  two  prominent  epochs  in  the  history  of  the  city  ;  and,  as  on 
every  great  emergency,  the  late  emperor,  at  this  last  calnmity,  failed  not 
to  exhibit  qualities  which  made  him  eminently  admired  and  respected  by 
his  subjects.  The  heroic  devotion  and  disregard  of  danger  exliibited  by 
the  firemen  and  mvjiks  are  spok6n  of  in  glowing  terms  by  those  who  wit- 
nessed the  devastation  of  that  fatal  night,  and  it  was  with  very  great  diffi- 
culty that  many  of  them  could  be  prevented  from  recklessly  endangering 
thei'"  lives.  Soivc,  indeed,  wore  Icit;  on  lenining  whiel),  tlio  c;m])fM\ji' 
ordered  that  the  people  should  be  prevented  from  entering  the  burning 
pile  ;  and  he  is  reported  to  have  said,  "  Let  it  burn  away,  let  it  all  go,  but 
let  not  a  life  be  endangered  in  attempts  to  save  comparatively  worthless 
property."  Many  of  those  who  were  in  the  building  would  not,  however, 
leave  ;  and,  as  a  last  resource,  it  is  said  that  Nicholas  ordered  some  oflB- 
cers  to  go  and  smash  the  large  mirrors  with  hammers,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  soldiers  and  people  from  making  any  further  attemi)ts  to  save  them. 
Another  anecdote  was  current  at  the  time,  that  tlie  emperor,  observing  the 
danger  attending  the  efforts  of  one  party  who  were  endeavoring  to  save 
one  of  these  mirrors,  and  that  it  was  impossible  to  attract  tlieir  attention 
in  the  confusion  which  reigned,  threw  his  opera-glass  at  it,  wlion  the  men 
seeing  it  broken,  but  not  knowing  wlience  the  blow  came,  immediately 
desisted,  and  were  thereby  saved.  The  gilt  cross  on  the  cupola  of  the 
private  chapel  resisted  the  fury  of  the  devouring  element,  and,  glowing 
with  increased  brilliancy  in  the  light  of  the  furnace  around  it,  Avas  watched 
by  many  an  anxious  eye  in  the  crowd  of  believers  beneath,  wlio  ascribed 
its  preservation  to  miraculous  intervention.  This  idea  proved  a  powerful 
engine  in  the  hands  of  the  architect ;  for,  under  the  conviction  that  a  bles- 
sing rested  on  the  palace,  the  workmen  toiled  with  double  assiduity  at  its 
reconstruction. 

In  one  point  of  view  this  destructive  fire  has  proved  an  advantage,  for 
the  custom  of  consigning  to  solitude  those  suites  of  rooms  occupied  by  a 
deceased  sovereign  had  here  closed  so  many  of  the  finest  apartments,  that 
in  a  few  more  generations  the  reigning  monarch  would  have  been  fairly 
turned  out  by  the  ghosts  of  his  predecessors  !  In  two  years  from  the  de- 
struction of  this  palace  it  rose  again  under  the  skilful  hands  of  the  archi- 
tect Kleinmichael,  and  the  united  industry  of  several  thousand  workmen,  to 
its  former  magnificence,  and  is  now,  perhaps,  the  most  splendid  and  largest 
royal  edifice  in  the  world.  This  imperial  edifice  is  indeed  commanding — 
presenting,  as  it  does,  a  front  toward  the  Neva  of  more  than  seven  hundred 
feet ;  it  also  covers  a  very  large  space  of  ground,  being  nearly  a  third 
larger  tlian  the  palace  of  tlie  Austrian  emperor  at  Vienna,  and  almost 


ST.    PETERSBURG THE   WINTER   PALACE.  403 

twice  as  large  as  that  of  Naples  ;  its  form  is  nearly  a  complete  square,  the 
angles  of  which  answer  to  the  four  cardinal  points  of  the  compass.  Its 
long  facades  are  highly  imposing,  and  form  a  grand  continuation  to  those 
of  the  Admiralty  beyond  it. 

In  visiting  the  Winter  palace,  accompanied  by  one  of  the  imperial  ser- 
vants in  livery,  strangers  have  the  opportunity  of  wandering  through  suites 
of  splendid  apartments,  galleries,  and  halls,  filled  with  marbles,  malacliites, 
precious  stones,  vases,  and  pictures  ;  among  them  many  portraits  of  the 
great  generals  and  mighty  men  of  Russia  and  other  countries.  Also  one 
of  Potemkin :  he  is  represented  as  of  colossal  heiglit  and  fine  countenance, 
and  as  remarkable  for  the  development  of  limb  and  muscle  as  for  the  soft 
expression  of  his  blue  eyes ;  in  fact,  to  judge  by  this  portrait,  one  would 
say  that  he  was  made  to  connnand  an  army  of  Cossacks,  and  trouble  a 
woman's  heart.  Here  also  are  several  fine  Murillos,  and  the  "  Adoration 
of  the  Shepherds,"  by  Berghem,  one  of  the  finest  works  of  that  master. 

The  empress's  drawing-room  is  a  perfect  jewel  of  taste  ;  and  the  chapel, 
St.  George's  hall  (a  parallelogram  of  one  hundred  and  forty  feet  by  sixty), 
and  numbers  of  gilded  chambers,  one  more  gorgeous  than  another,  form  an 
almost  wearying  succession  of  magnificence.  The  hall  of  St.  George  is  the 
apartment  on  the  splendor  of  which  the  Russians  most  pride  themselves. 
It  is  here  that  the  emperor  gives  audience  in  solemn  state  to  foreign  em-* 
bassadors.  Near  it  is  the  gallery  of  the  generals,  containing  portraits  of 
all  the  distinguished  officers  who  served  under  the  Russian  colors  during 
the  war  of  the  French  invasion  and  the  subsequent  hostilities,  till  Napo- 
leon's final  overthrow.  The  most  striking  picture  is  a  full-length  of  the 
emperor  Alexander  on  horseback,  of  gigantic  dimensions,  and  said  to  be 
the  best  likeness  of  him  now  in  existence.  At  the  entrance  to  this  long 
gallery  stand  two  sentinels  of  the  Russian  guard,  still  and  motionless, 
looking  as  if  they  also  were  creations  of  art ;  and  at  each  end  are  suspend- 
ed French  eagles,  the  names  of  the  principal  battles  that  occurred  in  the 
war  being  written  in  large  gold  characters  on  the  walls.  Many  of  these 
pictures  must  be  copies,  as  the  soldiers  they  represent  found  a  warrior's 
ileath  on  the  field  of  honor  long  before  this  collection  was  begun. 

Beyond  this  gallery  is  the  field-marslials'  saloon.  Here  the  portraits  do 
not  exceed  eight  or  ten  in  number,  for  that  rank  is  as  rarely  bestowed  in 
Russia  as  it  is  in  England.  The  duke  of  Wellington  is  among  the  distin- 
guished few ;  and  the  symbol  which  accompanies  the  full-length  portrait 
of  the  hero  of  a  hundred  fights  is  that  of  imperishable  strength,  the  Brit- 
ish oak. 

Beyond  this  is  the  Salle  Blanche,  the  most  magnificent  apartment  in 
tliis  most  magnificent  of  palaces,  and  so  called  from  its  decorations  being 
all  in  pure  white,  relieved  only  with  gilding.  The  dimensions  are  nearly 
the  same  as  those  of  the  hall  of  the  generals.  Here  the  court  fetes  are 
held,  which  are  reputed  to  form  the  most  brilliant  pageant  of  in-door 
palace-life  to  be  found  in  Christendom. 


404  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

The  diamond-room,  containing  the  crowns  and  jewels  of  the  imperial 
family,  deserves  notice.  Diamonds,  rubies,  and  emeralds,  are  ranged 
round  the  room  in  small  cases  of  such  dazzling  beauty,  that  it  is  almost 
bewildering  to  look  at  them.  The  crown  of  the  emperor  is  adorned  with 
a  chaplet  of  oak-leaves  made  of  diamonds  of  an  extraordinary  size ;  and 
the  imperial  sceptre  contains  one  with  a  single  exception  the  largest  in 
the  world,  being  the  celebrated  stone  purchased  by  Catherine  II.  from  a 
Greek  slave,  for  four  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  roubles  and  a  large  pen- 
sion for  life.  Bruloflf's  picture  of  the  "  Raising  of  the  Serpent  in  the  Wil- 
derness "  is  to  be  seen  here.  It  has  great  merit  and  some  defects ;  the 
figures  are  for  the  most  part  portraits  of  Israelites  who  inhabit  the  Ghetto 
at  Rome,  and  the  result  therefore  is  really  a  Hebrew  crowd.  There  is 
also,  if  not  recently  removed,  the  famous  Chinese  cabinet  of  Catherine, 
and  a  small  room  to  which  Peter  the  Great  used  to  retire  from  the  turmoil 
of  public  affairs. 

There  was,  in  the  last  century,  a  palace  called  the  Summer  palace,  on 
the  Fontanka  canal,  but  this  was  pulled  down  by  the  emperor  Paul ;  the 
name  therefore  is  now  without  meaning,  for  the  castle  built  to  replace  the 
former  was  designated  as  the  Michailof  Samok,  or  castle.  There  is  a 
telegraph  in  the  Winter  palace,  close  to  the  emperor's  private  apartments, 
by  means  of  which  he  can  transmit  his  own  orders  to  Kronstadt,  Potcr- 
lioflf,  &c. 

Adjoining  the  Winter  palace  is  the  Hermitage,  wliich  it  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  the  great  Catherine  built  as  Frederick  the  Great  did  his  Sans- 
Sonci  at  Potsdam,  and  the  Roman  emperor  Numa  his  Grotto  of  Eg-eria. 
But  the  Hermitage  is  no  cloistered  solitude  —  no  rocky  grotto  liidden  amid 
the  waters  of  the  Neva's  murmuring  sources  —  but  a  magnificent  palace, 
second  only  to  that  we  have  just  described ;  while  witliin  it  is  loaded  with 
precious  objects  of  art  and  vertu.  The  empress  built  this  temple  in  order 
that  she  miglit  retire  to  it  in  her  leisure  moments,  there  to  enjoy  the  con- 
versation of  the  French  philosophers  and  men  of  learning ;  and  here,  after 
the  duties  of  the  sovereign  had  been  transacted  in  the  Winter  palace,  she 
was  wont  to  pass  the  evening,  surrounded  by  all  that  could  gratify  tlie  eye 
or  the  senses  :  musicians  displayed  their  talents,  artists  their  works,  scien- 
tific men  their  speculations,  and  political  men  their  opinions  ;  for,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  ukase  suspended  in  all  the  apartments,  perfect  freedom 
and  equality  reigned ;  and  the  pictures  which  we  see  elsewhere  only  as 
allegorical  representations  of  art-and-science-loving  princes,  were  here  ev- 
ery day  realized.  On  the  roof  was  a  garden  with  flowers,  shrubs,  and 
trees,  heated  in  winter  by  subterranean  stoves,  and  illuminated  in  summer 
by  variegated  lamps,  under  the  prismatic  colors  of  which  the  brilliant  as- 
semblage wandered. 

The  Hermitage  is  connected  with  tlie  Winter  palace  by  several  covered 
galleries,  and  forms  a  sort  of  continuation  of  that  vast  building.  Thi9 
principal  facade  faces  the  Neva.     It  has  but  little  claim  to  architectural 


ST.    PETERSBURG THE    HERMITAGE.  405 

beauty,  and  may  be  divided  into  tliree  ])arts,  each  of  which  was  the  work 
of  a  different  architect.  The  iirst  part,  which  is  united  to  the  Winter  pal- 
ace, and  somewhat  resembles  it  in  style,  was  built  by  Lamotte,  in  1765. 
The  second  part,  which  extends  to  the  small  canal  connecting  the  Moika 
with  the  Neva,  was  the  work  of  the  architect  Velten,  in  1775.  The  theatre 
forms  the  third  part,  and  is  joined  to  the  rest  of  the  building  by  a  bridge 
and  covered  gallery.  It  was  built  by  Guarenghi,  and  is  perhaps  the  finest 
part  of  tlie  Hermitage.  Tlie  apartments  of  the  entire  palace  are  mostly 
decorated  with  costly  ornaments  in  malachite,  marble,  or  jasper,  the  mate- 
rials of  which  have  been  found  and  worked  in  Siberia.  A  thorough  in- 
spection of  the  works  of  art  here  contained  would  require  several  days. 

In  1804,  the  Hermitage  was  finally  completed  under  the  emperor  Alex- 
ander. Catherine  not  only  built,  or  rather  caused  to  be  built,  this  luxuri- 
ous retreat,  but  furnished  those  who  were  admitted  to  her  intimacy  with 
tlie  opportunity  of  becoming  acquainted  with  those  admirable  masterpieces 
of  art  which  had  graced  the  walls  of  many  of  the  royal  palaces  of  Europe, 
and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  that  gallery  of  paintings  which  is  now  witJi- 
out  a  rival  in  northern  Europe. 

In  one  of  the  rooms  of  the  Hermitage  is  contained  a  most  interesting 
collection  of  antiquities  from  the  Crimea.  It  is  wonderful  that  such  costly 
relics  (for  most  of  them  are  of  gold)  should  have  been  preserved  for  so 
many  centuries.  From  ancient  times  the  countless  graves  of  the  Greeks 
of  Taurus  and  the  Chersonesus  (Crimea)  have  been  objects  of  zealous  re- 
search :  the  Huns,  the  Tartars,  and  the  Cossacks,  plundered  them  in  turns, 
and  melted  down  the  treasures  found  therein ;  and  whatever  the  watchful- 
ness of  the  Russian  government  could  rescue  from  the  unhistorical  mer- 
chants and  robbers  has  been  deposited  in  the  Hermitage.  The  greater 
part  of  these  rare  specimens  of  Greek  art  were  found  in  some  of  the  vari- 
ous tumuli  that  cover  the  plain  in  the  neighborhood  of  Kertsch  (the  ancient 
Panticapanini) ,  and  a  few  came  from  Olbia,  a  Greek  colony  planted  in  the 
Chersonesus  by  the  Athenians.  The  choicest  objects  are  the  laurel-wreaths, 
of  the  purest  gold,  which  adorned  the  victor's  brow.  Many  of  these  are 
quite  perfect,  not  a  twig  or  leaf  being  deficient.  A  gold  mask  and  shield 
are  also  very  curious  ;  indeed,  the  gold  ornaments  are  most  beautifully  ex- 
ecuted, and  may  defy  the  Rundels  and  Bridges  of  our  own  days.  Pictures 
as  good  as  some  of  those  in  the  Hermitage  may  perhaps  be  seen  in  other 
capitals,  but  a  collection  of  antiquities  similar  to  these  will  rarely,  if  ever, 
be  met  with  elsewhere. 

In  the  centre  room  of  the  first  long  suite  of  apartments  facing  the  river, 
is  a  full-length  painting  of  Catherine  I.,  surrounded  by  the  marble  busts  of 
various  Russian  statesmen :  this  is  considered  the  best  likeness  of  Cathe- 
rine, as  it  is  said  to  be  the  most  flattering ;  the  features  are  fine,  and  the 
expression  of  the  countenance  is  mild  and  pleasing.  In  another  portrait 
of  that  empress  in  the  long  corridor,  which  is  expressly  devoted  to  por- 
traits of  deceased  members  of  the  imperial  family  (and  to  views  of  promi- 


406  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

iient  streets  and  buildings  in  the  city  as  they  appeared  about  seventy  years 
ago),  she  is  represented  on  horseback  astride,  and  in  man's  attire. 

The  Hermitage  also  contains  the  Russian  library,  consisting  of  ten  thou- 
sand volumes  in  the  Russian  language,  and  founded  by  Catherine  II.  for 
the  instruction  and  amusement  of  the  numerous  attendants  who  were  at- 
tached to  her  luxurious  court,  and  whose  time  would  have  hung  heavily 
on  their  hands  without  some  such  resource.  In  the  library  are  likewise 
the  collections  of  Diderot,  Voltaire,  the  marquis  de  Galliani,  Nicolai  Zim- 
merman tlie  philosopher,  Busching,Stcherbatoff,&c. ;  in  all  a  hundred  and 
twenty  thousand  volumes.  The  donations  of  Voltaire  contain  numerous 
annotations  in  his  own  hand,  and  there  are  several  unpublished  manuscripts 
of  the  French  philosopher,  as  well  as  a  great  number  of  his  thumb-stains 
and  "  dogs'  ears." 

It  may  be  mentioned  that,  in  addition  to  the  paintings,  drawings,  and 
engravings,  there  are  two  rooms  filled  with  a  most  extraordinary  collection 
of  jewels,  cameos,  intaglios,  medals,  snuflF-boxes,  etuis,  ivory  carvings,  and 
articles  of  every  kind  of  vertu ;  jewels,  arms,  and  ornaments  of  the  ancient 
czars,  ormolu  knick-knacks  and  valuable  bizarreries  of  all  sorts.  Most  of 
the  snuff-boxes  are  jewelled,  and  very  costly :  one  presented  by  the  Turk- 
ish sultan  to  his  "  fond  ally,"  displays  a  miniature  of  Mahmoud  in  his  Eu- 
ropean costume,  most  beautifully  painted  on  ivory.  The  entire  surface  is 
covered  with  large  diamonds  of  the  first  water,  and  within  the  outer  row 
in  each  corner  is  a  still  larger  brilliant,  dazzling  to  look  upon.  In  one 
room  is  a  superb  vase  of  )Siberian  jasper  of  a  lilac  color,  five  feet  in  height, 
of  exquisite  form  and  polish.  In  another  are  two  magnificent  candelabra, 
said  to  be  valued  at  fifty  thousand  dollars ;  two  golden  tripods,  seven  feet 
high,  supporting  the  golden  salvers  on  which  salt  and  bread  were  presented 
to  the  emperor  Alexander  on  his  triumphal  return  from  Paris  in  1814,  as 
(Mnblems  of  Wisdom  and  Plenty  ;  besides  tliesc  tripods  there  are  two  gold 
salvers  presented  to  the  emperor  Nicholas  at  his  coronation  by  the  nobility 
and  merchants  of  St.  Petersburg ;  a  large  musical  and  magical  secretary, 
which  opens  spontaneously  in  a  hundred  directions  at  the  sound  of  music, 
purchased  by  Alexander  for  four  thousand  dollars ;  also  a  clock  called  the 
Horloge  du  Paon,  enclosed  in  a  glass  case  ten  feet  higli :  the  form  of  tlie 
clock  is  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  the  branches  and  leaves  of  which  are  gold ; 
i»u  the  top  sits  a  peacock,  and  when  the  chimes  begin,  it  expands  its  bril- 
liant tail,  while  an  owl  rolls  its  eyes  witli  its  own  peculiar  stare,  and,  in- 
stead of  a  bell  striking  the  hour,  a  golden  cock  flaps  his  wings  and  crows  ! 
In  fact,  these  treasures  seem  to  realize  in  all  its  truth  the  proverbial  ex- 
pression of  '•''Vemb arras  de  richesses  f  and  the  eye,  wearied  and  satiated 
with  them,  reposes  with  no  small  satisfaction  and  interest  on  the  simple 
and  unostentatious  dressing-case  of  tlic  emperor  Alexander :  this  is  ex- 
tremely compact  and  plain,  and,  judging  by  so  trifling  a  circumstance, 
marks  the  soldier  and  the  sensible  man. 

We  have  but  touched  on  some  of  the  treasures  of  this  palace  ;  but  enough 


ST.    PETERSBURG THE    MARBLE   AND   TAURIDA    PALACES.  407 

lias  been  said  to  show  that  a  hermit  might  boldly  renounce  the  rest  of  the 
world  if  allowed  to  make  his  cell  here,  where  half  nature  and  half  mankind 
are  olTercd  to  his  contemplation  on  canvass,  in  color,  in  marble,  glass,  and 
ivory,  painted,  chiselled,  stamped,  woven,  and  printed. 

The  picture-galleries  of  the  Hermitage  are  on  the  first  floor,  the  large 
windows  of  which  command  a  beautiful  view  of  the  river.  In  the  court  is 
a  garden  raised  to  the  level  of  these  rooms,  which,  with  its  flowering  shrubs 
and  evergreens,  has  a  curious  eifect ;  for,  from  one  window  the  Neva  is 
seen  flowing  at  a  depth  of  al)out  thirty  feet  below,  Avhile  on  the  other  side 
flowers  are  blooming,  and  a  fountain  playing,  on  a  level  Avith  the  spectator. 

The  barracks  of  the  Preobrajensky  regiment  of  guards  are  attached  to 
the  Hermitage.  This  regiment  is  always  on  duty  at  the  palace,  and  those 
among  the  of&cers  who  are  lovers  of  the  fine  arts  must  feel  great  pleasure 
in  being  able  so  frequently  to  promenade  these  splendid  rooms,  surrounded 
by  some  of  the  best  pictures  in  the  world.  It  is,  however,  stated  that  the 
gallery  at  the  Hermitage  is,  marvellous  to  relate,  little  visited  by  the  higher 
classes  in  St.  Petersburg. 

A  theatre  is  attached  to  this  palace,  but  not  of  very  large  dimensions. 
Performances  sometimes  take  place,  but  there  can  be  but  little  room  for 
show  or  stage  effect.  The  members  of  the  court  sit  on  chairs,  in  the  pit, 
as  there  are  no  boxes  or  divisions.  There  is  nothing  particularly  striking 
in  the  decorations. 

The  Hermitage  joins  the  Winter  palace  on  the  east.  Then  follows  the 
Imperial  theatre,  some  other  palaces,  the  property  of  private  persons,  and, 
last  of  all,  the  Marble  palace.  This  was  erected  by  Catherine  II.  as  a  resi- 
dence for  Prince  Gregory  Orloff,  one  of  her  favorites,  who  died  before  its 
completion ;  and  its  long  facade,  stretching  by  the  river-side,  denotes  that 
it  must  have  been  at  one  time  a  handsome  pile  of  building.  It  ought  more 
properly  to  ha.ve  been  called  the  Granite  palace,  for  much  more  granite 
and  iron  have  been  employed  upon  it  than  marble.  The  extraordinary 
massive  walls  arc  built  of  blocks  of  granite ;  the  supports  of  the  roof  are 
iron  beams  ;  the  roof  itself  sheet-copper ;  the  window-frames  gilded  copper. 
This  palace  was  inhabited  by  tlie  late  grand-duke  Constantino,  and  has 
since  been  sumptuously  furnished  and  decorated  for  the  residence  of  the 
present  grand-duke  of  the  same  name. 

The  Taurida  palace,  a  long,  low  building,  with  a  badly-paved  court  in 
front  and  two  projecting  wings,  is  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Neva,  about 
a  mile  to  the  eastward  of  the  Marble  palace.  It  was  named  the  Taurida 
in  compliment  to  Potemldn,  the  conqueror  of  the  khan  of  the  Crimea,  and 
presented  by  Catherine  II.  to  that  nobleman,  and,  oddly  enough,  was  sub- 
sequently purchased  from  him.  In  the  favorite's  pride  of  power,  and  when 
liis  inordinate  love  of  show  and  ostentation  animated  and  adorned  its  noble 
apartments,  this  palace  may  have  realized  the  expectations  raised  by  its 
name  :  it  now  looks  forlorn,  and  a  picture  of  deserted  magnificence.  The 
exterior,  can  never  have  been  beautiful,  and  the  interior  has  been  robbed 


408  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 

of  the  best  part  of  its  contents  to  assist  in  adorning  other  royal  residences. 
On  entering  the  building  the  stranger  finds  himself  in  a  lofty  circular  hall 
filled  with  statues,  many  of  thetn  of  average  merit.  Beyond  is  a  ballroom 
of  extraordinary  dimensions,  being  tliree  hundred  and  twenty  feet  long  by 
seventy  feet  wide,  which,  opening  on  one  side  to  the  entrance-hall,  and  on 
the  other  to  an  extensive  conservatory,  from  which  it  is  separated  only  by 
a  row  of  lofty  marble  columns,  runs  the  whole  length  of  the  palace.  The 
columns  are  encircled  by  rows  of  lights  coiling  round  them  like  serpents, 
while  three  enormous  chandeliers,  each  composed  of  two  or  three  large 
rings,  fitted  with  liglits  rising  one  above  the  other,  are  suspended  from  the 
ceiling.  The  very  shrubs  and  pillars  in  the  conservatory  are  transformed 
in  like  manner,  and  made  to  bear  their  share  in  the  vast  illumination.  An 
idea  of  the  immense  proportions  of  this  ballroom  may  be  formed  from  the 
fact  that  twenty  thousand  ivax-lights  are  necessary  to  light  it  up  com- 
pletely ;  and  that  the  colossal  group  of  the  Laocoon,  at  one  end,  can  be 
plainly  seen  from  the  other  only  by  means  of  a  telescope !  A  profusion 
of  statues,  many  of  them  well  executed,  are  arranged  round  this  vast  apart- 
ment, and  a  copy  of  the  Venus  de  Medici  and  an  hermaphrodite  are  worthy 
of  mention. 

In  the  summer,  the  orange-trees,  of  which  there  are  great  numbers,  aro 
removed  from  the  conservatory  into  the  palace-gardens.  Here  Potemkiu 
gave  magnificent  fetes  to  his  imperial  mistress ;  and  all  that  was  briglit, 
beautiful,  and  gay,  thronged  the  mazy  walks  of  the  orangery  in  the  long 
winter  nights,  turning  their  dullness  into  the  wild  revelry  of  a  southern 
carnival.  It  must  have  been  like  magic  to  have  passed  from  the  frozen 
and  snow-covered  earth  without  to  this  magnificent  ballroom,  illuminated 
with  its  thousands  of  lights,  and  filled  with  perfumes  that  carried  the  im- 
agination to  regions  where  an  icicle  was  never  seen,  and  the  northern  blast 
never  felt.  At  these  festivals  the  musicians  were  suspended  in  the  chan- 
deliers. The  last  grand  festival  given  in  this  palace  was  on  the  occasion 
of  the  marriage  of  the  grand-duke  Michael,  when  the  present  decorations 
were  made.  The  marble  is  all  false,  the  silver  is  plated  copper,  many  of 
the  pillars  and  statues  are  of  brick  and  plaster,  and  the  pictures  of  equivo- 
cal originality ;  the  looking-glasses,  though  ten  feet  wide  and  lofty  in  pro- 
portion, are  so  badly  made,  that  on  examination  tlie  surface  is  found  to  be 
all  in  waves  and  full  of  bubbles,  and  it  is  evident  they  belong  to  a  very 
early  period  of  the  St.  Petersburg  manufactory. 

The  Taurida,  now  a  kind  of  Hampton  court,  and  inhabited  by  a  few  sii- 
perannuated  ladies  of  the  haut-ton,  is  sometimes  used  as  a  place  of  recep- 
tion for  the  emperor's  guests.  Here  once  resided  Louisa,  the  beautiful  but 
unfortunate  queen  of  Prussia,  after  the  conquest  of  that  country  by  Napo- 
leon in  1806 ;  it  was  also  tenanted  by  the  Persian  prince  Chozro  Mirza, 
during  his  embassy,  when  he  came  to  deprecate  the  wrath  of  the  mig]i(y 
czar;  and  lastly,  in  1830,  by  Oscar,  crown  prince  (now  king)  of  Sweden. 
The  emperor  Paul  turned  the  entire  palace  into  a  barrack  for  his  guard.^, 


ST.    PETKRSBURG  —  ETAT  MAJOR — ALEXANDER   COLUMN.  409 

liut  his  son  aiul  successor  Alexaiuler  restored  it  to  its  original  purpose  of 
it  nival  residence.  It  is  still  tliickly  garrisoned  with  imperial  footmen, 
nnd  kei)t  in  pretty  good  order ;  but  it  nevertheless,  from  the  absence  of 
furniture,  looks,  as  before  remarked,  deserted  and  melancholy.  The  gar- 
dens are  accessible  to  the  public ;  they  are  tastefully  laid  out,  and,  consid- 
ering their  vicinity  to  so  large  a  city,  their  extent  is  innnense.  A  table- 
cover,  on  which  are  some  drops  of  wax  Avhicli  fell  from  the  candles  of 
Alexander,  who  frequently  inhabited  some  apartments  here,  and  some 
crayon  drawings  by  his  admirable  consort  Elizabeth,  and  other  objects  of 
the  same  kind,  have  a  certain  degree  of  interest. 

The  Hotel  de  VEtat  Major,  or  head  department  of  the  army,  immedi- 
ately fronting  the  Winter  palace,  is  likewise  one  of  the  many  striking  piles 
of  buildings  in  the  "  City  of  Palaces,"  and  remarkable  for  its  vast  extent 
and  singular  architectural  ornament  of  a  chariot  of  Victory,  drawn  by 
eight  horses,  whicli  are  rearing  and  plunging  in  all  directions  to  the  no 
small  discomfort  of  the  plumed  and  mailed  lady  who  drives  the  team. 
From  the  arch  over  which  the  group  is  placed  one  of  the  most  pleasing 
views  of  the  Winter  palace  and  likewise  of  the  adjacent  buildings  may  be 
ol>tained. 

In  the  open  space  between  the  Etat  Major  and  the  Winter  palace  stands 
tlie  greatest  monolith  of  modern  times,  the  column  erected  to  the  memory 
of  the  late  emperor  Alexander — a  single  shaft  of  red  granite,  which,  ex- 
clusive of  pedestal  and  capital,  is  upward  of  eighty  feet  in  height.  This 
beautiful  monument  is  the  work  of  Monsieur  Montferrand,  the  architect  of 
the  church  of  St.  Isaac,  and  was  erected  under  his  superintendence.  The 
shaft  originally  measured  one  hundred  and  two  feet,  but  it  was  subsequently 
shortened  to  its  present  dimensions  from  a  fear  that  its  diameter  was  in- 
sufficient for  so  great  a  length.  The  base  and  pedestal  is  also  composed 
of  one  enormous  block  of  the  same  red  granite,  of  the  height  of  about 
twenty-five  feet,  and  nearly  the  same  length  and  breadth  ;  the  capital  meas- 
ures-sixteen  feet,  the  statue  of  the  angel  on  the  summit  fourteen  feet,  and 
the  cross  seven  feet  —  in  all  about  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet.* 

As  the  whole  of  St.  Petersburg  is  built  on  a  morass,  it  was  thought  ne- 
cessary to  drive  no  less  than  six  successive  rows  of  piles,  in  order  to  sus- 
tain so  immense  a  weiglit  as  this  standing  upon  so  confined  a  base ;  the 
shaft  of  the  column  alone  is  computed  as  weighing  nearly  four  hundred 
tons,  and  the  massive  pedestal  must  materially  increase  the  tremendous 
pressure.  The  statue  was  raised  in  its  rough  state,  and  polished  after  it 
was  firmly  fixed  on  its  present  elevation.  On  the  pedestal  is  the  following 
short  and  well-chosen  inscription:  "To  Alexander  the  First.  —  Grateful 
Russia."     The  eye  rests  with  pleasure  on  this  polished  monument ;  and  in 

•  It  is  said  that  Louis  Philippe,  in  the  days  of  his  greatest  power  and  prosperitj',  applied  to  the 
emperor  Nicholas  for  a  similar  column  out  of  his  Finland  quarries.  The  emperor  begged  to  be 
excused.  "  He  would  not,"  he  said,  "  send  him  a  smaller  one ;  a  similar  one  he  could  not ;  and  a 
greater  one  was  not  to  be  obtained." 


410  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

auy  other  city  its  enormous  size  would  make  a  greater  impression.  In  St. 
Petersburg,  however,  where  the  eye  expands  with  the  vast  surrounding 
spaces,  it  is  seen  under  a  smaller  angle  of  vision.  The  place  on  which  it 
stands  is  so  vast  in  its  dimensious,  the  houses  around  are  so  high  and  mas- 
sive, that  even  this  giant  requires  its  whole  hundred  and  fifty  feet  not  to 
disappear.  But  when  the  stranger  is  close  to  it  and  becomes  aware  of  its 
circumference,  while  its  head  seems  to  reach  the  heavens,  the  impression 
is  strong  and  overpowering. 

Already,  however,  it  is  said  that  an  abominable  worm  is  gnawing  at  this 
beautiful  monolith,  and  it  has  likewise  received  a  very  sad  and  oficnsive 
rent  from  above  toward  the  middle.  It  may  be  that  the  stone  was  at  first 
badly  chosen,  or  that  the  cold  of  St.  Petersburg  will  not  tolerate  such 
monuments  of  human  art.  Tliere  are  those  among  the  inhal)itants  who 
think  it  a  patriotic  duty  to  deny  the  existence  of  the  rent,  which  has  been 
artfully  filled  with  a  cement  of  granite  fragments.  But  in  tlic  sunshine, 
when  the  polish  of  the  rent  shows  differently  from  that  of  the  stone  —  oi 
in  the  winter,  when  the  hoar  frost  forms  in  icicles  on  the  cold  stone,  but 
not  on  the  warmer  cement — the  marring  line  is  but  too  apparent. 

The  idea  of  this  column  is,  like  everything  else  in  Russia,  religio-politi- 
cal.  It  was  erected,  as  before  remarked,  in  honor  of  the  emperor  Alexan 
der,  and  is  meant  to  eternalize  with  his  memory  that  of  the  reconfirmation 
of  the  political  constitution  and  of  the  security  of  religion.  The  mass  of 
the  Russian  people  have  been  taught  to  believe  that  the  invasion  of  Napo- 
leon was  not  only  an  attack  on  the  state,  but  also  as  one  on  their  faith  — 
(falsely  taught,  since  Napoleon  made  war  on  the  religious  faith  of  no  peo- 
ple or  nation).  Hence  the  erection  of  the  angel  with  the  cross  on  the 
summit.  This  column,  whose  capital  and  ornaments  on  the  pedestal  were 
formed  from  Turkish  cannon,  throws  into  one  category  all  the  enemies  of 
Russia,  the  Turks,  the  French,  &c.,  and  is  the  sealing,  ratification,  and 
immortalization  of  all  the  modern  victories  of  the  Russian  eagle. 

The  Micliailoff  palace,  or  rather  castle,  stands  on  the  site  of  the  old 
Summer  palace  on  the  Fontauka  canal,  which  was  pulled  down  by  the  em- 
peror Paul,  who  built  this  of  granite  in  its  stead,  and  fortified  it  as  a  place 
of  defence ;  and,  according  to  Russian  custom,  which  dedicates  to  protect- 
ing saints  and  angels  not  churches  only,  but  fortresses,  castles,  and  other 
buildings,  it  was  dedicated  to  the  archangel  Michael.  The  castle  has  a 
more  gloomy  exterior  than  the  other  palaces  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  is  of  an 
extraordinary  style  of  architecture.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  square,  whose 
four  fagades  all  differ  in  style  one  from  the  other.  The  ditches,  which 
originally  surrounded  it,  are  now  partly  filled  up  and  laid  out  in  gardens, 
but  the  principal  entrance  is  still  over  some  drawbridges.  In  the  square 
before  the  chief  gate  stands  a  monument,  insignificant  enough  as  a  work 
of  art,  which  Paul  erected  to  Peter  the  Great,  with  the  inscription  "Pra- 
dudu  Pravnuk'''  (the  Grandson  to  tlie  Grandfather).  Over  the  principal 
door,  wliich  is  overloaded  with  architectural  ornaments,  is  inscribed  in 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  THE    OLD    MICHAILOFF    PALACE.  41f 

j>;oldoii  letters  a  passage  irom  the  liihlc  in  the  old  Slavonian  languag'^i 
"  On  thy  house  will  the  blessing  of  the  Lord  rest  for  evermore." 

This  palace  was  built  with  extraordinary  rapidity.  Five  thousand  men 
were  employed  on  it  daily  till  finished ;  and,  the  more  quickly  to  dry  the 
Avails,  large  iron  plates  were  made  hot  and  fastened  to  them  for  a  time : 
the  result  was,  that  soon  after  the  emperor's  death  it  was  abandoned  as 
quite  uninhabitable  !  The  cost  of  building  it  is  said  to  have  been  eighteen 
millions  of  roubles :  had  sufficient  time  been  taken,  it  would  not  have 
amounted  to  six  millions. 

The  halls  and  apartments  of  the  castle  are  large  and  numerous.  The 
room  in  which  the  emperor  Paul  was  strangled  is  sealed  and  walled  up. 
The  Russians  generally  do  this  with  the  room  in  which  their  ])ai'ents  die. 
They  have  a  certain  dread  of  it,  and  never  enter  it  willingly.  The  empe- 
ror Alexander  never  entered  one  of  them.  Nicholas,  however,  wlio  feared 
neither  the  cholera  in  Moscow,  nor  revolt  in  St.  Petersburg,  nor  the  dagger 
in  Warsaw,  but  showed  a  bold  countenance  on  all  occasions,  viewed  these 
rooms  several  times.  The  apartment  in  which  his  father  was  murdered  is 
easily  recognisable  from  without  by  the  darkened  and  dusty  windows  on 
tlic  second  story.  The  apartments  of  the  beautiful  Lapuchin  are  directly 
under,  on  the  first  floor,  and  are  now  inhabited  by  the  keeper  of  the  castle. 
The  stairs  which  led  down  from  them  are  broken  away. 

During  the  reign  of  Alexander  the  castle  fell  so  much  into  decay,  that 
when  Nicholas  caused  it  to  be  restored  it  is  said  to  have  cost  sixty  thou- 
sand roubles  merely  to  remove  the  dirt  and  rubbish.  The  painted  ceilings 
have  considerable  interest.  In  one  is  represented  the  revival  of  the  order 
of  Malta,  and  Ruthenia,  a  beautiful  virgin,  with  the  features  of  Paul,  seated 
on  a  mountain.  Near  her  rests  the  mighty  eagle.  Fame,  flying  from  the 
south  in  terror,  announces  the  injustice  done  her  in  the  Mediterranean, 
and  entreats  "the  mighty  eagle"  to  shelter  her  under  his  wing.  In  the 
distance  is  seen  the  island  threatened  by  the  waves  and  the  hostile  fleets. 
In  another  hall  all  the  gods  of  Greece  are  assembled,  whose  various  physi- 
ognomies are  those  of  persons  of  the  imperial  court !  The  architect,  whose 
parse  profited  considerably  by  the  building  of  the  castle,  appears  among 
them  as  a  flying  Mercury.  When  Paul,  who  was  a  ready  punster,  and  who 
knew  very  well  that  all  the  money  he  paid  was  not  changed  into  stone  and 
wood,  caused  tlie  difl"erent  faces  to  be  pointed  out  to  him,  he  recognised 
tlie  features  of  the  Mercury  directly,  and  said,  laughing,  to  his  courtiers, 
"^// .'  voila  I'architecte,  qui  vole.'' 

The  old  Michailoff"  palace  is  now  the  abode  of  the  school  of  engineers. 
One  hundred  and  fifty  young  persons  here  receive  their  mathematical  and 
physical  education.  Its  gardens  are  filled  with  blooming  young  cadets, 
who  play  and  exercise  there ;  and  tlie  former  audience  and  banqueting 
rooms  are  partly  used  as  school,  examination,  sleeping,  and  eating  rooms, 
and  partly  to  hold  collections  of  various  olyects  of  a  very  attractive  kind, 
of  the  highest  interest  in  engineering  and  fortification.     It  is  wonderful  to 


414  ILLUSTEATED   DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 

contemplnte  the  progress  which  tlie  Russians  have  already  made  in  this 
branch  of  military  science. 

Russia,  with  reference  to  its  military  fortifications,  is  divided  into  tfn 
circl(!S.  To  the  objects  which  relate  to  the  fortification  of  each  circle, 
a  separate  hall  is  devoted.  In  large  presses,  in  the  halls,  are  kept  all  the 
plans,  general  and  special,  of  already-existing  or  projected  fortresse?. 
Each  fortress  has  its  own  press  for  the  materiel,  in  which  are  specimens 
of  the  bricks,  kinds  of  earth,  and  the  diiferent  rocks  which  lie  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, and  of  which  the  fortresses  are,  or  are  to  be,  constructed.  Lastly, 
on  large  stands  in  the  middle  of  the  halls,  are  to  be  seen  all  the  fortified 
places  in  Russia,  modelled  in  clay  and  wood,  and  with  such  exactness,  that 
not  the  slightest  elevation  or  sinking  of  the  ground  —  not  a  tree  or  a  house 
is  forgotten.  In  this  manner  are  presented,  among  others,  the  most  stri- 
king pictures  of  Kiev,  Revel,  and  Riga.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  amoni,^ 
them  is  a  complete  representation  of  all  the  castles  of  the  Dardanelles,  with 
their  bastions  and  towers,  and  the  most  minute  details  of  all  the  litth? 
creeks  of  this  important  strait  and  the  neigliboring  heights  and  rocks. 
By  means  of  these  models,  the  whole  of  plan  of  attack  on  the  Dardanelles 
could  be  directed  from  St.  Petersburg.  The  mingling  of  the  castles  of  the 
Dardanelles  with  those  already  garrisoned  by  Russian  troops  indicates  that 
Russia  covets  them,  and  brings  to  mind  Alexander's  saying,  that  those, 
straits,  with  Constantinople,  formed  "  the  key  to  his  house." 

In  one  of  the  rooms  is  an  extraordinary  number  of  ukases  and  military 
ordinances,  having  reference  to  the  erection  of  defences.  They  are  signed, 
and  many  of  them  corrected,  by  the  different  emperors  and  empresses  with 
their  own  hands.  Catherine  II.,  in  particular,  has  made  many  correction? 
with  a  red-lead  pencil ;  and  Nicholas  always  made  with  his  own  hand  his 
amendments,  alterations,  annotations,  and  additions  to  his  laws,  decrees, 
and  sentences.  Here  may  be  seen  a  hundred  repetitions  of  those  three 
important  words,  ^^  Buit po  semu"  (Be  it  so),  which  are  annexed  to  every 
ukase. 

Catherine's  handwriting  is  bad,  but  the  signature  is  never  hurried  : 
on  the  contrary,  she  seems  to  have  taken  trouble  in  painting  every  one  of 
the  Russian  letters.  All  the  long  letters  have  a  little  flourish  under  them. 
Avhich  are  made  with  a  trembling  hand ;  some  are  quite  awry,  nor  are  all 
the  letters  in  a  line ;  they  are  not  joined,  but  nearly  every  one  stands  alone, 
and  tolerably  perpendicular,  without  flow  or  rounding :  it  is  like  the  hand- 
writing of  an  old  man.  Even  the  individual  letter  will  sometimes  be  formed 
of  unconnected  strokes.  The  whole  is  plain,  and  without  any  ornamental 
additions.  After  her  name  "  Ekaterina''''  stands  always  a  large  dot,  as  if 
.she  would  say,  "And  therewith  punctum.  basta." 

The  emperor  Alexander  wrote  a  fine  hand.  His  name  begins  with  a 
large,  elegant  A;  the  otlier  letters,  though  narrow,  are  not  very  ]ilnin  till 
the  conclusion  —  the  r  is  very  plainly  written  and  well  formed.  Under  the 
name  is  a  very  long,  complicated  flourish,  which  looks  confused  at  first, 


ST.    PETERSBURG THE   NEW   MICHAILOFF   PALACE.  417 

but  tlie  thread  is  easily  found,  as  it  is  always  very  regularly  formed,  and 
in  the  same  figure. 

Nicholas  wrote  decidedly  the  best  hand  of  all  the  Russian  emperors  ;  it 
is  calligraphically  irreproachable,  regular,  intelligible,  and  flowing.  The 
emperor  began  with  an  arching  stroke  of  the  pen,  under  which  his  name 
"iWfo/«i"  stands  as  under  a  roof.  The  last  stroke  of  the  final  i  slopes 
under  in  a  slender  arch  once  or  twice,  is  then  carried  upward  to  join  the 
first  line,  and  ends  over  the  name  in  a  thick,  bold  stroke  made  with  a  firm 
hand  and  with  the  whole  breadth  of  the  pen.  The  name  is  thus  prettily 
enclosed  in  a  frame. 

The  Anitshkof  (or  Aimitchkoff)  palace,  which  stands  on  the  Great  Pros- 
pekt,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Fontanka  canal,  and  closes  the  brilliant 
ranges  of  palaces  in  that  street,  is  not  uufrequently  inhabited  by  the  empe- 
ror. According  to  Kohl,  it  was  originally  built  by  the  empress  Elizabeth, 
and  bestowed  on  Count  Rasoumoflfski ;  then  twice  purchased  by  Catherine 
II.,  and  twice  presented  to  Prince  Potemkin.  Another  writer  believes  this 
palace  to  have  been  built  by  a  merchant  of  the  name  it  bears,  and  sold  by 
him  to  one  of  the  czars.  It  is  now  the  favorite  residence  of  the  imperial 
family,  and  handsomely  built,  but  has  no  particular  historical  interest. 
Here  also  the  emperor  Nicholas  held  the  greater  number  of  his  councils, 
received  embassadors,  &c.  Hence  the  cabinet  of  St.  Petersburg  may  be 
called  the  cabinet  of  Anitshkof,  as  that  of  London  is  called  the  cabinet  of 
St.  James's,  &c. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  new  Michailoflf  palace,  tlie  late  residence 
of  the  uncle  of  the  present  emperor,  is  the  most  elegant  building  in  St.  Pe- 
tersburg. It  was  built  in  1820,  by  an  Italian  architect  named  Rossi.  The 
interior  is  also  decidedly  the  handsomest  and  most  tasteful  in  decoration 
and  furniture  of  all  the  royal  residences.  Its  position,  too,  is  highly  stri- 
king—  quite  as  much  so  as  that  of  the  Winter  palace.  Open  on  all  sides, 
it  expands  its  Avings  and  courtyards  in  a  most  graceful  manner ;  not  a 
tower,  house,  or  any  other  building,  being  near  to  disturb  its  outline. 

Behind  the  palace  lies  the  "  Little  Summer  Garden,"  as  it  is  called, 
whose  lofty  trees  and  groups  of  foliage  form  a  pleasing  contrast  with  its 
elegant  architectural  proportions.  Before  the  chief  front  is  a  spacious 
lawn,  scattered  over  with  graceful  flowers  and  shrubs.  An  iron  grille,  the 
design  of  which  is  a  model  of  good  taste,  divides  the  inner  from  the  outer 
court ;  and  the  outbuildings,  offices,  and  courts  between  them,  are  in  such 
harmony  with  each  other  and  the  main  buildings,  that  it  is  evident  the 
•  whole  was  one  design,  and  that  nothing  has  been  the  result  of  after-thought. 
The  stables  and  riding-school  are  particularly  worthy  of  attetition,  and  the 
latter  is  deserving  of  especial  mention.  In  this  school  fifty  young  men  are 
instructed  in  riding  and  in  all  arts  that  have  reference  to  the  manege;  for 
this  object,  and  for  i\\Q  fetes  in  the  riding-house,  at  which  the  court  is  often 
present,  a  number  of  the  finest  horses  are  kept,  and  both  men  and  horses 
are  so  well  cared  for,  that  it  is  said  to  be  a  pleasure  to  walk  through  the 

27 


418  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF    RUSSIA. 

range  of  elegant  dormitories,  sitting,  school,  and  saddle  rooms.  All  tlieso 
apartments  have  donblc  folding-doors  in  the  centre,  which  stand  oi)en  tlio 
whole  day.  A  long  carpet  is  laid  along  all  the  floors  down  to  the  stable, 
and  the  inspector  can  overlook  everything  at  a  glance,  and  see  what  the 
young  cadets  are  doing  in  their  apartment.  Kohl  alludes  particularly  to 
the  ventilation,  and  remarks  that  "  it  is  wonderful  how  pure  the  air  is 
kept ;  it  is  as  if  the  stud  were  perfumed  with  eau  de  Cologne  as  well  as 
the  cadets."  Their  course  of  preparation  extends  over  six  years,  and  ten 
leave  every  year  and  join  the  army  as  riding-masters.  Quadrilles  and 
tournaments  are  sometimes  performed  by  these  youths  and  their  horses  in 
the  presence  of  the  court.  These  jousts  sometimes  take  place  in  the  even- 
ing, when  the  riding-school  is  splendidly  illuminated  and  decorated  for  the 
occasion ;  among  other  wonders  exliibitcd  at  these  fetes  are  six  looking- 
glasses,  so  large  that  in  them  the  youthful  cavaliers  can  view  themselves 
from  head  to  foot. 

We  must  not  leave  entirely  unnoticed  a  palace  which  stands  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Summer  garden,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Red  palace 
—  a  name  for  which  it  is  indel)ted  to  one  of  the  many  strange  whims  of 
the  emperor  Paul.  At  a  court-ball,  a  lady  made  her  appearance  in  red 
gloves,  which  so  enchanted  Paul,  that  the  next  day  he  proclaimed  red  his 
favorite  color,  and  ordered  that  the  palace  should  forthwith  receive  that 
showy  tint.  In  the  same  palace,  his  monogram,  "  P.  I.,"  is  so  constantly 
repeated  on  every  side  and  in  every  corner,  that  an  Englishman,  wlio  un- 
dertook the  thankless  task  of  counting  them,  got  as  far  as  eight  thousand^ 
and  then,  througli  weariness,  left  off  without  having  nearly  completed  his 
undertaking.  Paul  had  many  such  crotchets.  So  fond  was  lie  of  the 
gaudy  and  the  motley,  that  one  of  his  ukases  was  to  the  eflfect  that,  on  one 
and  the  same  day,  all  the  gates,  bridges,  palaces,  guardhouses,  &c.,  in  the 
whole  vast  empire,  should  be  painted  in  variegated  colors  —  a  piece  of 
childish  folly,  the  results  of  which  were,  in  time,  of  course,  obliterated. 

The  Imperial  library,  one  of  the  most  extensive  in  Europe,  is  near  the 
Kazan  churcli,  and  occupies  a  large  building,  which,  with  the  Anitslikof 
palace,  tlie  Alexander  theatre,  and  that  part  of  the  Nevskoi  Prospekt  facing 
it,  forms  one  of  the  finest  squares  in  St.  Petersburg.  This  library  is  open 
daily  for  reading,  and  on  every  Tuesday  for  public  inspection.  It  contains 
four  hundred  thousand  volumes,  and  about  fifteen  thousand  manuscripts, 
viz.,  seven  thousand  two  hundred  Latin,  two  thousand  two  hundred  French, 
two  thousand  Slavonic,  twelve  hundred  Polish,  nineteen  hundred  German, 
&c.  The  greater  part  of  this  valuable  collection  formed  a  portion  of  the 
spoils  of  Poland.  The  count  Stanislaus  Zaluski,  bishop  of  Krakow,  found- 
ed a  splendid  library,  which  was  further  increased  by  his  descendants ; 
and  Andrew  Zaluski,  bishop  of  Kiev,  bequeathed  it  to  his  country.  In  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  transferred  to  Warsaw,  and  is  said 
then  to  have  contained  three  hundred  thousand  volumes.  Wlien  Suwarrow 
conquered  Poland,  Catherine  II.  directed  the  library  to  be  transferred  to 


ST.    PETERSBURG LIBRARIES   AND    MUSEUMS.  419 

St.  Petersburg.  It  was  further  increased,  in  1833,  by  that  of  the  prince 
Czartorisky,  taken  in  the  Polish  campaign,  and  by  a  further  importation 
from  Poland  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  volumes. 

The  valuable  books  and  manuscripts  of  Peter  Dombrowski,  purchased 
during  the  early  troubles  of  the  French  Revolution,  were  aftei*ward  added 
to  this  vast  collection.  The  manuscripts  chiefly  relate  to  the  history  of 
France,  and  form  an  invaluable  series.  They  consist  of  letters  from  vari- 
ous kings  of  France  and  their  embassadors  at  foreign  courts,  reports,  secret 
state  documents,  and  correspondence  of  different  European  sovereigns. 
These  interesting  papers  were  dragged  from  the  archives  of  Paris  by  an 
infuriated  populace,  and  sold  to  the  first  bidder.  Dombrowski  purchased 
them ;  and  thus  some  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  state  papers  of  France 
adorn  the  library  of  St.  Petersburg.  In  this  collection  there  is  a  highly- 
illuminated  missal  which  belonged  to  ]\Iary  queen  of  Scots  while  living  at 
the  French  court,  containing  several  poetical  fragments ;  also  several  letr 
ters  addressed  to  the  king  of  France  during  her  imprisonment  by  Queen 
Elizabeth  in  Fotheringay  castle. 

A  volume  of  manuscript  letters  from  English  sovereigns  is  exceedingly 
interesting.  The  library  and  manuscripts  of  Count  Schutelen  have  lately 
been  added  ;  and  the  numerous  acquisitions  of  manuscripts  during  the  wars 
with  Turkey,  Circassia,  and  Persia,  have  contributed  to  form  one  of  the 
finest  collections  in  the  world.  The  printed  volumes  are  catalogued  in 
manuscript,  according  to  language,  names  of  authors,  and  matter;  and 
there  is  also  now  a  catalogue  of  the  manuscripts. 

The  collection  of  oriental  manuscripts  is  most  extensive.  Several  ex- 
tracts from  the  Koran,  in  the  Cufic  character,  are  said  to  have  belonged  to 
Fatinia,  the  favorite  daughter  of  Mohammed.  Two  presses  in  the  manu- 
script-room are  filled  with  the  spoils  of  the  last  war  with  Persia ;  and  a 
collection  of  manuscripts,  of  extraordinary  beauty,  presented  to  the  empe- 
ror Nicholas  by  tlie  shah  of  Persia,  in  1829,  is  also  to  be  seen.  It  would 
be  impossible  to  enumerate  even  the  most  remarkable  objects  of  this  vast 
collection  of  works  from  every  nation  of  Asia. 

The  only  other  libraries  entitled  to  particular  notice  are  those  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  containing  one  hundred  thousand  volumes ;  of  the 
Hermitage,  before  alluded  to,  with  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  vol- 
umes, of  which  ten  tliousand  are  in  tlie  Russian  language ;  and  of  the  Al- 
exander Nevskoi  monastery,  which,  though  very  limited  in  extent  (having 
only  ten  thousand  volumes),  has  collections  of  manuscripts  of  very  great 
rarity  and  value. 

The  principal  museums  are  those  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  occupying 
a  large  portion  of  the  magnificent  buildings  of  that  celebrated  body,  on  the 
Vasiliestrov,  on  the  banks  of  the  Great  Neva,  opposite  to  the  Admiralty, 
and  including  an  Asiatic  museum,  rich  in  all  kinds  of  curiosities  relating 
to  the  East;  an  Egyptian  museum,  with  a  few  fine  specimens  of  papyrus, 
but  not  otherwise  interesting ;  an  ethnographic  museum,  enriched  by  tlie 


420  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

collections  of  various  Russian  travellers  and  navigators,  and  a  general  col- 
lection of  coins  and  medals,  in  which  the  Russian  series  is  very  valuable 
and  complete  ;  a  good  mineralogical,  and  a  remarkably  fine  botanical  col- 
lection ;  a  museum  of  natural  history,  containing  an  admirable  collection 
of  birds,  exquisitely  stuffed  and  well  arranged ;  and,  among  the  larger 
fossil  animals,  of  which  Siberia  furnishes  numerous  specimens,  a  mammoth 
(perfect,  with  the  exception  of  one  of  the  hind  feet),  sixteen  feet  long,  ex- 
clusive of  the  tusks,  and  at  least  two  feet  higher  than  the  elephant.  This 
huge  inhabitant  of  our  "  earth  in  its  vigorous  prime"  was  found  in  1803, 
by  Mr.  Adams,  on  the  banks  of  the  Lena,  in  latitude  seventy  decrees  north. 
It  fell  from  a  mass  of  ice,  in  which  it  must  have  been  encased  for  ages,  and 
so  fresh  was  the  flesh  of  the  animal,  that  the  wolves  and  bears  were  actu- 
ally found  eating  the  carcass  !  How  it  was  preserved  during  the  years  that 
have  elapsed  since  such  stupendous  beings  as  the  mammoth  and  mastodon 
walked  the  earth  with  their  brethren,  is  a  question  which  gives  rise  to  much 
speculation.  It  must  be  impossible  to  contemplate  the  gigantic  structure 
of  the  skeleton  without  being  struck  with  the  wonderful  power  such  a  co- 
lossal brute  must  have  possessed.  How  the  earth  must  have  shaken  be- 
neath his  ponderous  and  unwieldy  gambols,  when  "  he  moved  his  tail  like 
a  cedar,  and  drank  up  a  river  and  hasted  not !"  The  skin  of  this  antedi- 
luvian monster  was  covered  with  black  bristles,  thicker  than  horse-hair, 
from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  long,  and  with  wool  of  a  reddish-brown  color. 
About  thirty  pounds'  weight  of  this  fur  was  gathered  from  the  wet  sand- 
bank on  which  it  was  found.  From  the  position  of  the  tusks,  which  extend 
laterally  like  two  scythes  in  the  same  horizontal  plane,  it  would  appear  that 
the  mammoth,  in  defending  itself,  moved  the  head  from  side  to  side,  whereas 
the  elephant,  in  striking,  tosses  the  head  upward.  In  this  collection  are 
also  large  quantities  of  bones  of  several  extinct  species  of  elephant,  one  of 
which  (named  by  Fischer  Etephas  panicus)  seems  to  have  surpassed  the 
mammoth  in  size  as  much  as  the  latter  exceeded  the  Asiatic  elephant!  In 
addition  to  these,  there  are  a  great  many  skulls  of  the  larger  kind  of  ante- 
diluvian rhinoceros  {Rhinoceros  teichorhinus},  which  far  exceed  in  size 
any  of  the  living  African  species. 

The  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  also  situated  in  the  Vasiliestrov,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Great  Neva,  has  a  portion  of  its  magnificent  apartments  occupied  as 
a  picture-gallery,  but  is  better  known  as  an  artistical  school.  The  other 
more  important  collections  are  the  Romanoff  museum,  containing  a  large 
collection  of  minerals,  models,  and  antiquities ;  and  the  museum  attached 
to  the  mining-school,  containing  a  large  collection  of  fossil  conchology, 
models  of  mines,  mining  instruments,  &c.,  and  distinguished  by  its  miner- 
alogical treasures,  unequalled  in  Russia,  and  thought  not  to  be  surpassed 
anywhere.  But  the  most  curious  part  of  this  valuable  repository  is  under- 
ground, being  a  model  of  a  mine  in  Siberia,  exhibiting  to  "  the  life"  the 
various  practical  operations  of  mining  in  that  country.  Furnished  with 
lighted  tapers,  but  no  miner's  dress,  the  visiter  is  led  by  the  guides  through 


ST.    PETERSBUKG  —  EDUCATIONAL  INSTITUTIONS.  421 

winding  passages  cut  into  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  the  sides  of  which  rep- 
resent, by  the  aggregation  of  real  specimens,  the  various  stratifications, 
with  all  the  different  ores  and  minerals  and  different  species  of  earth,  as 
they  are  found  in  the  natural  state :  the  coal-formation,  veins  of  copper, 
and  in  one  place  of  gold,  being  particularly  well  represented,  forming  an 
admirable  practical  scliool  for  the  study  of  geology,  though  under  a  chilli- 
ness of  atmosphere  which  would  be  likely  very  soon  to  put  an  end  to  stud- 
ies of  all  kinds. 

At  the  head  of  the  educational  institutions  is  the  university,  only  founded 
in  1819,  but  provided  with  fiftj'-eight  professors,  and  attended  by  about 
five  hundred  students.  The  Chirurgical  Medical  Academy,  founded  by 
Peter  the  Great,  receives  about  five  hundred  pupils,  and  enjoys  a  high 
reputation.  Military  education,  in  all  its  branches,  regarded  as  one  of  the 
first  interests  of  the  state,  forms  a  conspicuous  feature  in  the  academical 
system  of  Russia,  and  is  provided  for  liberally  in  numerous  institutions. 
The  mining-school,  whose  admirable  mineralogical  collections  have  already 
been  referred  to,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  establishments  of  the  capi- 
tal ;  it  occupies  a  grand  and  imposing  structure,  so  situated  as  to  form  a 
very  conspicuous  object  from  the  sea.  It  maintains  above  three  hundred 
pupils,  who,  after  remaining  eight  years,  and  receiving  a  very  liberal  edu- 
cation, are  sent  to  superintend  the  government  mines  in  the  Ural  mount- 
ains (an  important  branch,  particularly  of  late  years,  of  the  Russian  rev- 
enue), or  placed  in  the  mint. 

The  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  has  a  facade,  fronting  the  Neva,  four  hundred 
feet  long  and  seventy  feet  high,  adorned  with  columns  and  pilasters,  and 
surmounted  by  a  central  cupola,  on  which  is  placed  a  colossal  figure  of 
Minerva.  This  academy,  as  already  mentioned,  is  partly  appropriated  as 
a  picture-gallery,  but  also  occupied  as  a  school  of  art,  in  which  three  hun- 
dred pupils  are  maintained  and  educated.  In  addition  to  these,  it  furnishes 
residences  to  the  professors,  academicians,  and  other  artists ;  so  that  the 
whole  number  of  persons  accommodated  under  its  roof  is  estimated  at  not 
less  than  a  thousand. 

The  other  principal  schools  are,  the  Technological  institute,  in  which 
upward  of  two  hundred  pupils,  sons  of  respectable  tradesmen,  receive  a 
general  education,  and  special  instruction  in  the  various  mechanical  arts, 
cotton-spinning,  weaving,  carpentry,  &c. ;  the  Central  Pedagogical  insti- 
tute, or  normal  school ;  two  gymnasia ;  the  Female  institute  of  Smolnoi, 
where  five  hundred  young  ladies  are  carefully  and  gratuitously  educated ; 
the  Ecclesiastical  academy  ;  the  principal  protestant,  the  agricultural,  com- 
mercial, veterinary,  and  various  other  schools. 

With  regard  to  public  societies,  the  only  one  which  can  be  said  to  have 
acquired  a  European  reputation  is  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences, 
wliich  has  long  been  distinguished  for  the  valuable  papers  published  in  its 
"  Transactions."  Most  of  them,  however,  are  not  the  production  of  native 
talent,  but  of  such  celebrated  foreigners  as  the  government  has  had  the 


422 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 


wisdom  to  attract  by  the  liberality  of  its  patronage.  Numerous  other  soci- 
eties of  repute  exist,  under  the  names  of  Russian  imperial,  medical,  phar- 
maceutical, mineralogical,  economical,  agricultural,  educational,  military, 
philanthropical,  and  artistical. 

The  government-buildings  of  St.  Petersburg,  which  may  be  properly 
mentioned  in  this  connection,  are  in  harmony  with  the  immense  empire  to 
which  they  belong,  and  are  generally  characterized  by  their  colossal  pro- 
portions. The  Admiralty,  to  which,  as  furnishing  the  best  station  for  ob- 
taining a  full  view  of  the  city,  reference  has  already  been  made,  is  an  im- 
mense brick  building,  situated  on  the  north  side  of  the  square  of  the  same 
name,  and  surmounted  by  a  slender  tower  with  a  gilt  cupola.  The  main 
part  of  the  building,  from  the  centre  of  which  the  tower  rises,  lies  parallel 
to  the  river  with  its  north  side,  but  has  its  principal  facade  on  the  south, 
facing  tlie  square.  The  length  of  this  facade  is  nearly  half  a  mile  ;  and 
at  right  angles  to  it  are  two  sides,  stretching  from  its  extremities  north 
toward  the  river ;  the  east  side  fronting  the  Winter  palace,  and  the  west 
the  Isaac  square  and  senate-house,  and  each  six  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
in  length. 


*     >        s 


St.  Isaac  SQUAXiE,  St.  Petersburg 

In  the  above  engraving  of  the  square  of  St.  Isaac,  the  senate-house 
is  seen  on  the  right  and  the  church  of  St.  Isaac  appears  in  the  distance  on 
the  left.  Between  them  may  be  seen  the  colossal  equestrian  statue  of  Pe- 
ter the  Great,  reduced,  however,  by  the  remote  distance  to  diminutive 
proportions.  A  nearer  view  of  this  statue  accompanies  the  sketch  of  it 
a  few  pages  farther  on. 

A  large  portion  of  the  Admiralty  is  occupied  as  school-rooms  for  naval 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  THE   EXCHANGE    AND    CITADEL. 


423 


cadets.  Immediately  below  it,  on  the  north,  lining  the  Russian  quay,  are 
the  extensive  dockyards :  and  in  the  innnediate  vicinity  ai-e  a  number  of 
important  public  buildings ;  among  others,  tliat  of  the  Holy  Synod,  wliere 
all  tlie  higher  concerns  of  the  church  are  regulated ;  the  Hutel  de  V Etat 
Major,  noticed  a  fevr  pages  back ;  and  the  war-office,  conspicuous  by  its 


j)rofusion  of  gigantic  colunms 


The  Bourse,  or  Exchange,  St.  Petkbsbuhg. 

On  tlie  opposite  side  of  the  Great  Neva  stands  the  exchange ;  and  west 
from  it,  fronting  the  Little  Neva,  tlie  customhouse  —  botli  large  and  impo- 
sing structures.  Immediately  adjoining  are  two  high  and  slender  towers, 
adorned  like  the  Column<e  Rostratce  of  ancient  Rome,  from  which  the  ap- 
pi'oach  of  shipping  may  be  observed.  These  colunms  are  hollow,  and  on 
tlieir  summits,  which  are  reached  by  a  flight  of  iron  steps,  are  gigantic 
vases  that  are  filled  with  combustibles  on  all  occasions  of  public  illumina- 
tion. The  erection  of  the  whole,  including  the  quays,  occupied  nearly 
twelve  years,  from  1804  to  1816.  The  great  hall  of  the  exchange,  which 
is  of  colossal  proportions,  is  lighted  from  above.  At  either  end  on  both 
sides  are  spaces  in  the  form  of  arcades  :  in  one  of  the  first  stands  an  altar, 
witli  lamps  constantly  burning,  for  the  benefit  of  the  pious  Russian  mer- 
chants, who  always  bow  to  the  altar,  and  sometimes  even  prostrate  them- 
selves, on  their  entrance,  to  implore  the  favor  of  all  the  saints  to  their 
undertakings. 

The  citadel,  with  its  bastions  and  bristling  embrasures,  mounted  with 
one  hundred  cannon,  and  defended  by  a  garrison  of  three  thousand  men, 
forms  a  very  conspicuous  object.  Besides  the  church  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul  (which  will  be  noticed  in  the  next  chapter),  it  contains  within  its 
enclosure  the  mint ;  and  in  its  vicinity  presents  an  oliject  of  great  interest 


424  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

in  the  wooden  cottage  of  Peter  the  Great,  consisting  of  three  small  apart- 
ments, one  of  them  his  chapel,  and  containing,  among  other  relics  of  that 
extraordinary  man,  the  little  boat  which  he  constructed,  and  whicli  may 
be  considered  as  the  germ  of  the  powerful  navy  which  he  afterward  formed. 

Among  the  other  government-edifices,  the  arsenals  and  ranges  of  bar- 
racks are  particularly  deserving  of  notice.  The  old  arsenal,  an  enormous 
building,  was  erected  by  Count  OrloflF  at  his  own  cost,  and  presented  to 
the  empress  Catherine  II.  The  new  one  was  built  by  the  emperor  Alex- 
ander, in  a  very  magnificent  style.  Both  are  filled  with  glittering  weap- 
ons, trophies,  old  military  engines,  and  antiquities  of  importance  in  Russian 
history.  Among  the  trophies,  there  stands  in  one  of  the  halls  in  the  new 
arsenal  a  large  Russian  eagle,  whose  neck,  body,  and  legs,  are  composed 
of  gun-flints  ;  the  pinions  of  swords  ;  every  feather  on  the  breast  and  belly 
is  a  dagger;  every  tail-feather  a  yataghan;  the  eyes,  the  muzzles  of  two 
black  pistols  ;  the  gullet,  the  bore  of  a  cannon  :  a  terrible  "  Noli  me  tan- 
gere^''  a  proper  symbol  of  the  Russian  state,  which  has  soared  to  its  pres- 
ent height  on  the  pinions  of  swords  and  bayonets.  In  another  hall  is  a 
statue  of  Catherine  in  white  marble,  throned  in  a  royal  chair,  and  sur- 
rounded by  all  the  emblems  of  imperial  power.  Her  horse,  a  white  one 
stuffed,  stands  near.  The  saddle  is  not  a  lady's  side-saddle,  but  au  ordi- 
nary man's  saddle.  Her  passion  for  appearing  on  horseback,  in  male  cos- 
tume, has  been  before  alluded  to.  The  statue  was  erected  by  Orloff  (one  of 
her  chief  favorites)  during  her  lifetime,  and  presented  with  the  building. 

Some  of  the  historical  souvenirs  and  antiquities  are  highly  interesting : 
for  example,  the  standards  of  the  Strelitz  guard,  huge  things  made  of  jiieces 
of  silk  sewed  together,  and  adorned  with  many  highly  original  pictures 
characteristic  of  that  fanatical  Russian  prastorian  band,  who  may  justly  be 
called  the  Janizaries  of  Christianity.  Near  the  flags  lie  a  number  of  the 
accoutrements  of  the  Strelitzes,  and  the  images  of  their  patron-saints  :  each 
saint  has  its  own  little  case,  of  which  a  whole  row,  fastened  to  straps,  were 
worn  on  the  breast,  in  a  fashion  similar  to  that  of  the  Circassians.  Some 
Russian  cannon  of  the  period  are  also  placed  here ;  they  are  very  large, 
cast  in  iron,  and  ornamented  with  silver  and  gold. 

To  every  emperor  and  empress  since  Peter  the  Great  a  separate  apart- 
ment is  devoted,  containing  the  costume,  weapons,  and  utensils,  belonging 
to  them,  with  the  instruments  of  war  in  use  at  that  time,  uniforms,  &c. 
The  uniforms  of  distinguished  generals,  with  all  their  orders,  crosses,  and 
ribands,  are  here  deposited  in  glass  cases ;  many  thousand  ells  of  histori- 
cally-interesting ribands  figure  among  them.  With  the  help  of  this  cabinet 
a  very  good  history  of  the  Russian  army  might  be  composed. 

Ever  since  Peter  the  Great,  the  Russian  emperors  have  voluntarily  sub- 
jected themselves  to  their  own  laws  and  ordinances,  and  thereby  given 
their  subjects  a  great  example.  The  pike  which  Peter  carried  as  a  volun- 
teer in  his  own  army,  the  uniforms  he  wore  as  sergeant,  captain,  and  colo- 
nel, the  leathern  shirt  he  wore  as  a  carpenter,  all  of  which  are  preserved 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  THE   ARSENALS.  42'j 

in  the  arsenal,  constantly  warn  liis  successors  to  follow  his  example.  In 
Peter's  apartment  there  is  still  kept  the  cabriolet  he  made  use  of  to  meas- 
ure the  roads ;  the  number  of  revolutions  made  by  the  wlieels  is  shown  by 
the  machinery  contained  in  the  box  behind.  On  the  lid  of  this  box  is  a 
curious  old  picture,  representing  Peter's  method  of  travelling.  It  is  a 
portrait  of  the  cabriolet  itself,  drawn  by  one  horse,  and  driven  by  Peter. 
Behind  him  are  newly-built  houses,  and  gardens  laid  out ;  before  him  a  for- 
est and  a  wilderness,  to  the  annihilation  of  which  he  is  boldly  proceeding : 
beliind  him  the  heavens  are  serene,  before  him  the  clouds  are  heaped  up 
like  rocks.  As  this  picture  was  probably  designed  by  Peter  himself,  it 
shows  what  he  thought  of  liimself. 

In  remarkable  contrast  with  the  little  modest  cabriolet  of  the  road  ma- 
king and  measuring  emperor  is  the  great  triumphal  car,  with  its  flags  and 
kettle-drums,  which  Peter  II.  drove  before  the  baud  of  his  guard,  at  the 
time  when  the  ladies  wore  hoop-petticoats  and  the  gentlemen  long  periwigs. 
Paul's  rocking-horse  ;  the  Holstein  cuirassiers  of  Peter  III.,  who  were  so 
great  a  cause  of  vexation  to  the  native  Russians  ;  Senka  Rasin's  state-chair 
of  ebony,  garnished  with  rude  pistols  instead  of  lace  ;  the  uniform  of  Gen- 
eral Miloradovitch,  in  Avhich  the  hole  made  by  tlie  bullet  that  pierced  his 
heart  in  the  revolt  of  the  14th  of  December,  1825,  is  yet  to  be  seen  —  all 
furnish  employment  for  the  imagination  of  the  liistorian. 

In  this  collection  the  accoutrements  of  neighboring  states  have  not  been 
neglected  ;  even  the  equipments  of  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  may  here  be 
studied.  The  cuirasses  and  coats-of-mail  of  the  Japanese  guards  are  made 
of  tortoise-shell,  which  cover  the  whole  body,  and  are  put  together  in  small 
scales  :  the  face  is  concealed  in  a  black  mask  representing  an  open-mouthed 
dragon  I  The  Chinese  soldier  is  clothed  from  head  to  foot  in  thickly-wad- 
ded cotton :  if  he  can  not  move  about  much  in  battle,  he  must  be,  at  all 
events,  in  some  measure  protected  against  arrows  and  cudgels.  Grimacing 
masks  are  also  in  use  among  them.  The  timid  have  everywliere  a  great 
wish  to  infuse  into  others,  by  means  of  disguises,  that  terror  which  tliey 
can  not  inspire  by  their  own  courage.  The  Chinese  weapons  appear  to 
have  the  same  aim :  among  them  is  a  halberd,  of  which  the  edge  of  the  axe 
is  nearly  six  feet  long — an  instrument  of  murder  which  would  require  a 
free  space  of  ten  feet  in  diameter  for  every  soldier  to  wield  properly.  It 
seems  destined  for  the  destruction  of  giants,  but  a  Roman  soldier  with  his 
short  sword  would  have  been  quite  safe  from  them. 

Countless  as  are  the  uniforms  here  collected,  there  is  scarcely  one  to 
v/hich  tlie  Russians  have  not  been  opposed,  the  Japanese  not  excepted  — 
and  scarcely  one  from  which  they  have  not  wrested  some  trophy  of  victory. 
Those  in  the  arsenals  of  St.  Petersburg  consist  of  splendid  silver  shields 
of  Turkisli  leaders ;  Polish,  Prussian,  French,  and  Persian  flags ;  and  at 
least  a  thousand  ells  of  silk  in  Turkish  sttMidards,  besides  a  large  heap  of 
crescents  taken  from  the  mosques.  A  cannon-foundry  is  annexed  to  the 
new  arsenal,  where  a  powerful  steam-engine  is  at  work. 


42G  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

In  the  western  corner  of  the  Admiralty  square,  and  near  the  iron  bridge, 
is  located  the  well-known  colossal  equestrian  statue  of  Peter  the  Great, 
mentioned  a  few  pages  Lack,  The  subject  is  admirably  treated,  and  the 
idea  of  representing  the  emperor  riding  up  a  rock,  on  both  sides  of  which 
and  in  front  steep  precipices  threaten  destruction,  is  as  poetical  a  thought 
as  ever  sculptor  entertained.  It  is  said  that  Falconet,  the  French  artist 
who  executed  this  great  work,  was  aided  in  his  inspirations  by  a  Russian 
officer,  the  boldest  horseman  of  his  time,  who  daily  rode  up  to  the  edge  of 
a  higli  artificial  mound  the  wildest  Arabian  of  Count  Orloff's  stud,  wliere 
he  suddenly  halted  him  with  his  fore  legs  pawing  the  air  over  the  abyss 
below.  The  head  was  modelled  by  Marie  Callot.*  The  emperor's  face  is 
turned  toward  the  Neva,  his  hand  outstretched  as  if  he  would  grasp  land 
and  water.  This  attitude  was  bold  and  to  the  purpose ;  it  is  therefore 
inconceivable  why  the  artist  did  not  rest  contented  with  it,  instead  of 
adding  to  the  idea  of  power  and  possession  which  his  attitude  gave,  tlic 
subduing  a  serpent  which  the  czar  finds  on  the  rock,  and  which  is  trodden 
under  his  horse's  foot :  the  charm  of  a  great  work  of  art  is  sinned  against 
by  this  destruction  of  unity  of  action  and  idea.  The  spring  of  the  liorse, 
the  carriage  of  the  rider,  and  his  well-chosen  Russian  costume,  are,  how- 
ever, admirable.  The  air-born  position  of  the  whole  statue  rendered  it 
necessary  that  unusual  precautions  should  be  taken  to  preserve  the  centre 
of  gravity :  the  thickness  of  the  bronze  in  front  is  therefore  very  trifling, 
but  behind  it  increases  to  several  inches,  and  ten  thousand  pounds'  woiglit 
of  iron  were  cast  in  the  hind  quarters  and  tail  of  the  horse — a  tolerable 
aplomb. \ 

*  "A  young  Frenchwoman,  Mademoiselle  Callot,  a  relative  of  Falconet  the  sculptor,  since  so 
celebrated,  was  also  an  artii^t,  and  resided  for  some  time  in  St.  Petershuig.  The  czar  saw  some  of 
her  statuettes,  and  their  expression  of  combined  power  and  gentleness  made  so  strong  an  impres- 
sion on  him,  that  he  paid  a  visit,  in  strict  incognito,  to  the  artist's  studio.  There  he  made  acquaint- 
ance with  Mademoiselle  Callot,  and  was  captivated  by  her  charms.  The  remarkable  tenderness 
of  her  nature  deeply  impressed  his  stormy  and  passionate  soul ;  the  depth  of  her  mind  harmonized 
with  his;  a  bond  of  sympathy  speedily  encircled  them.  ,  .  .  .  During  the  most  ardent  period  of  their 
romantic  love,  Peter  sat  to  her  for  his  bust.  The  woman's  tender  affection  combined  with  the  art- 
ist's inspiration  to  produce  the  most  perfect  bust  the  world  ever  saw  of  one  of  its  greatest  men. 
What  has  become  of  that  bust  none  know ;  but  fact  it  is  that,  when  Catherine  II.  conceived  the  idea 
of  the  grand  equestrian  statue  I  have  described,  and  sent  to  Paris  for  Falconet  to  execute  it,  that 
sculptor  made  his  studies  for  the  head  after  the  masterpiece  of  his  relative,  Mademoiselle  Callot, 
who  at  that  time  was  doubtless  dead.  Contemporaries,  at  least,  who  were  acquainted  with  both 
works  of  art,  declared  the  head  of  the  statue  to  be  an  unmistakeable  copy  of  that  inimitable  bust, 
whose  unparalleled  beauty  was  wonderfully  well  reproduced  in  Falconet's  colossal  work.  Truly, 
nothing  was  Wiuiting  to  the  memory  of  the  northern  giant,  but  that  love  should  transmit  his  portrait 
to  posterity  !  Russian  authors  represent  the  liaison  of  the  young  czar  and  the  French  lady  as  one 
that  exercised  much  influence  on  the  fate  of  the  country."  —  Jerrmann. 

t  The  Rev.  Mr.  Choules,  who  saw  this  statue  when  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1853,  says:  "  I  thought 
with  pride  on  our  own  Mills,  who  has  succeeded  so  nobly  in  his  equestrian  statue  of  Jackson,  which 
is  self-poised."  The  sculptor  here  referred  to  is  Claik  Mills,  a  native  of  New  York,  who  designed 
and  executed  an  equestrian  statue  of  Andrew  Jackson,  and  in  which  the  horse  bearing  his  hero 
appears  gracefully  prancing,  and  is  poised  upon  his  hind  legs,  without  the  sligluest  visible  extrane- 
ous support.  In  this  statue  the  artist  has  boldly  and  successfully  relied  on  the  truth  of  well-known 
mechanical  principles,  which  assured  him  that  by  resorting  to  them  he  might  entirely  dispense  with 
evirythiiig  likely  to  interfere  with  the  dashing  effect  of  his  work.     The  whole  is  cast  from  brass 


EftUESIRIAN  SIATUE  OF  PETER  THE  GREAT,  ADMIRALTY  SQUARE,  ST.  PETERSBURG. 


ST.    PETERSBURCt  —  PUBLIC   MONUMENTS.  429 

The  huge  block  of  granite  which  forms  the  pedestal,  and  weighs  fifteen 
hundred  tons,  was  brought  from  Lacta,  a  Finnish  village  four  miles  from 
St,  Petersburg,  and  may  have  been  torn  by  the  deluge  from  the  Swedish 
mountains.  It  was  originally  forty-five  feet  long,  thirty  feet  high,  and 
twenty-five  feet  in  width  ;  but  the  chisel  was  set  to  work,  and,  in  cutting  it, 
the  mass  broke  in  two  pieces.  These  were  subsequently  patched  together, 
and  it  noAv  looks  as  unnatural  as  the  imitative  rocks  seen  on  the  stage. 
Some  work  may  have  been  necessary  to  obtain  a  footing  for  the  horse  and 
give  an  inclination  to  the  stone.  This,  however,  must  have  been  done 
without  due  precaution,  for  one  third  was  taken  away.  It  is  now  only 
fourteen  feet  high,  twenty  feet  broad,  and  thirty-five  feet  long ;  the  statue 
is  eleven  feet  in  height,  and  the  horse  seventeen.  On  the  two  long  sides 
are  chiselled  the  following  inscriptions  in  Russian  and  Latin:  —  '■'•Fetrou 
Pervoiiiou,  Ekaterina  Vto?'aia.^'  —  '■^  Petro  Primo,  Catlier'ma  Secunda. — 

MDCCLXXXII." 

A  laughable  circumstance  connected  with  this  statue  recently  occurred 
at  St.  Petersburg.  Some  American  sailors,  who  had  been  making  rather 
100  free  with  "  the  jolly  god,"  sallied  forth  on  a  frolicksome  cruise ;  and 
one  of  them,  not  having  the  fear  of  the  police  before  his  eyes,  climbed  over 
the  wire  palisade  Surrounding  the  statue,  and,  clambering  up  the  rock, 
seated  himself,  en  croupe,  behind  the  czar !  He  was  speedly  dismounted, 
and  after  a  night's  confinement  was  brought  before  the  divisional  officer  of 
police,  when  the  case  was  summarily  disposed  of,  and  so  heavy  a  fine 
inflicted  that  the  offender  naturally  remonstrated.  "  No,  no,"  replied  the 
officer,  "we  can  make  no  abatement:  if  you  will  ride  with  great  people, 
you  must  pay  great  people's  prices  I" 

The  monument  to  Suwarrow,  Russia's  riiost  distinguished  general,  is  on 
the  Champ  de  Mars,  opposite  the  Troitszka  bridge  —  a  most  appropriate 
situation ;  but  the  work  itself  is  generally  regarded  by  critics  as  unworthy 
of  the  great  marshal  whose  deeds  it  is  intended  to  commemorate.  It  is  a 
bronze  statue,  on  foot,  in  Roman  costume,  wielding  a  sword  in  the  right 
hand,  and  holding  a  shield  in  the  left,  in  defence,  over  the  crowns  of  the 
pope,  Naples,  and  Sardinia,  which  lie  at  his  feet.  This  refers  especially 
to  the  campaign  of  Italy,  in  1799. 

Nearly  equidistant  from  the  Academy  of  Arts  and  the  Corps  of  Cadets 
is  a  monument  to  Field-Marshal  Romanzoflf,  erected  to  his  memory  for  his 
services  against  the  Turks,  in  the  wars  ending  with  the  conquest  of  the 

cannon  tiilion  by  Genrral  Jnckson  from  his  country's  enemies,  and  donated  by  Congress  to  the 
"  Monument  Society"  for  the  purpose.  It  is  cast  in  ten  pieces  —  the  horse  being  in  four  and  the 
hero  in  six  pieces  —  which  are  so  riveted  and  rolled  together  as  to  present  to  the  closest  scrutiny 
the  appearance  of  being  cast  entirely  in  mass.  The  weight  of  the  work  is  nearly  fifteen  tons;  and 
from  the  top  of  the  pedestal  to  the  higliest  point  of  the  figure  the  height  is  about  fourteen  feet, 
while  the  height  of  the  pedestal  above  the  surrounding  ground  is  about  sixteen  feet.  This  statue 
has  been  severely  and  we  think,  all  things  considered,  unjustly  criticised,  as  a  work  of  art.  It  occu- 
pies the  centre  of  a  highly-embellished  public  square,  opposite  the  presidential  mansion  at  the  city 
of  W^ashington. 


430 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 


Crimea.     The  inscription  on  it  is  "  Pwmantzowa  PobcBdam^^  (To  tlic  Vic- 
tories of  Ronianzoff). 

Tliis  monument  is  composed  of  half  a  dozen  different-colored  stones,  and 
is  ornamented  with  patches  of  metal  besides.  The  obelisk  itself  is  of  black 
o-ranite.  It  stands  in  a  socket  of  red  marble,  whose  base  is  of  another 
color,  in  addition  to  which  there  are  several  sti-ata  of  white  marble ;  and 
the  whole  bears  on  its  extreme  point  a  golden  ball,  with  an  eagle  hovering 
over  it.  In  vain  we  ask  what  harmony  the  artist  could  find  in  all  these 
various  colors  and  materials.  Fortunately,  this  artistical  abortion  will  not 
last  long.  There  are  already  several  rents  and  splits  in  it,  and  so  many 
pieces  broken  from  all  the  corners,  that  it  looks  as  if  it  had  stood  for  cen- 
turies. It  will  soon  sink  under  its  own  weight.  The  Egyptian  sphinxes, 
v.^hich  lie  not  far  from  this  monument,  l)efore  the  Academy  of  Arts,  seem 
to  look  deridingly  on  the  unimposing  obelisk.  In  defiance  of  the  thousand 
years  of  warlike  tumult — in  defiance  of  the  countless  burning  suns,  of  the 
endless  series  of  days  and  nights  that  have  passed  over  their  heads  —  they 
look  as  youthful  as  if  newly  born  ;  their  skin  as  smooth  and  polished  as 
when  they  came  from  the  chisel. 


Office,  Hotel  des  MallePostes,  fei   Petebsbuko 


ST.   PETERSBURG  —  THE   KAZAN   CATHEDRAL.  4.-^l 


CHAPTER   XY. 

ST.    PETERSBURG CHURCHES    AND    CHARITABLE    INSTITUTIONS. 

ST.  PETERSBURG,  as  previously  remarked,  is  a  creation  of  inodern 
days  ;  and  therefore,  compared  with  Moscow,  has  neitlicr  so  many 
nor  such  remarkable  churches  as  the  old  capital,  tliough  some  arc 
built  in  a  pleasing  stjde  of  architecture.  The  modern  Russian  church  is  a 
mixture  of  the  Grecian,  Byzantine,  and  Tartar;  the  Byzantine,  which  was 
brought  from  Constantinople  with  Christianity,  being  tlie  most  prominent. 
The  plan  of  the  building  is  a  Greek  cross,  with  four  equal  arms ;  in  tlio 
midst,  a  large  dome,  painted  green  or  blue  ;  at  the  four  ends,  four  narrow- 
pointed  cupolas,  their  summits  surmounted  by  four  crosses ;  in  front,  a 
grand  entrance  adorned  with  many  columns,  and  three  side-entrances  with- 
out columns.  The  difference  between  the  Greek  and  the  Latin  cross  with 
aisles  is  evident.  Such  is  the  exterior  form  of  the  greater  portion  of  the 
Russian  churches,  including  the  thirty  of  St.  Petersburg,  constituting  less 
than  a  tenth  of  the  number  dispersed  through  "  Moscow  the  Holy."  The 
interiors  of  those  in  the  new  capital  are  lighter,  brigliter,  and  more  simple  ; 
in  the  old,  darker,  more  overloaded  with  ornament,  more  varied  in  color, 
and  grotesque. 

The  Metropolitan  church  of  St.  Petersburg,  dedicated  to  "  our  Lady  of 
Kazan,"  stands  conspicuously  on  the  right  of  the  Nevskoi  Prospekt,  about 
half  a  mile  from  the  Admiralty  square,  and  retired  from  the  street.  A 
semicircular  colonnade  of  Corinthian  pillars,  the  two  extremities  of  which 
project  almost  to  the  front  of  the  houses,  forms  a  screen  to  tlie  cathedral 
itself,  and  the  dome  rises  immediately  behind  the  centre  of  the  colonnade, 
where  the  chief  entrance  is  situated.  Li  any  other  place  the  effect  of  this 
semicircular  line  of  columns  would  be  imposing;  but  here,  where  every- 
thing around  is  on  so  vast  a  scale,  it  looks  the  very  reverse :  the  colunms 
are  not  so  high  as  the  adjoining  houses,  and  even  the  dome  is  deficient  in 
elevation.  The  Russians  wish  to  unite  in  their  capital  all  that  is  grand  or 
beautiful  in  the  Avhole  civilized  world,  and  this  is  intended  for  a  copy  of 
St.  Peter's  at  Rome  ;  but  the  puny  effort  is  almost  comic  in  its  contrast  to 
the  mighty  work  of  Buonarotti :  the  colonnade  of  pillars,  which  in  Rome 
seemed  necessary  and  suitable  to  circumstances,  is  here  a  superfluous  and 
incomprehensible  appendage.  As  an  exception  to  the  rule,  one  transept 
in  the  Kazan  cathedral  is  shorter  than  tlie  others — not,  however,  as  some 


4'^^  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

have  alleged,  from  the  peculiar  form  of  the  Greek  cross,  but  simply  from 
the  want  of  space  on  the  canal  side  to  continue  the  building. 

The  eastern  arm  of  the  cross  in  all  Greek  churches  is  looked  upon  as 
the  "  holy  of  holies,"  and  is  shut  oft'  from  the  rest  of  the  edifice  by  a  screen 
called  the  ikonostas.  This  is  set  apart  for  the  priests.  Laymen  may 
enter,  but  no  women ;  not  even  the  empress  can  go  into  that  mysterious 
enclosure.  Here  stands  a  throne  called  the  prestol,  a  kind  of  altar,  be- 
neath a  sumptuous  canopy,  frequently  adorned  with  precious  stones.  Tlie 
throne  stands  on  a  carpet,  whicli  reaches  under  the  closed  doors  of  the 
screen ;  and  this,  on  solemn  occasions,  is  spread  out  to  a  low  square  plat- 
form, erected  immediately  beneath  the  central  dome :  on  this  holy  carpet 
no  footstep,  save  that  of  the  priest,  dare  press.  Behind  and  in  front  of 
the  screen  the  ceremonies  and  service  are  performed.  The  formalities  are 
great :  robes  of  costly  materials  are  frequently  changed  ;  the  genuflections 
are  numerous  and  very  low ;  incense  is  much  used ;  there  is  no  organ  or 
other  instrumental  music,  but  the  chanting  is  peculiar  and  striking.  Ser- 
mons, so  much  thought  of  in  other  countries,  form  but  a  small  portion  of 
the  Russian  church  service :  a  short  discourse,  a  few  times  in  the  year,  is 
the  only  homily  which  a  Greek  priest  delivers  to  his  flock.  At  the  Impe- 
rial chapel,  the  Nevskoi  monastery,  and  the  Donskoi  and  Seminov  at  Mos- 
cow, the  singing  is  very  fine.  The  bass  voices  are  superb,  and  a  kind  of 
chant,  which  they  keep  up  in  unison,  while  the  priest  is  officiating,  is  not 
easily  to  be  compared  with  any  other  church  music.  It  has  somewhat  the 
effect  of  as  many  double  basses  all  executing  the  same  short  arpeg-g-io  pas- 
sages, and  repeating  it  without  any  variation  in  the  chord,  time,  or  tone  ; 
when  frequently  heard,  it  is  therefore  tedious. 

One  of  the  most  impressive  portions  of  the  service  is  toward  the  close. 
The  doors  of  the  ikonostas  are  then  shut,  the  chanting  ceases,  the  incense- 
bearers  withdraw,  and  every  one  seems  breathless  with  attention.  At 
length  the  folding-doors  in  the  centre  are  reopened  and  thrown  back,  and 
the  priest,  carrying  on  his  head  an  enormous  volume,  which  ho  steadies 
witli  both  hands,  comes  forward  and  commences  a  long  recitation  ;  during 
this  every  one  bends  low  in  an  humble  attitude  of  adoration.  The  large 
volume  contains  the  gospels  ;  the  prayer  is  for  the  emperor.  "  The  sensa- 
tion on  this  occasion,"  observes  a  recent  traveller,  "  more  than  equals  that 
usually  seen  in  Roman  catholic  churches  at  the  elevation  of  the  Host. 
With  this  prestige  for  their  sovereign,  what  might  not  the  Russians  do  if 
circumstances  should  engage  them  in  a  national  cause  ?"  Indeed,  the 
spirit  of  religious  zeal  which  animates  them  is  signally  manifested  in  the 
struggle  of  1855  against  the  Turks  and  their  powerful  allies. 

In  Roman  catholic  countries  the  church-goers  are  almost  exclusively 
women ;  and  in  France,  southern  Germany,  and  parts  of  Italy,  a  man  in 
the  prime  of  life  is  rarely  seen  within  the  walls  of  a  church,  except  as  a 
mere  spectator.  In  Russia  it  is  otherwise  ;  and  the  outward  forms  of  tlic 
Greek  church  seem  to  have  taken  as  firm  and  enduring  a  hold  of  the  men 


ST.    PETERSBURG THE    KAZAN    CATHEDRAL.  435 

as  of  (lie  women,  all  classes  alike  participating  in  tins  strong  feeling  of 
external  devotion.  The  first  proceeding  of  a  Russian  on  entering  a  cliurch 
is  to  purcliase  a  wax-candle,  a  plentiful  supply  of  whicli  is  usually  kept 
near  the  door,  and  the  sale  of  which  must  constitute  a  very  lucrative  traffic. 
Bearing  this  in  one  hand,  lie  slowly  a])proaches  the  shrine  of  the  Virgin, 
before  whicli  a  silver  lamp  burns  day  and  night ;  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  it  he  sinks  on  one  knee,  bowing  his  head  to  the  pavement,  and  cros- 
sing his  breast  repeatedly  with  the  thumb  and  two  forefingers  of  his  right 
hand.  Having  at  length  reached  the  shrine  itself,  he  lights  his  votive 
candle  at  the  holy  lamp,  sets  it  up  in  one  of  the  various  holes  in  a  large 
silver  plate  provided  for  the  purpose,  and,  falling  low  on  his  bended  knees, 
kisses  the  pavement  before  the  altar.  His  prayers  are  few  and  short,  and 
he  retires  slowly  with  his  face  to  the  altar,  kneeling  and  crossing  himself 
at  intervals. 

The  Russians  have  so  closely  adopted  the  practice  of  burning  tapers, 
that  there  is  no  interment,  no  baptism,  no  betrothing,  in  short,  no  sacred 
ceremony,  without  torch,  lamp,  or  taper,  to  be  thought  of:  fire  is  for  tliem 
the  pledge  of  the  presence  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  and  hence  illuminations 
]>lay  the  most  important  part  in  the  ceremonies  of  the  Greek  church.  Al- 
though the  Greek  faith  does  not  permit  tlie  introduction  of  images  into 
their  churches,  its  votaries  are  scarcely  satisfied  with  mere  pictures :  they 
are  frequently  ornamented  with  materials  of  dress  and  jewelry,  and,  ac- 
cordingly, the  face  of  the  Virgin  is  the  only  part  of  the  painting  exposed 
to  view,  while  the  dress  is  covered  with  plates  of  silver  or  gold,  and  the 
liead  is  almost  universally  adorned  with  a  crown  of  jewels.  The  pictures 
are,  generally  speaking,  mere  heads  of  saints,  very  indilferentfy  executed. 
Many  of  the  jewels,  however,  are  of  great  size  and  beauty.  One  of  the 
diamonds  in  the  Virgin's  crown  of  "  our  Lady  of  Kazan "  is  considered 
second  only  to  the  famous  diamond  of  the  emperor ;  the  water  is  question- 
able, but  it  is  a  very  large  stone. 

In  the  place  before  the  cathedral  of  Kazan  are  two  well-executed  statues 
—  one  of  Kutuzofi",  prince  of  Smolensko,  the  other  of  Barclay  de  Tolly  — 
two  generals  who  distinguished  themselves  in  the  campaign  of  Moscow. 
The  grand  entrance-door  in  the  centre  beneath  the  peristyle  is  of  bronze, 
divided  into  ten  compartments,  each  containing  a  subject  in  bas-relief  horn. 
the  Old  Testament ;  the  intermediate  spaces  are  ornamented  with  figures 
of  saints  in  high  relief,  and  heads  in  circular  frames.  The  workmansliip 
is,  however,  inferior. 

The  interior  is  little  suited  to  the  wants  of  divine  service  as  performed 
in  Russia ;  and  the  altar  is  awkwardly  placed  at  the  side  instead  of  oppo- 
site the  chief  entrance.  In  the  niches  along  the  sides  of  the  church  are 
colossal  statues  of  the  grand-duke  Vladimir  and  Alexander  Nevsky.  St. 
John  and  St.  Andrew.  The  general  efl"ect  within  is  dark  and  confined, 
and  travellers  have  expressed  a  regret  tliat  the  fifty-six  monoliths,  the 
niighty  giants  which  support  the  little  roof,  are  not  employed  in  a  work 


43G  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

more  worthy  of  them.     Apart  from  these  architectural  discords,  tlie  church 
is  not  wanting-  in  interest.     First  of  all,  the  eye  is  attracted  by  the  silver 
of  the  ikonostas   (the  pictorial  wall  of  the  sanctuary).     The  balustrades, 
doors,  and  doorways  of  the  ikonostases,  are  generally  of  wood,  carved  and 
gilded,  but  in  this  church  all  its  beams  and  posts  are  of  massive  silver! 
The  pillars  of  the  balustrade  round  the  holy  place,  the  posts  of  the  three 
doors,  the  arches  twenty  feet  in  height  above  the  altar,  and  the  frames  of 
the  pictures,  are  also  of  fine  silver.     The  silver  beams  are  all  highly  pol- 
ished, and  reflect  with  dazzling  brilliancy  the  light  of  the  thousand  tapers 
that  burn  before  them.     Many  hundred  weight  of  silver  must  have  been 
melted  down  to  furnish  the  materials.     The  Cossacks,  laden  with  no  incon- 
siderable booty  from  the  campaigns  of  1813  and  1814 — plundered  alike 
from  friends  and  foes  in  Germany  and  France — made  an  offering  of  this 
mass  of  silver  to  the  "  Holy  Mother  of  Kazan,"  for  the  object  to  which  it 
is  now  appropriated.     Platoflf,  the  Cossack  hetman,  having  also  secured 
some  booty  in  the  retreat  of  the  French  from  Moscow,  sent  it  to  the  metro- 
jwlitan,  directing  that  it  should  be  made  into  statues  of  the  four  evangel- 
ists, and  adorn  the  church  of  the  "  Mother  of  God  of  Kazan."     The  Cos- 
sacks seem  to  have  a  peculiar  veneration  for  this  Madonna,  who  is  half 
their  countrywoman,  for  Vassili-Ivanovich   brought  her  from  Kazan  to 
Moscow,  whence  Peter  the  Great  transported  her  to  St.  Petersburg.     Her 
picture,  set  with  pearls  and  precious  stones,  hangs  in  this  church.     It  was 
before  this  picture  that  Kutuzoff  prayed  before  he  advanced  to  meet  the 
French  in  1812,  for  which  reason  she  is  considered  to  be  closely  connected 
with  that  campaign.     Here,  also,  is  the  monument  of  that  distinguished 
man.     Dauntless  amid  a  despairing  nation,  he  nobly  sustained  the  courage 
of  the  monarch  and  the  drooping  valor  of  the  Russian  troops  :  but  for  him 
the  sanguinary  battle  of  the  Moskva  might  never  have  been  fought,  and 
Napoleon  would  have  marched  without  a  blow  to  Moscow,  and  perhaps  to 
St.  Petersburg. 

The  conp  cVceil,  on  entering  this  house  of  prayer,  is  rather  that  of  an 
arsenal  than  of  a  church,  and  this  may  be  said  of  many  other  churches  in 
this  capital,  for  they  are  more  or  less  adorned  with  military  trophies  taken 
from  various  nations  of  Europe  and  Asia.  Here  are  to  be  seen  the  crimson 
flags  of  the  Persians,  which  may  be  easily  distinguished  by  a  silver  hand, 
as  large  as  life,  fastened  to  the  end ;  also  many  Turkish  standards,  sur- 
mounted by  the  crescent — large,  unsoiled  pieces  of  cloth,  for  the  most 
part  red,  and  so  new  and  spotless,  that  they  might  be  sold  again  to  the 
merchant  by  the  ell,  and  giving  the  impression  that  they  were  surrendered 
without  any  very  great  struggle.  Not  so  the  French  colors,  which  hang 
near  them,  and  which  offer  a  strong  contrast :  they  are  rent  in  pieces,  and 
to  several  of  the  seventeen  eagles  only  a  single  fragment  is  attached  ;  these, 
with  their  expanded  wings,  which  had  soared  in  triumph  over  nearly  the 
whole  of  continental  Europe,  look  strange  enough  in  the  place  they  now 
roost  in.     Among  these  tattered  banners  is  one  of  white  silk,  on  which  the 


ST.    PETERSBURG THE    ISAAC    CHURCH,  437 

words  ^^ Garde  Nationale  de  Paris^'  are  visible.  Here,  too,  may  be  seen 
the  long  streamers  of  the  wild  tribes  of  the  Caucasus,  and  the  silver  eagles 
of  Poland  ;  and,  lastly,  the  marshal's  baton  of  Davoust  (duke  of  Auerstadt 
and  prince  of  Eckmiilil),  the  "Hamburg  Robespierre,"  whose  atrocities 
Avill  be  remembered  as  long  as  a  stone  of  that  city  exists  under  its  present 
name.  This  trophy,  which  is  kept  in  a  glass  case,  was  taken  in  the  disas- 
trous retreat  of  1812  ;  it  is  said  to  have  been  lost  in  the  wild  confusion  that 
everywhere  prevailed,  and  was  afterward  picked  up  by  some  straggling 
Cossack.  Keys  of  many  German,  French,  and  Netherland  towns,  before 
wliose  gates  a  Russian  trumpet  has  blown  in  triumph,  also  grace  the  pillars 
of  this  cathedral ;  among  them  are  those  of  Haml3urg,  Leipsic,  Dresden, 
Rheims,  Breda,  and  Utrecht — in  all  twenty-eight  pair.  To  a  protestant, 
these  trophies,  and  the  tawdry  paintings,  gilding,  and  jewelry,  completely 
destroy  all  ideas  of  a  devotional  character.  As  the  members  of  the  Greek 
religion  pray  standing,  the  interior  of  their  churches  is  always  devoid  of 
pew,  bench,  or  chair ;  but  there  is  in  every  church  a  place  set  apart  for  the 
emperor  to  stand  in,  which  is  raised  above  the  floor,  and  usually  covered 
with  a  canopy,  or  small  dome.  An  exception  is,  we  believe,  made  in  favor 
of  the  empress  dowager,  on  account  of  ill  health. 

The  Isaac  church  can  not  fail  to  excite  the  admiration  of  those  who  ap- 
preciate grand  proportions,  a  simple  but  lofty  style  of  architecture,  and 
noble  porticoes.  The  situation  also  is  highly  suitable,  for  it  stands  in  one 
of  the  largest  open  squares  in  the  capital,  surroifnded  by  its  finest  build- 
ings and  monuments,  and  furnishes  some  idea  of  what  Russian  quarries, 
Russian  mines  and  workmen,  and  a  French  architect.  Monsieur  Montfer- 
rand,  can  produce.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  simplicity  of  the  model :  no 
ornament  meets  the  eye ;  the  architect  has  left  all  to  the  impression  to  be 
produced  by  its  stupendous  proportions.  The  original  design  of  the  cathe- 
dral at  Cologne  is  said  to  be  on  a  much  smaller  scale ;  the  transept  alone 
is  a  building  of  great  magnitude. 

On  the  spot  where  the  Isaac  church  stands,  the  Russians  have  been  at 
work  upon  a  place  of  worship  for  the  last  century.  The  original  one  was 
constructed  of  wood,  but  this  was  subsequently  destroyed,  and  the  great 
Catherine  commenced  another,  which  she  intended  to  face  with  marble, 
and  which,  like  many  other  of  her  undertakings,  was  never  finislied.  The 
emperor  Paul  continued  the  building,  but  in  brick.  This  half-and-half 
edifice  vanished,  however,  in  its  turn ;  and  under  Nicholas  the  present 
magnificent  structure  has  been  erected — such  a  one  as  will  scarcely  find 
so  splendid  a  successor.  To  make  a  firm  foundation,  a  whole  forest  of 
piles  was  sunk  in  the  swampy  soil,  at  a  cost  of  a  million  of  dollars !  The 
present  building  is,  as  usual,  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  of  four  equal 
sides,  and  each  of  the  four  grand  entrances  is  approached  from  the  level 
of  the  place  by  tliree  broad  flights  of  steps,  each  whole  flight  being  com- 
posed of  one  entire  piece  of  granite,  formed  out  of  masses  of  rock  brought 
from  Finland.     These  steps  lead  from  the  four  sides  of  the  building  to  the 


488  n.LUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

four  chief  entrances,  each  of  which  has  a  superb  peristyle.  The  pillars  of 
these  peristyles  are  sixty  feet  higli,  and  have  a  diameter  of  seven  feet,  all 
magnificent  round  and  highlj^-polished  granite  monoliths,  from  Finland, 
buried  for  centuries  in  its  swamps,  till  brought  to  light  by  the  triumphant 
power  of  Russia.  They  are  crowned  with  Corinthian  capitals  of  bronze, 
and  support  the  enormous  beam  of  a  frieze  formed  of  six  fire-polished 
blocks.  Over  the  peristyles,  and  at  twice  their  height,  rises  the  chief 
and  central  cupola,  higher  than  it  is  wide,  in  the  Byzantine  proportion.  It 
is  supported  also  by  thirty  pillars  of  smoothly-polished  granite,  which,  al- 
though gigantic  in  themselves,  look  small  compared  to  those  below.  The 
cupola  is  covered  with  copper,  overlaid  with  gold,  and  glitters  like  the 
sun  over  a  mountain.  From  its  centre  rises  a  small,  elegant  rotunda,  a 
miniature  repetition  of  the  whole,  looking  like  a  chapel  on  the  mountain- 
top.  The  whole  edifice  is  surrounded  by  the  crowning  and  far-seen  golden 
cross.  Four  smaller  cupolas,  resembling  the  greater  in  every  particular, 
stand  around,  like  children  round  a  mother,  and  complete  the  harmony 
visible  in  every  part. 

The  walls  of  the  church  are  covered  with  marble,  and  no  doubt  this  ca- 
thedral is  the  most  remarkable  one  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  will  supersede 
the  Kazan  "church  of  the  Virgin"  for  great  state  festivals.  The  embel- 
lishments of  the  facade  and  windows  have  been  intrusted  to  various  artists. 
The  group  of  figures  on  the  pediment  of  one  of  the  former  was  designed 
by  a  Frenchman,  named  Le  Maire :  the  subject  is  the  Angel  at  the  Tomb, 
with  the  Magdalen  and  other  female  figures  on  the  one  side,  and  the  terri- 
fied soldiers  in  every  attitude  of  consternation  on  the  other ;  these  figures 
are  eight  feet  in  height,  and  bronze  gilt.  The  great  dome  is  of  iron,  and, 
as  well  as  the  whole  of  the  bronze-work,  was  manufactured  at  the  cele- 
brated foundry  of  Mr.  Baird,  of  St.  Petersburg.  The  interior  of  the 
church  is  far  from  being  finished  ;  but  if  the  present  design  is  carried  out, 
it  will  be  a  mass  of  precious  metals  and  stones.  The  malachite  columns 
for  the  ikonostast,  or  screen,  are  fifty  feet  in  height,  and  exceed  anything 
that  has  yet  been  done  in  that  beautiful  fabric. 

The  prestol  for  the  inmost  shrine  is  a  small  circular  temple,  the  dome 
supported  by  eight  Corinthian  pillars  of  malachite,  about  eight  feet  high, 
with  gilt  bases  and  capitals.  The  exterior  of  the  dome  is  covered  with  a 
profusion  of  gilding  on  a  ground  of  malachite,  and  the  interior  is  of  lapis- 
lazuli.  The  floor  is  of  polished  marbles  of  various  colors,  which  have  been 
found  in  the  Russian  dominions,  and  the  whole  is  raised  on  steps  of  pol- 
ished porphyry.  There  is,  perhaps,  too  much  gilding  about  this  very  beau- 
tiful work,  but  this  is  in  accordance  with  its  position  in  a  Greek  cliurch. 
It  was  presented  to  the  emperor  by  Prince  Demidoff,  who  procured  the 
malachite  from  his  mines  in  Siberia,  and  sent  it  to  Italy  to  be  worked ;  its 
value  is  said  to  be  as  much  as  a  million  of  roubles. 

From  tlie  rotunda  over  the  great  dome  there  is  a  fine  view  of  the  capital 
when  the  day  is  bright  and  clear,  which  is  generally  the  case  in  the  'iummer. 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  CHTJRCH   OF   ST.    PETER  AND   ST.    PAUL.  441 

The  ej'e  then  wanders  unobstructed  over  the  whole  extent  of  the  imperial 
city.  The  broad  Neva  spreads  its  "breast  of  waters"  in  the  warm  sun- 
shine for  many  a  mile,  hemmed  in  at  first  between  those  massive  quays  of 
granite  which  have  not  their  equal  in  Europe,  and  reflecting  on  its  calm 
surface  storehouse  and  palace ;  but  beyond,  no  longer  subject  to  man's 
control,  its  wide  stream  expanding  forth,  flows  beneath  the  wooded  shores 
of  Peterhoff  and  Orauienbaum,  where  the  wearied  eye  can  follow  its  course 
no  longer. 

Next  to  the  churches  just  described,  that  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  sit- 
uated in  the  fortress,  is  the  most  interesting.  It  was  built  by  an  Italian 
architect,  under  Peter  the  Great,  and  stands  nearly  in  the  middle  of  the 
city,  opposite  the  Winter  palace.  Its  pointed,  slender  tower,  exactly  re- 
sembling that  of  the  Admiralty,  rises  like  a  mast  three  hundred  and  forty 
feet  in  height.  For  the  last  hundred  and  fifty  feet  the  spire  is  so  small 
and  thin,  that  it  must  be  climbed  like  a  pine-tree.  This  spire,  though  prop- 
erly represented  as  fading  away  almost  to  a  point  in  the  sky,  is  in  reality 
terminated  by  a  globe  of  considerable  dimensions,  on  which  an  angel 
stands,  supporting  a  large  cross.  The  following  incident  connected  with 
this  spire,  as  related  by  Leitch  Ritchie,  places  in  a  conspicuous  point  of  view 
that  spirit  of  absurd  daring  which  is  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  Russian 
character: — 

"  The  angel  which  surmounts  the  spire,  less  respected  by  the  weather 
than  perhaps  his  holy  character  deserved,  fell  into  disrepair ;  and  some 
suspicions  were  entertained  that  he  designed  revisiting,  uninvoked,  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth.  The  affair  caused  some  uneasiness,  and  the  government 
at  length  became  seriously  perplexed.  To  raise  a  scaffolding  to  such  a 
height  would  have  cost  more  money  than  all  the  angels  out  of  heaven  were 
worth ;  and,  meditating  fruitlessly  on  these  circumstances,  without  being 
able  to  resolve  how  to  act,  a  considerable  time  was  suffered  to  elapse. 

"  Among  the  crowd  of  gazers  below,  who  daily  turned  their  eyes  and 
their  thoughts  toward  the  angel,  was  a  rnvjik  called  Telouchkine.  This 
man  was  a  roofer  of  houses  (a  slater,  as  he  would  be  called  in  a  country 
whete  slates  are  used),  and  his  speculations  by  degrees  assumed  a  more 
practical  character  than  the  idle  wonders  and  conjectures  of  the  rest  of  the 
crowd.  The  spire  was  entirely  covered  with  sheets  of  gilded  copper,  and 
presented  a  surface  to  the  eye  as  smooth  as  if  it  had  been  one  mass  of  bur- 
nished gold.  But  Telouchkine  knew  that  it  was  not  one  mass  of  anything ; 
that  the  sheets  of  copper  were  not  even  uniformly  closed  upon  each  other ; 
and,  above  all,  that  there  were  large  nails  used  to  fasten  them,  which  pro- 
jected from  the  sides  of  the  spire. 

"  Having  meditated  upon  these  circumstances  till  his  mind  was  made  up, 
the  mnjik  went  to  the  government,  and  offered  to  repair  the  angel,  without 
scaffolding,  and  without  assistance,  on  condition  of  being  reasonably  paid 
for  the  time  expended  in  the  labor.  The  offer  was  accepted ;  for  it  was 
made  in  Russia,  and  by  a  Russian. 


442 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 


"  On  the  day  fixed  for  the  adventure,  Telouchldne,  provided  with  noth 
ing  more  than  a  coil  of  cords,  ascended  the  spire  in  the  interior  to  tlic  last 

window.  Here  he  looked  down  at 
the  concourse  of  people  below,  and 
up  at  the  glittering  "  needle,"  as  it  is 
called,  tapering  far  away  above  his 
head.  But  his  heart  did  not  fail  him, 
and,  stepping  gravely  out  upon  the 
ledge  of  the  window,  he  set  about  his 
task. 

"  He  cut  a  portion  of  the  cord  in 
the  form  of  two  long  stirrups,  with  a 
loop  at  each  end.  The  upper  loops 
he  fastened  upon  two  of  the  project- 
ing nails  above  his  head,  and  placed 
his  feet  in  the  others.  Then,  digging 
the  fingers  of  one  hand  into  the  inter- 
stices of  the  sheets  of  copper,  he  raised 
up  one  of  his  stirrups  with  the  other 
hand,  so  as  to  make  it  catch  a  nail 
higher  up.  The  same  operation  he 
performed  on  behalf  of  the  other  leg, 
and  so  on  alternately.  And  thus  he 
climbed,  nail  by  nail,  step  by  step, 
stirrup  by  stirrup,  till  his  starting- 
post  was  undistingLiishable  from  the 
golden  surface,  and  the  spire  had 
dwindled,  and  dwindled,  and  dwin- 
dled in  his  embrace,  until  he  could 
clasp  it  all  round. 

"  So  far,  so  well.  But  he  had  now 
reached  the  ball — a  globe  of  between  nine  and  ten  feet  in  circumference. 
The  angel,  the  object  of  his  visit,  was  above  this  ball,  and  even  concealed 
from  his  view  by  its  smooth,  round,  and  glittering  expanse.  Only  fancy 
the  wretch  at  that  moment,  turning  up  his  grave  eyes,  and  graver  beard, 
to  an  obstacle  that  seemed  to  defy  the  daring  and  ingenuity  of  man ! 

"  But  Telouchldne  was  not  dismayed.  He  was  prepared  for  the  diffi- 
culty ;  and  the  means  by  which  he  essayed  to  surmount  it  exhibited  the 
same  jirodigious  simplicity  as  the  rest  of  the  feat. 

""Suspending  himself  in  his  stirrups,  he  girded  the  needle  with  a  cord, 
the  ends  of  which  he  fastened  round  his  waist ;  and  so  supported,  he  leaned 
gradually  back  till  the  soles  of  his  feet  were  planted  against  the  spire.  In 
this  position  he  threw,  by  a  strong  efi"ort,  a  coil  of  cord  over  the  ball ;  and 
so  coolly  and  accurately  was  the  aim  taken,  that  at  the  first  trial  it  fell  in 
the  required  direction,  and  he  saw  the  end  hang  down  on  the  opposite  side. 


SriBE  OF  !5T.  Peter  and  fc^T.  Paul. 


ST.    PETERSBUEG CHURCH    OF   ST.    PETER   AND    ST.    PAUL.  443 

"  To  draw  himself  up  into  liis  original  position  ;  to  fasten  the  cord  firmly 
round  the  globe ;  and  with  the  assistance  of  this  auxiliary  to  climb  to  the 
summit — were  now  an  easy  part  of  his  task :  and,  in  a  few  minutes  more, 
Telouchkine  stood  by  the  side  of  the  angel,  and  listened  to  the  shout  that 
burst  like  sudden  thunder  from  the  concourse  below,  yet  came  to  his  ear 
only  like  a  faint  and  hollow  murmur  ! 

"  The  cord,  whicli  he  had  now  an  opportunity  of  fastening  properly,  ena- 
bled him  to  descend  with  comparative  facility ;  and  the  next  day  he  car- 
ried up  with  him  a  ladder  of  ropes,  by  means  of  which  he  found  it  easy  to 
effect  the  necessary  repairs." 

In  the  vaults  of  this  church  repose  the  remains  of  Peter  the  Great  and 
all  his  imperial  successors.  The  preceding  sovereigns  of  Russia  were 
l)uried  in  the  Arkhangclskoi  Sabov  in  Moscow.  Whoever  has  seen  the 
monuments  of  the  Polish  kings  at  Krakow,  or  those  of  the  English  and 
French  kings,  and  the  Italian  princes,  will  wonder  at  the  simplicity  and 
absence  of  ornament  in  this  last  resting-place  of  the  Russian  emperors,  par- 
ticularly when  he  recollects  the  splendors  of  the  Winter  palace.  The  sim- 
ple coffins  are  placed  in  the  vaults,  and  over  them  in  the  church  is  nothing 
further  in  the  shape  of  a  monument  than  a  stone  cofiBn-shaped  sarcophagus 
covered  with  a  red  pall.  On  the  pall  the  name  of  the  deceased  emperor 
or  emperor's  son  is  embroidered  in  golden  letters,  as  "  His  Imperial  Maj- 
esty the  Emperor  Peter  the  First ;"  "  His  Imperial  Highness  the  Grand- 
Duke  Constantino, "  &c.  On  some  there  is  nothing  but  the  initial  letters, 
and  here  and  there  some  unimportant  trophy.  On  the  sarcophagus  of  the 
grand-duke  Constantino  lie  the  keys  of  some  Polish  fortresses.  Peter  III., 
to  whose  remains  his  wife  Catherine  II.  refused  interment  in  this  place  of 
sepulture,  rests  there  now.  Paul  placed  both  Catherine  and  his  father 
there.  A  hundred  cannon,  impregnable  bastions,  and  a  garrison  of  three 
thousand  men,  defend  the  place,  which  can  be  desecrated  by  hostile  hands 
only  when  all  St.  Petersburg  lies  in  ruins.  The  Russian  princes  are  the 
only  ones  in  Europe,  so  far  as  we  know,  who  are  buried  within  the  walls 
of  a  fortress. 

The  youthful  daughter  of  the  late  emperor  Nicholas,  whose  fatal  illness 
shortened  his  visit  to  England  in  1844,  was  the  last  of  the  imperial  family 
sleeping  here,  down  to  the  period  of  the  recent  decease  of  her  father,  whose 
remains,  undoubtedly,  are  now  also  deposited  here.  "  Her  coffin,"  says  a 
late  traveller,  "  was  covered  with  fresh  and  fragrant  flowers,  tokens  of 
affection  from  many  who  knew  and  loved  her,  and  numbers  daily  visit  the 
last  resting-place  of  her  whose  early  death  was  so  severe  a  blow  to  her 

family To  that  gloomy  church,  unseen  and  unknown,  many  a  fair 

daughter  of  the  Russian  noble  often  comes  to  pour  forth  her  supplications 
for  the  repose  of  the  dead  and  the  safety  of  the  living,  and  to  strew  roses 
on  the  tomb  of  one  who,  young  and  gay  as  themselves,  died  when  most 
happy  and  when  most  beloved." 

The  whole  aspect  of  this  church  is  dingy  and  wretched ;  and  the  vast 


444  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

quantity  of  torn  and  tattered  banners,  and  keys  of  fortresses,  liung  up  in 
every  part  of  it,  give  one  the  idea  of  being  in  some  old-fasliioned  gallery 
I  of  an  arsenal.  Many  of  the  flags  can  not  be  looked  upon  without  interest. 
Here  are  the  Swedish  flags  taken  at  Poltava — the  selfsame  banners  which 
Charles  XII.  fondly  hoped  to  plant  on  the  battlements  of  the  kremlin  at 
Moscow ;  the  Prussian  eagles,  too,  wrested  from  the  veterans  of  the  great 
Frederick ;  the  horsetails  of  countless  pashas,  and  their  batons  of  office, 
curiously  inlaid,  and  in  shape  very  much  resembling  a  small-headed  ham- 
mer, with  a  long  and  tapering  handle  ;  seven  French  eagles  ;  and,  above 
all,  the  keys  of  Paris  and  many  other  cities  and  fortresses  of  "  La  belle 
France^  A  Turkish  flag  hangs  here,  on  the  tarnished  silk  of  which  is 
the  impress  of  a  bloody  hand  distinctly  stamped,  telling  more  forcibly  than 
words  of  the  death-struggle  that  accompanied  the  capture  of  this  trophy, 
in  defence  of  which  life  was  thought  well  sacrificed.  It  is  now  consigned 
to  dust  and  neglect,  save  when  the  chance  visit  of  some  curious  stranger 
unfurls  once  again  that  wide-swelling  fold,  around  which  the  storm  of  battle 
once  raged  fast  and  furious.  There  are  some  very  large  jewels  in  the  dia- 
dem of  the  Virgin  in  this  church,  but  they  are  of  an  inferior  quality,  or  have 
been  imperfectly  polished,  as  they  are  dim  and  rayless. 

Among  the  sacred  vessels  here  deposited  are  shown  some  turned  in  wood 
and  ivory,  the  work  of  Peter  the  Great ;  and  attention  is  generally  drawn 
to  one  cross  in  particular,  the  centre  of  which  is  ornamented  with  a  circu- 
lar slide  of  ivory,  on  which  the  crucifixion  with  the  mourning  women  below 
are  carved  in  bas-relief.  A  multitude  of  rays  issue  from  the  slide  as  from 
a  sun ;  every  ray  is  turned  in  ebony,  in  the  ornamenting  of  which  with 
all  manner  of  carving  an  enormous  degree  of  labor  must  have  been  ex- 
pended. 

The  cottage  of  Peter  the  Great,  on  the  same  island,  though  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  citadel,  has  been  alluded  to  in  the  previous  chapter.  Of 
the  three  apartments  into  which  it  is  divided,  the  inner  one  was  his  bed- 
room ;  the  adjoining  one  his  chapel,  where  the  pictures  that  he  worshipped 
are  still  preserved ;  and  that  to  the  right  his  receiving-room.  The  empe- 
ror Alexander  covered  the  whole  cottage  in  with  an  outer  casing.  It  was 
here  that  the  city  was  first  commenced ;  and  the  wooden  church,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Troitsky  bridge,  is  the  oldest  in  St.  Petersburg. 

Among  the  Russo-Grcek  churches,  that  of  the  Smolnoi  convent  is  distin- 
guished for  the  taste  of  its  decorations,  and  may  serve  as  a  specimen  of  the 
modern  Russian  style  of  church-architecture.  It  is  more  spacious  than 
Russian  churches  are  in  general,  and  its  five  cupolas  are  placed  in  harmo- 
nious relation  with  one  another.  They  are  painted  deep  blue,  sprinkled 
with  golden  stars.  A  high,  magnificent,  beautifully-designed  iron  grating 
—  whose  rails,  or  rather  pillars,  are  wound  with  wreaths  of  vine-leaves  and 
flowers,  in  iron-work — surrounds  the  courtyards  of  tlie  convent ;  and  above 
it  wave  the  elegant  birch  and  lime  trees. 

Seated  on  a  gentle  elevation,  on  a  corner  of  land,  round  which  the  Neva 


ST.   PETERSBURG  —  SMOLNOI   AND   NEVSKOI   CONVENTS.  445 

bends  to  the  west,  this  cloister,  with  its  mysterious  reserve,  and  the  alluring 
colors  with  which  it  is  clothed,  resembles  a  magic  palace  of  the  "  Arabian 
Nights."  From  the  eastern  suburb  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  from  Sunday 
street,  which  is  a  mile  and  a  half  long,  and  leads  directly  to  it,  the  clois- 
ter is  seen  far  and  near ;  and,  from  all  quarters  of  the  empire,  the  ortho- 
dox believers  bow  and  cross  themselves  at  the  sight  of  its  cupolas.  This 
building  is  dedicated  to  the  education  and  instruction  of  young  girls  of 
noble  and  citizen  birth,  of  whom  not  less  than  five  hundred  are  brought  up 
at  the  cost  of  the  orovernment,  and  three  hundred  at  their  own. 

The  church  of  the  cloister,  which  is  open  to  the  public  as  a  place  of 
worship,  has  something  extremely  pleasing  in  its  style  of  decoration :  only 
two  colors  are  to  be  seen — that  of  the  gold  framework  of  the  ornamented 
objects,  and  of  the  white  imitative  marble,  highly  polished,  and  covering 
all  the  walls,  pillars,  and  arches.     Several  galleries,  which  are  illuminated 
on  high  festival-days,  run  like  garlands  round  the  interior  of  the  dome. 
Not  less  than  four-and-twenty  stoves  of  gigantic  dimensions  are  scattered 
about  the  church,  which  they  keep  at  the  temperature  of  the  study,  and 
greet  all  that  enter  with  true  Christian  warmth.     These  stoves  are  built 
like  little  chapels,  so  that  at  first  they  are  taken  for  church-ornaments. 
The  Russians  love  pomp  and  splendor  in  their  churches.     In  this  one,  the 
balustrades  surrounding  the  ikonostas  are  of  the  finest  glass,' and  the  doors 
are  formed  of  golden  columns  twined  and  interlaced  with  vine-leaves  and 
ears  of  grain  in  carved  and  gilded  wood.     The  pictures  of  this  ikonostas 
are  all  new,  painted  by  the  pupils  of  the  St.  Petersburg  Academy.     The 
faces  of  the  apostles  and  saints,  of  the  Madonna  and  of  the  Redeemer,  in 
the  old  Russian  pictures,  have  all  the  well-known  Byzantine  or  Indian 
physiognomy — small,  long-cut  eyes,  dark  complexion,  excessively  thin 
cheeks,  a  small  mouth,  thin  lips,  slender  ringlets,  and  a  scanty  beard  ;  the 
nose  uncommonly  sharp  and  pointed,  quite  vanishing  at  the  root  between 
the  eyes,  and  the  head  very  round.     In  the  new  pictures  of  the  Russian 
school,  they  have  copied  the  national  physiognomy  as  seen  in  the  Russian 
merchants — full,  red  cheeks,  a  long  beard,  light  and  abundant  hair,  large 
blue  eyes,  and  a  blunted  nose !     It  is  wonderful  that  the  Russian  clergy 
have  permitted  this  deviation  from  the  old  models  ;  the  new  ones,  however, 
are  held  in  very  little  respect  by  the  people,  who  reverence  only  the  old, 
dusty,  and  dusky  saints,  and  are  as  little  inclined  to  accept  faces  they  can 
understand  as  to  hear  divine  service  in  a  language  they  can  comprehend  — 
for  the  old  Slavonian  dialect,  which  continues  to  be  used,  is  unintelligible 
to  them.     The  empress  Maria,  the  foundress  and  benefactress  of  the  con- 
vent, has  a  simple  monument  in  the  church,  which  is  dedicated  in  lier  honor 
to  St.  Mary. 

There  are  only  two  convents  in  St.  Petersburg:  this  of  Smolnoi — one 
only  in  name,  for  the  empress  Catherine's  twenty  nuns  have  long  since 
been  dispossessed  by  the  eight  hundred  young  ladies  —  and  that  of  Alex- 
ander Nevskoi,  for  monks.     The  latter  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in 


446  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

Russia — a  lavra*  and  inferior  in  rank  only  to  tlie  "  Lavra  of  the  Trinity" 
in  Moscow,  and  to  the  "  Lavra  of  the  Cave"  in  Kiev.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
metropolitan  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  stands  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  Nev- 
skoi  Prospekt,  where  it  occupies  a  large  space,  enclosing  within  its  walls 
churches,  towers,  gardens,  and  monks'  cells.  Peter  the  Great  founded  it 
in  honor  of  the  canonized  grand-duke  Alexander,  who,  in  a  great  battle 
here,  defeated  the  Swedes  and  the  knights  of  the  military  orders,  and  whose 
remains  were  brought  hither  in  a  silver  coffin.  Peter's  successors  increased 
the  possessions  and  buildings,  and  Catherine  II.  built  its  cathedral,  one  of 
the  handsomest  churches  in  St.  Petersburg.  For  the  interior  decoration, 
marble  was  brought  from  Italy,  precious  stones  from  Siberia,  and  pearls 
from  Persia.  It  is  further  adorned  with  some  good  copies  after  Guide 
Reni  and  Perugino. 

On  two  great  pillars  opposite  the  altar  are  two  excellent  portraits  — 
Peter  the  Great  and  Catherine  II., — larger  than  life.  These  two,  as 
"Founder"  and  "Finisher,"  are  everywhere  united  in  St.  Petersburg. 
In  a  side-chapel  stands  the  monument  of  Alexander  Nevsky.  It  is  of  mas- 
sive silver,  and  contains  not  less  than  five  thousand  pounds  of  pure  metal ; 
it  is  a  silver  mountain  fifteen  feet  high,  on  which  stands  a  silver  catafalco, 
and  silver  angels,  as  large  as  a  man,  with  trumpets,  and  silver  flowers, 
and  a  quantity  of  bas^elief  in  silver,  representing  the  battle  of  the  Neva. 
The  keys  of  Adrianople  are  suspended  to  the  tomb  of  St.  Alexander ;  they 
are  strikingly  small,  not  much  larger  than  the  keys  of  a  money-box,  which, 
in  fact,  Adrianople  has  in  many  respects  been  to  Russia. 

The  Nevsky  cloister  has  profited  yet  more  by  the  presents  sent  from 
Persepolis  to  the  northern  Petropolis,  when  the  Russian  embassador  Gri- 
boyedoff  was  murdered  in  Telieran,  than  by  the  Byzantine  tribute.  The 
Persian  gifts  consisted  of  a  long  train  of  rare  animals,  Persian  webs,  gold- 
stuffs,  and  pearls.  They  reached  St.  Petersburg  in  the  winter.  The  pearls, 
and  gold-stuffs,  and  rich  shawls,  were  carried  in  great  silver  and  gold 
dishes  by  magnificently-dressed  Persians.  The  Persian  prince  Khosreff 
Mirza  drove  in  an  imperial  state-equipage  with  six  horses  ;  the  elephants, 
bearing  on  their  backs  towers  filled  with  Indian  warriors,  had  leathern  boots 
to  protect  them  from  the  cold,  and  the  cages  of  the  tigers  and  lions  were 
provided  with  double  skins  of  the  northern  polar  bears.  It  was  like  a  pro- 
cession in  the  Arabian  Nights.  The  elephants,  however,  soon  died  from 
the  severity  of  the  climate. 

Among  the  individual  souvenirs  is  an  episcopal  staff  turned  by  Peter  the 
Great,  and  presented  by  him  to  the  first  St.  Petersburg  metropolitan,  and 
another  of  amber,  from  Catherine  II.  The  library  of  about  ten  thousand 
volumes,  independently  of  a  number  of  very  valuable  manuscripts,  concern- 
ing which  many  books  have  been  written,  contains  many  rare  specimens  of 
the  antiquities  of  Russia. 

*  The  holiest  convents  in  the  empire,  the  seats  of  the  metropolitans,  are  called  lavras;  the  other 
convents  are  only  monastirs. 


ST.    PETEIISBURG  —  THE   PUEOBRASHENSKY   CIIL'RCII. 


417 


Monastery  oir  St.  Sebgius,  Environs  of  St.  Pktersuvkg. 


The  monastery  of  St.  Sergius  (or  Serg-ieff),  a  view  of  which  is  given 
above,  is  situated  on  the  route  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Peterhoflf.  This 
monastery  is  the  most  noted  place  of  pilgrimage  in  tlic  environs  of  the  capi- 
tal. It  has  four  churches,  a  mansion  for  invalids,  endowed  by  the  Zouboff 
family,  and  a  cemetery,  which  contains  the  tombs  of  the  most  eminent 
ecclesiastics  and  martyrs  in  Russian  history. 

The  Preobrashensky  church  belongs  to  one  of  the  oldest  regiments  of 
guards,  founded  by  Peter  the  Great,  the  "tenth  legion"  of  the  Russian 
Caesars.  This  church  (the  Sposs-Preobrashenskoi-Sabor')  is  one  of  the 
most  considerable  of  the  city,  and,  more  than  any  other,  adorned  both 
without  and  within  with  trophies  from  conquered  nations.  The  railing 
that  surrounds  the  churchyard  is  formed  of  Turkish  and  French  cannon. 
Every  three  of  those  three  hundred  cannon,  one  large  and  two  smaller, 
mounted  on  a  granite  pedestal,  with  their  mouths  pointed  downward,  form 
a  column.  Around  the  cannon,  chains  of  different  thickness,  gracefully 
twined,  are  hung  like  garlands  between  the  columns ;  on  the  summit  of 
each  is  enthroned  a  Russian  double  eagle  of  iron,  with  expanded  wings. 
Within,  the  church  is  adorned  with  flags  and  halberds.  The  pillars  look 
like  palm-trees,  of  which  every  leaf  is  a  lance !  Here  also  travellers  are 
shown  a  production  of  Russian  inventive  talent,  the  work  of  a  common 
peasant.     It  is  a  large,  splendid  piece  of  clockwork,  made  by  him  ia  iiis 


448  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

native  village,  bought  for  twenty  thousand  roubles  by  his  lord,  and  pre- 
sented to  the  church.  The  works  are  said  to  be  so  good  as  to  have  stood 
in  no  need  of  repair  during  the  eight  or  ten  years  the  clock  has  been  in 
the  church. 

Trinity  church  is  also  a  modern  erection,  like  the  Smolnoi  convent,  and 
very  similar  to  it.  The  exterior  offers  an  example  of  the  fantastic  manner 
in  which  tlie  Russians  often  decorate  their  churches.  Under  the  cornice 
of  the  dark-blue,  star-bespanged  cupola,  an  arabesque  of  viiic-leaves  and 
flowers  runs  all  round.  The  garlands  are  held  up  by  angels,  and  between 
every  pair  of  them  a  crown  of  thorns  is  introduced  as  a  centre.  But  for 
this  martyr-token  of  Christianity,  it  would  seem  the  gay  temple  of  some 
Grecian  god. 

One  half,  and  certainly  the  more  important  half,  of  the  churches  of  St. 
Petersburg,  are  the  erections  of  the  present  century.  The  Nicolai  church, 
the  church  of  the  Resurrection,  and  some  others  of  the  time  of  Catherine 
II.,  are  not  worthy  of  mention  in  an  architectural  point  of  view.  In  the 
church  of  the  Resurrection  are  some  very  singular  offerings  to  the  saints ; 
among  others  a  patchwork  quilt,  probably  the  offering  of  some  devout  beg- 
gar, and  containing  the  best  of  her  rags.  It  was  made  out  of  a  vast  num- 
ber of  pieces  great  and  small,  woollen,  linen,  and  silk,  worked  with  gold 
thread,  perhaps  taken  from  the  cast-oif  epaulettes  of  some  officei*  of  the 
guards,  and  in  the  middle  a  golden  cross  was  sewed  on. 

lu  the  Nicolai  church,  which  is  built  in  two  stories,  one  for  divine  ser- 
vice during  winter,  and  the  other  in  summer,  the  four  small  cupolas  are 
tenanted  by  a  number  of  pigeons,  who  make  their  nests  there,  and  are  fed 
by  the  attendants  with  tlie  rice  which  the  pious  place  there  for  the  dead. 

Among  the  churches  of  other  confessions  than  the  Greek,  that  built  by 
the  emperor  Paul,  when  he  assumed  the  protectorate  of  the  Maltese  order, 
is  at  least  interesting.  It  is  quite  in  the  style  of  the  old  churches  of  the 
knights  of  St.  John,  and  still  contains  the  chair  on  which  the  emperor  sat 
as  grand-master  of  the  order. 

The  largest  Roman  catholic  church  is  on  the  Nevskoi  Prospekt,  opposite 
the  Kazan  cnthedral.  The  priests  are  Germans,  and  the  service  half  Ger- 
man, half  Latin.  It  is  attended  by  the  Poles  and  Lithuanians,  to  whom 
the  chanting,  by  the  congregation,  of  the  "  immaculate  Virgin,"  "■  tlie  Queen 
of  Heaven,"  "  the  Tower  of  God,"  "  the  Fortress  of  Zion,"  <fec.,  in  itself 
sufficiently  unintelligible,  must  be  necessarily  still  more  so  here.  The 
Russians  rarely  attend  the  Roman  catholic  service ;  if  they  go  to  any  for- 
eign church,  it  is  generally  to  the  protestant.  The  catholics,  Greeks,  and 
Armenians  (the  latter  of  whom  have  also  a  very  pretty  cliurch  on  the  Nev- 
skoi Prospekt')  hold  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  ;  but  the  Dutch,  it  would 
appear,  to  a  Duality  —  for  on  their  church  stands  the  singular  inscription, 
"  Deo  at  salvatori  sacrum."  This  church,  with  its  very  rich  dotation, 
dates  from  Peter  the  Great,  when  the  Dutch  were  the  most  considerable 
merchants,  and  were  endowed  by  the  liberal  czar  with  so  much  land  within 


ST.    PETERSBURG HOSPITALS,  449 

the  city,  that  many  a  Dutch  cathedral  may  envy  the  church  of  this  little 
northern  colony. 

The  largest  civil  hospital  in  St.  Petersburg  is  that  of  Oboukoff,  situated 
on  the  Fontanka  canal,  and  near  the  Semenovskoi  parade-ground.  All 
persons  are  received  here.  Those  who  are  able  contribute  a  small  monthly 
sum  toward  its  support.  Twelve  medical  men  are  attached  to  this  hospi- 
tal. An  iron  plate,  with  the  name  of  the  patient,  the  nature  of  the  disease, 
the  time  of  entering,  and  the  course  of  treatment,  is  affixed  above  each 
bed.  The  bedsteads  are  of  iron,  and  the  linen  remarkably  clean.  There 
is  a  school,  belonging  to  this  hospital,  where  youths  are  educated  for  hos- 
pital-attendants. They  are  taught  to  read  and  write,  instructed  in  Latin, 
and  in  a  smattering  of  medicine  and  anatomy,  and  at  a  certain  age  distrib- 
uted among  the  various  hospitals  of  the  city  as  subordinate  officers. 

The  military  hospital  contains  about  two  thousand  patients.  The  City 
hospital  and  the  Imperial  hospital,  for  sick  poor,  are  both  on  a  large  scale.- 
There  is  also  an  institution  for  deaf  and  dumb  persons,  a  blind-asylum,  &c. 

The  richest  and  most  considerable  of  the  public  institutions  of  St.  Pe- 
tersburg is,  however,  tlie  foundling-hospital.  Well  endowed  from  its  very 
first  establishment,  it  owes  its  colossal  wealth  to  the  bounty  and  particular 
care  of  the  late  empress  Maria.  Among  other  favors  accorded  to  the  hos- 
pital, she  gaA'c  it  the  monopoly  of  playing-cards.  The  duty  on  these  is 
very  high,  amounting  to  fifty  silver  copecks  (about  forty  cents)  a  pack. 
In  all  the  other  countries  of  Europe  put  together  there  is  probably  not  so 
great  a  consumption  of  cards  as  in  Russia.  Not  only  the  long  winter  even- 
ings—  that  is  to  say,  the  long  evenings  of  nine  months  out  of  the  twelve  — 
and  the  Russians'  innate  love  for  play,  make  the  sale  of  cards  something 
almost  incredible,  but  luxury  and  waste  further  stimulate  the  demand.  In 
the  higher  circles,  a  pack  of  cards  serves  but  for  one  game  of  ombre,  whist, 
&c. ;  and  even  in  the  better  sort  of  clubs,  new  cards  are  taken  after  every 
third  game  !  It  gives  but  a  faint  idea  of  the  luxury  prevailing  in  Russia, 
although  this  is  but  a  pale  shadow  of  that  which  formerly  reigned.* 

The  enormous  capital  belonging  to  the  St.  Petersburg  foundling-hospital 
affords  it  abundant  means  to  maintain  itself  on  a  level  in  every  respect  with 

*  "A  few  years  ago  the  charming  countess  Woronzow  Daschkow  gave  a  grand  fhe  in  tlie  old 
French  style.  For  that  evening  the  whole  house  and  its  appurtenances  were  transformed,  by  the 
magic  of  her  command,  into  a  mansion  of  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  Corridors,  staircases,  saloons, 
boudoirs,  all  wore  the  character  of  that  period  ;  walls  and  ceilings,  floors  and  windows,  the  furni- 
ture, the  services,  even  the  liveries  of  the  laced  footmen,  with  their  long,  powdered  perukes  —  all 
was  rococo.  The  entertainment  lasted  four  hours,  cost  many  hundred  thousand  roubles,  and  early 
the  next  moming  everything  was  destroyed  and  torn  down,  in  order  to  restore  the  house  as  quickly 
as  possilde  to  its  former  condition.  —  The  houses  of  all  persons  of  qualify  are  annually  thoroughly 
rew-furnished,  that  they  may  not  be  a  single  season  behind  the  latest  Paris  fashions ;  and  yet  what 
is  all  this,  compared  to  the  mad  prodigality  of  an  earlier  period  ?  Previously  to  the  accession  of 
Alexander,  a  high-born  Russian  would  have  thought  it  a  profanation  of  hospitality  to  use  the  same 
service  for  two  feasts.  The  guests  gone,  the  servants  took  evcrjthing  that  had  been  used  at  the 
repast  —  bottles,  glasses,  covers,  plates,  candlesticks,  linen  —  the  whole  furniiure  of  the  table,  in 
short  —  and  tossed  it  all  out  upon  the  heads  of  the  rejoicing  mob  assembled  in  the  street  below! 
What  would  now  be  deemed  madness,  was  then  good  taste."  — Jerioi.^.nn. 

29 


150  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

the  first  philanthropic  institutions  in  the  world.  The  institution  is  under 
the  immediate  protection  of  the  empress  dowager,  who  frequently  visits  it, 
often  in  company  with  her  daughter  the  duchess  of  Leuchtenburg,  watches 
over  all  its  arrangements  with  true  womanly  care,  and  strengthens  and 
improves  it  by  her  powerful  patronage.  The  orphan  who  enters  this  chari- 
table house  is  cared  for,  not  only  in  its  tender  infancy,  but  for  its  whole 
life.  Unseeing  and  unseen,  the  woman  on  duty  in  the  interior  of  the  cham- 
ber receives  the  little  helpless  being  whom  the  world  and  its  own  parents 
abandon.  At  the  ring  of  the  door-bell,  she  turns  the  exterior  half  of  the 
(^offer  inward,  her  ear  scarcely  catching  the  last  murmured  blessing  with 
\\hich  many  a  heart-broken  mother  commits  to  the  care  of  strangers  that 
which  she  holds  dearest  in  the  world. 

As  soon  as  received,  the  infant  undergoes  a  medical  examination  ;  and 
an  exact  record  is  made  of  every  mark  and  sign  upon  its  body  and  linen  — 
of  everytliing,  in  short,  which  came  with  it.  Then  it  is  washed,  dressed 
in  new  clothes,  a  number  is  allotted  to  it,  and  it  is  given  over  to  one  of 
the  nurses  who  are  always  there  in  readiness.  On  bright  spring  mornings, 
long  lines  of  well-closed  carriages  may  be  seen  driving  slowly  through  the 
streets,  conveying  the  nurses  and  their  innocent  charges  into  the  country. 
There  the  children  remain  for  some  years,  under  the  care  and  superinten- 
dence of  physicians  and  officers  of  the  institution,  Avho  regularly  and  strictly 
inspect  the  foster-mothers. 

The  first  years  of  infancy  happily  passed,  the  children  arc  brought  back 
to  the  foundling-hospital,  and  their  education  begins.  The  nature  of  this 
education  depends  entirely  on  tlie  capacity  and  inclinations  they  betray. 
This  establishment  sends  forth  stout  blacksmiths  and  ploughmen,  just  as  it 
has  also  produced  distinguished  officers,  sculptors,  and  musicians.  Cooks 
from  the  foundling-hospital  are  much  sought  after ;  governesses  that  have 
been  educated  there  are  preferred  to  all  others. 

When  the  lad  has  completed  his  education  in  the  house  which  received 
him  as  a  helpless  infant,  the  choice  of  a  calling  is  allowed  him  —  more  or 
less  limited,  of  course,  by  the  degree  of  ability  and  the  conduct  he  has 
manifested.  He  may  devote  himself  to  science  or  art,  to  the  military  or 
naval  profession,  to  some  trade  or  handicraft — just  as  he  pleases  ;  and  the 
expense  of  his  education,  previously  borne  by  the  hospital,  thenceforward 
falls  upon  the  government.  To  requite  this,  he  is  bound  to  devote  his  ac- 
quirements to  the  service  of  the  state  for  a  certain  time.  This,  however, 
is  not  a  very  hard  condition,  since  it  ultimately  leads  to  that  which  so 
many  thousands  sigh  after  for  years  in  vain,  namely,  an  appointment  as 
soon  as  he  is  quite  fit  for  one. 

Formerly  these  foundlings  could  at  any  time  be  claimed  by  their  parents ; 
but  lately  a  ukase  has  put  many  difficulties  in  the  way  of  such  claims,  if  it 
has  not,  indeed,  totally  disavowed  them.  This  decree  was  rendered  neces- 
sary by  the  great  abuses  that  arose  from  the  facilities  afi'orded  to  heartless 
and  unscrupulous  parents  of  getting  rid  of  the  care  of  their  offspring's 


ST.    PETERSBURG THE   FOUNDLING-HOSPITAL. 


451 


childliood  without  urgent  necessity.  In  this  manner,  children  born  in  wed- 
lock were  often  temporarily  committed  to  the  care  of  the  state,  and  taken 
back  when  their  age  and  education  rendered  them  profitable,  instead  of 
burdensome,  to  their  families. 

The  foundling-hospital  QVospitatelnoi  Dom'),  like  all  the  public  institu- 
tions of  the  capital,  has  the  air  of  a  palace  rather  than  a  building  intended 
for  charitable  purposes.  It  occupies  with  its  courts,  gardens,  and  depen- 
dencies, a  space  of  twenty-eight  acres,  is  close  to  the  Fontanka  canal,  and 
therefore  in  the  best  part  of  the  town.  The  main  building  is  composed  of 
what  were  formerly  the  palaces  of  Prince  Bobrinsky  and  Count  Rasoumoff- 
ski,  which  were  purchased  for  the  institution ;  but  a  number  of  additional 
buildings  have  since  then  been  erected,  and  the  whole  may  now  be  said  to 
form  a  little  district  of  its  own.  This  hospital  is  of  more  recent  origin 
than  that  of  Moscow,  of  which  it  was  only  a  dependent  branch  when  insti- 
tuted by  Catherine  II.  in  1770,  but  it  now  eclipses  the  parent  institution. 
In  1790  it  contained  only  three  hundred  children  ;  but  since  the  commence- 
ment of  the  present  century,  the  number  has  increased  with  astonishing 
rapidity,  amounting  in  all  to  about  thirty  thousand,  and  those  annually 
admitted  comprise  eight  or  nine  thousand. 

An  institution  like  this  is  calculated  to  excite  reflections  in  the  mind  of 
an  American  as  to  its  expediency.  If  it  is  to  be  viewed,  in  the  light  of  a 
cliarity,  it  is  a  charity  upon  a  very  questionable  principle. 


Saloon,  Hotkl  dks  Mallk-Posif.s,  St.  I'etkksbukg. 


452  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

MARKETS,    ETC.,    OP    ST.    PETERSBURG. 

THE  Russians  have  a  very  convenient  custom  for  persons  wlio  are  desi- 
rous of  making  purchases  —  that  of  offering  for  sale  within  the  same 
building  almost  everything  that  is  likely  to  be  bought.  This  plan  is, 
on  the  other  hand,  very  disagreeable  to  those  who  have  nothing  to  ])uy ; 
for  the  bearded  worthy  who  stands  at  every  door  of  the  Gostinoi  Dvor  is 
by  no  means  content  with  verbally  inviting  the  stranger  to  walk  in,  but 
seizes  him  by  the  arm  or  coat-tails  without  ceremony,  and,  unless  he  makes 
some  show  of  resistance,  the  chances  are  that  he  will  be  transferred,  wo/e«s 
volens,  to  the  darkness  visible  of  the  merchant's  dirty  storehouse. 

There  is,  in  mqst  Russian  cities  of  importance,  and  generally  in  a  cen- 
tral position,  a  Gostinoi  Dvor,  or  bazar,  where  all  the  more  important 
articles  of  commerce  are  collected  for  sale.  It  is  generally  a  large  build- 
ing, consisting  of  a  ground-floor  and  an  upper  floor.  The  upper  floor  is 
commonly  reserved  for  wholesale  dealings  ;  the  ground-floor  consists  of  a 
multitude  of  booths  or  shops  in  which  the  various  descriptions  of  merclian- 
dise  are  sold  by  retail.  The  dwellings  of  the  merchants  are  away  from 
these  markets ;  and,  when  the  business-hours  are  at  an  end,  each  trades- 
man locks  up  his  own  stall,  and  the  whole  building  is  committed  for  tlic 
niglit  to  the  guardianship  of  the  watchmen  and  their  dogs. 

The  Gostinoi  Dvor  of  St.  Petersburg  is  a  colossal  building,  one  side 
being  in  the  Nevskoi  Prospekt,  and  another  in  tlie  Bolsha'ia  Ssattovaia,  or 
Great  Garden  street,  through  which,  and  some  of  the  adjoining  streets, 
extend  from  it  a  number  of  shops  and  booths,  giving  to  that  part  of  the 
town,  throughout  the  year,  the  appearance  of  a  perpetual  fair.  The  better 
description  of  Russian  goods  are  always  found  in  the  Gostinoi  Dvor: 
those  of  an  inferior  kind  in  the  adjoining  markets,  the  Apraxin  Rinok  and 
the  Tshukiii  Dvor,  which  lie  a  little  fartlier  on  in  the  BolsJidia  Ssattova'ia. 
Following  the  last-named  street,  which  is  bordered  throughout  its  whole 
length  by  shops  and  booths,  the  stranger  will  arrive  at  an  open  place,  the 
Sennma  Ploschad,  or  hay-market,  which  may  be  considered  the  principal 
provision-market  of  St.  Petersburg. 

All  the  lanes  and  alleys  that  intersect  the  Gostinoi  Dvor  are  thronged 
throughout  the  day  by  a  stream  of  sledges  and  droskies,  in  which  the  cooks, 
the  stewards,  and  other  servants  of  the  great  liouses,  come  to  make  tlicir 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  THE   GOSTINOI   DVOR. 


453 


The  Gostinoi  Dvoh,  at  St.  Petersburg,  during  Easter. 


daily  purchases.  In  a  city  containing  half  a  million  of  inhabitants,  there 
must  at  all  times  be  a  great  and  urgent  demand  for  an  immense  variety  of 
articles ;  but  there  are  many  reasons  why  this  should  be  more  the  case  in 
St.  Petersburg  than  in  any  other  capital.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  no 
other  European  capital  where  the  inhabitants  are  content  to  make  use  of 
goods  of  such  inferior  quality,  or  where,  consequently,  they  have  such  fre- 
quent occasion  to  buy  new  articles,  or  to  have  the  old  ones  repaired.  Then 
there  is  no  other  capital  where  the  people  are  so  capricious  and  so  fond  of 
change.  The  wealthy  Russians  are  here  one  day,  and  gone  the  next;  now 
travelling  for  the  benefit  of  their  health,  now  repairing  to  the  country  to 
re-establish  their  finances  by  a  temporary  retirement,  and  then  reappearing 
on  the  banks  of  the  Neva,  to  put  their  hundreds  of  thousands  into  circula- 
tion. This  constant  fluctuation  leads  daily  to  the  dissolution  and  to  the 
formation  of  a  number  of  establishments,  and  makes  it  necessary  that  there 
should  be  at  all  times  a  greater  stock  of  everything  requisite  for  the  outfit 
of  a  family  than  would  be  required  in  a  town  of  equal  extent,  but  whose 
population  is  more  settled. 

A  Russian  seldom  buys  anything  till  just  when  he  wants  to  use  it,  and, 
as  he  can  not  then  wait,  he  must  have  it  ready  to  his  hand.  Boots,  sad- 
dlery, wearing-apparel,  confectionary,  and  other  articles,  which  in  other 
countries  are  generally  ordered  beforeliand  from  a  tradesman,  are  here 
bought  ready  for  immediate  use.  Each  article  has  its  separate  row  of 
shops,  and  the  multitude  of  these  shops  is  almost  innumerable. 

If  the  throng  of  buyers  is  calculated  to  amuse  a  stranger,  he  will  be 


454  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

likely  to  find  still  more  diversion,  as  he  lounges  along  the  corridors,  in 
observing  the  characteristic  manners  of  the  dealers.  These  Gostindi-Dvor 
merchants  are  almost  invariably  flaxen-haired,  brown-bearded,  shrewd  fel- 
lows, in  blue  caftans,  and  blue-cloth  caps,  the  costume  uniformly  worn  by 
merchants  throughout  Russia.  They  are  constantly  extolling  their  wares 
in  the  most  exaggerated  terms  to  those  who  are  passing  by.  Cap  in  hand, 
they  are  always  ready  to  open  their  doors  to  every  passer-by,  and  are  in- 
cessant in  tlie  exercise  of  their  eloquence,  whatever  may  be  the  rank,  sta- 
tion, or  age,  of  those  they  address.  They  will  not  hesitate  to  oflFer  a  bear- 
skin mantle  to  a  little  fellow  scarcely  strong  enough  to  carry  it,  recommend 
their  coarsely-fashioned  boots  to  a  passing  dandy,  invite  an  old  man  to 
purchase  a  child's  toy,  or  solicit  a  young  girl  to  carry  away  a  sword  or  a 
fowling-piece.  Where  the  merchant  does  not  act  as  his  own  crier,  he 
usually  has  somebody  to  officiate  in  his  place,  and  it  may  easily  be  imagined 
what  life  and  animation  these  constant  cries  and  solicitations  give  to  the 
market.  Preachers  and  actors  have  generally  a  tone  peculiar  to  their  sev- 
eral classes ;  and  even  so  has  the  Gostinui-Dvor  merchant,  whose  voice 
may  be  known  afar  off,  but  who  immediately  alters  that  tone  when  a  fish 
shows  a  disposition  to  fasten  on  the  bait,  for  then  commences  a  more  seri- 
ous discussion  of  the  merits  and  quality  of  his  merchandise. 

No  light  or  fire  is  allowed  in  the  building,  unless  it  be  the  sacred  lamps 
that  are  kept  burning  before  the  pictures  of  the  saints,  and  which  are  sup- 
posed to  be  too  holy  to  occasion  any  danger.  The  merchants  are,  in  con- 
sequence, often  exposed  to  intense  cold,  but  this  they  endure  with  admira- 
ble fortitude  and  cheerfulness.  Over  their  caftans,  it  is  true,  they  put  on 
a  close  fur-coat  of  white  wolf-skin,  a  piece  of  apparel  worn  by  every  Gos- 
tinoi-Dvor  merchant,  of  the  same  cut  and  material. 

Even  without  including  the  peasants  who  offer  provisions  for  sale,  there 
are  probably  not  much  less  than  ten  thousand  merchants  and  dealers  of 
different  degrees  assembled  in  the  Gostinbi  Dvor  of  St.  Petersburg  and 
its  dependent  buildings.  Of  these  people,  few  have  their  household  estab- 
lishments in  the  vicinity  of  the  market,  yet  all  have  the  wants  of  hunger  to 
satisfy  in  the  course  of  the  day,  and  it  may  therefore  readily  be  conceived 
that  a  host  of  small  traders  have  attached  themselves  to  the  establishment 
for  the  mere  convenience  of  the  merchants.  Among  the  streets  and  lanes 
of  the  bazar  there  are  constantly  circulating  retailers  of  tea,  with  their 
large,  steaming  50?»oyaf5;*  quass-sellers,  together  with  dealers  in  bread, 
sausages,  cheese,  &c. ;  and  all  these  people  receive  constant  encourage- 
ment from  the  hungry  merchants.  Careworn  looks  are  as  little  seen  in 
this  markef  as  grumbling  tones  are  heard ;  for  a  Russian  seldom  gives 

*  The  samovar,  a  view  of  whicli  is  given  on  the  opposite  page,  derives  its  name  from  two  Rus- 
sian words,  signifying  "  boil  itself."  It  is  a  large  brass  or  copper  urn,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  a 
cylinder  containing  a  quantity  of  live  charcoal.  The  top  is  like  a  funnel,  and  open.  This  is  the 
place  for  the  teapot,  the  fire  at  the  bottom  keeping  the  lea  hot  and  boiling  the  water  at  the  same 
time.  A  slice  of  lemon  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  milk ;  and  Oliphant  remarks  that  he  thought  it 
a  vei-y  agreeable  addition. 


ST.    PETERSBURG THE    APRAXIN    RINOK.  456 

lioiiso-room  to  care  or  melancholy,  and  yet  more  rarely  gives  utterance  to 
a  complaint.  Nor,  indeed,  has  he  occasion ;  for,  in  this  rising  country. 
'•  S/ava  Bog-u .'"  (God  be  thanked !)  be  the  merclian- 
dise  ever  so  bad,  trade  goes  on  nevertheless.  In  otlier 
countries,  a  merchant  relies  upon  the  goodness  of  liis 
merchandise  for  custom ;  the  Russian  speculator  be- 
lieves that,  the  worse  his  wares,  the  sooner  will  his 
customers  want  to  renew  their  stock. 

The  Apraxin  Rinok  and  Tshukin  Dvor,  two  mar- 
kets before  referred  to,  occupy  a  piece  of  ground  about 
fifteen  hundred  feet  square  —  containing,  therefore,  a 
surface  of  rather  more  than  two  millions  of  square 
feet.  The  whole  is  so  closely  covered  with  stalls  and 
booths,  that  nothing  but  narrow  lanes  are  left  between  ;  somovab. 

and  supposing  each  booth,  including  the  portion  of  lane 
in  front  of  it,  to  occupy  five  hundred  square  feet,  which  is  certainly  making 
a  very  liberal  allowance,  it  would  follow  that  there  must  be  within  the  two 
bazars  nearly  five  thousand  booths,  tents,  and  stalls.  These  form  a  city 
(»f  themselves.  The  tops  of  the  booths  frequently  project  and  meet  those 
that  are  opposite  to  them,  making  the  little  lanes  between  as  dark  as  the 
alleys  of  the  Jews'  quarters  in  some  of  the  old  German  towns,  or  like  the 
streets  of  many  an  oriental  city  at  the  present  day.  Through  narrow  ga.tes 
the  traveller  will  pass  from  the  busy  Garden  street  into  this  market-place, 
wliere  a  well-dressed  human  being  will  be  looked  for  in  vain  —  where  all 
arc  "  black  people,"  bearded,  and  furred,  and  thoroughly  un-Europeau. 

With  the  exception  of  furs,  many  of  which  are  of  excellent  quality,  there 
are  in  the  GostimVDvor,  properly  so  called,  but  the  iron  and  wax  shops 
where  the  articles  are  thoroughly  Russian.  Most  of  the  merchandise  con- 
sists of  bad  imitations  of  foreign  fabrics.  As  the  goods,  so  the  customers. 
Both  are  Europeanized,  for  there  is  little  in  the  Frenchified  soubrettes,  the 
lackeys  in  livery,  the  employes  in  uniform,  and  the  foreign  teachers,  to  re- 
mind one  of  Russian  nationality :  but  a  little  farther  on,  when  you  enter 
the  gates  of  the  Apraxin  Rinok  and  the  Tshukin  Dvor,  you  come  to  a 
market  where  sellers,  buyers,  and  wares,  are  all  equally' and  entirely  Rus- 
sian ;  and  here,  in  the  very  centre  of  the  palaces  and  plate-glass  of  St. 
Petersburg,  in  this  capital  of  princes  and  magnates,  there  is  to  be  seen  a 
motley,  dirty  populace,  precisely  similar  to  what  may  be  supposed  to  have 
thronged  the  fairs  at  Novgorod  in  the  middle  ages,  or  may  still  be  seen  in 
the  bazars  of  any  of  the  provincial  towns  of  Russia. 

Here,  also,  in  tlie  true  Russian  spirit,  like  has  paired  with  like.  In  one 
corner,  for  instance,  all  the  dealers  in  sacred  images  have  congregated. 
The  Russians,  who  believe  themselves  abandoned  by  God  and  all  good 
angels  as  soon  as  the}''  are  without  his  visible  and  tangible  presence  —  or, 
rather,  who  think  every  place  the  devil's  own  ground  until  the  priest  has 
driven  him  out  of  it,  and  who  therefore  decorate  their  bodies,  their  rooms. 


456  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

their  doors,  and  their  gates,  as  well  as  their  churclies,  with  sacred  images 
—  require,  of  course,  a  very  large  and  constant  supply  of  those  articles,  of 
which,  in  fact,  the  consumption  is  enormous.  The  little  brass  crosses,  and 
the  Virgins,  the  St.  Johns,  the  St.  Georges,  and  other  amulets,  may  be 
seen  piled  up  in  boxes  like  ginger-cakes  at  a  fair.  On  the  walls  of  the 
booths  are  hung  up  pictures  of  all  sorts  and  sizes,  radiant  with  mock  gold 
and  silver.  Some  are  only  a  few  inches  in  length  and  breadth.  Of  these 
a  nobleman's  footman  will  buy  a  few  score  at  a  time,  as  necessary  to  the 
fitting  up  of  a  new  house  ;  for  in  every  room  a  few  of  these  holy  little  arti- 
cles must  be  nailed  up  against  the  wall.  For  village-churches,  for  private 
chapels,  and  for  devout  mercliants  of  the  old  faith,  there  are  pictures  of 
several  ells  square,  before  which  a  whole  household  may  prostrate  them- 
selves at  their  ease.  Some  are  neatly  set  in  maliogany  frames  of  modern 
fashion ;  others  are  still  adorned  in  the  good  old  style,  with  pillars,  doors, 
and  temples,  of  silver  wire :  some  are  new,  and  from  the  pencils  of  the 
students  of  the  newly-established  St.  Petersburg  Academy  of  Arts,  but  the 
greater,  part  are  old,  and  present  figures  often  nearly  obliterated  by  the 
dust  and  smoke  of  centuries.  To  these  it  is  (particularly  when  they  can 
be  warranted  to  have  once  adorned  the  wall  of  a  church)  that  the  lower 
orders  in  Russia  attach  the  greatest  value,  just  as  the  German  peasant 
prefers  an  old,  dirty,  well-thumbed  hymn-book,  to  one  just  fresh  from  the 
binder's. 

In  another  part  of  the  market  will  be  found  a  whole  quarter  of  fruit- 
shops,  in  which  an  incredible  quantity  of  dried  fruit  is  oft'ered  for  sale. 
Eacli  of  these  shops  is  as  oddly  decorated  as  its  fellows.  In  the  centre, 
on  an  elevated  pedestal,  there  stands  generally  a  rich  battery  of  bottles 
and  boxes  of  conserves,  mostly  manufactured  at  Kiev.  Round  the  walls, 
in  small  boxes,  the  currants,  raisins,  almonds,  figs,  and  oranges,  are  ar- 
ranged, while  huge  sacks  and  chests  of  prunes,  nuts,  and  juniper-berries, 
retire  more  modestly  into  corners  ;  and  large  tuns  full  of  g-lnkvi,  a  small 
red  berry  of  which  the  Russians  are  passionately  fond,  stand  sentinels  at 
the  door.  These  are  mostly  sold  in  winter,  when  they  are  generally  frozen 
to  the  consistency  of  flint-stones,  and  are  measured  out  with  wooden  shovels 
to  amateurs.  Inside  and  outside,  these  shops  are  decorated  with  large 
festoons  of  mushrooms,  at  all  times  a  favorite  dish  with  the  common  people 
in  Russia.  It  is  surprising  that  no  good  artist  should  ever  have  chosen 
one  of  these  picturesque  Russian  fruit-shops  for  the  subject  of  his  pencil. 
Such  a  booth,  with  its  bearded  dealers  and  its  no  less  bearded  customers, 
would  make  an  admirable  tableau  de  g-enre. 

A  little  farther,  and  the  stranger  will  come  to  whole  rows  of  shops  full 
of  pretty  bridal  ornaments ;  gay  metal  wedding-crowns,  such  as  it  is  cus- 
tomary during  the  ceremony  to  place  upon  the  heads  of  bride  and  bride- 
groom ;  and  artificial  wreaths  and  flowers,  of  a  very  neat  fabric  —  and  all 
at  very  reasonable  prices.  A  whole  garland  of  roses,  for  instance,  taste- 
fully interwoven  with  silver  wire,  may  be  had  for  fifteen  or  twenty  cents ; 


ST.   PETERSBURG  —  THE   APRAXIN   RINOK. 


457 


a  bride  can  here  be  handsomely  decorated  from  head  to  foot  for  one  or 
two  dollars ;  and,  as  among  the  humbler  classes  of  St.  Petersburg  some 
thirty  weddings  are  daily  solemnized,  without  speaking  of  other  festive 
celebrations,  it  may  be  imagined  what  piles  of  ornaments  of  various  kinds 
are  constantly  kept  on  hand  to  supply  the  wants  of  brides  and  bridemaids, 
birthday-guests,  and  the  like. 

Whole  groups  of  shops  are  filled  with  perfumes,  incense,  and  various 
articles  for  fumigation  ;  others  with  honey  from  Kazan  and  Toula,  neatly 
laid  out  in  wooden  vessels  —  some  as  clean  as  the  milk-pans  in  the  caves 
of  Homer's  Cyclops,  while  others,  of  a  less  attractive  look,  remind  one 
rather  of  Limburg  cheese  in  an  advanced  stage  of  decay.  Here  also  may 
be  seen  the  beer  and  cake  and  tea  stalls,  at  which  the  peasants  never  fail 
to  expend  a  portion  of  their  gains. 


Cake  and  Tka  Stall. 

The  pastry-cooks  have  likewise  their  quarter  in  this  market,  where  they 
vend  the  oily  fish  pirog-as,  of  which  the  bearded  Russians  are  so  passion- 
ately fond.  Here  little  benches  are  ranged  around  the  table  on  which  are 
placed  the  dainty  delicacies,  covered  with  oily  pieces  of  canvass  (for  the 
pirog-a,  to  be  properly  enjoyed,  must  be  eaten  warm).     A  large  pot  of 


458  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

green  oil  on  a  salt-stand  of  no  ordinary  size  are  the  indispensable  accom- 
paniments to  the  feast.  Pass  one  of  these  shops,  and  throw  an  accidental 
glance  at  his  wares,  and  the  merchant  will  be  sure  to  anticipate  your  de- 
sires :  quickly  he  will  plunge  his  tempting  cake  into  the  oil-pot,  scatter  a 
pinch  of  salt  upon  the  dripping  mass,  and  present  it  to  you  with  the  air  of 
a  prince  !  The  sheepskinned,  bearded  Muscovite  will  rarely  be  able  to  re- 
sist the  temptation :  he  will  seat  himself  on  one  of  the  benches,  and  one 
rich,  savory  pirog-a  after  the  other  will  wend  its  way  down  his  throat,  till 
his  long  and  well-anointed  beard  becomes  as  bright  and  glossy  as  a  piece 
of  highly-polished  horsehair  !  Some  travellers  may  turn  with  disgust  from 
the  picture  here  presented  to  them ;  but  others  will  be  too  much  amused 
by  tlie  wit  and  politesse  of  the  oil-lickers  to  expend  much  indignation  on 
the  A^enders  of  these  pirogas.  Even  the  coarsest  and  dirtiest  article  of 
merchandise  will  be  presented  with  a  courtly  and  insinuating  demeanor  by 
these  rough-looking,  bearded  fellows  ;  even  a  greasy  pirog-a,  dripping  with 
green  oil,  will  be  accompanied  by  a  neatly-turned  compliment  or  a  lively 
jest,  and  the  few  copecks  paid  for  it  are  sure  to  be  received  with  expres- 
sions of  the  warmest  thankfulness. 

Almost  every  article  may,  however,  be  described  as  cheap  and  shabby ; 
and  yet  what  vistas  of  still  worse  and  worse  wares  unfold  themselves  as 
the  traveller  wanders  on  to  the  outskirts  of  the  market,  where  disbanded 
apparel  and  invalided  furniture  are  exposed  for  sale  !  Things  may  be  seen 
there  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  that  they  can  still  retain  a  money 
value  —  such  as  rags,  bits  of  riband,  fragments  of  paper,  and  broken  glass  ; 
clothes  that  the  poorest  ivoshtshik  has  dismissed  from  his  service,  and  pet- 
ticoats that  the  humblest  housemaid  has  thought  herself  bound  to  lay  aside. 
Yet  all  these  tilings,  and  others,  which  a  Gostinoi-Dvor  merchant  would 
scarcely  use  except  to  warm  his  stove,  are  not  arranged  without  some  show 
of  taste  and  elegance,  nor  are  they  offered  without  a  multitude  of  civil 
speeches  and  lofty  panegyrics  to  the  barefooted  beggar,  to  the  gipsy  and 
the  Jewess,  who  timidly  hover  around  the  poverty-stricken  repositories, 
and  cast  many  a  longing  glance  at  the  various  things  with  which  they 
might  cover  their  nakedness  or  decorate  their  huts,  but  the  possession  of 
which  they  are  unable  to  purchase  with  the  copper  coin  within  their  grasp. 
The  crumbs  swept  from  the  tables  of  the  rich  are  here  gathered  togetlier ; 
and  though  the  joint  stock  of  many  of  these  shops  be  not  worth  the  silver 
rouble  staked  at  a  card-table  in  the  saloon  of  a  noble,  yet  each  article  lias 
its  estimated  value,  below  which  it  will  not  be  parted  with  —  no,  not  for 
one  quarter  of  a  copeck  ! 

But  perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  this  world  of  markets  is  that  of  the 
Tshiikin  Dvor,  where  the  various  species  of  the  feathered  tribe  are  sold. 
Here  may  be  seen  two  rows  of  booths  full  of  pigeons,  fowls,  geese,  ducks, 
swans,  larks,  bulfinches,  siskins,  and  hundreds  of  other  singing-birds,  form- 
ing the  most  picturesque  and  variegated  menagerie  that  can  be  imagined. 
Each  booth  is  of  wood,  and  open  in  the  front,  so  that  the  whole  of  its  con- 


ST.    PETERSBURG — THE  TSHUKIN   DVOR.  459 

tents  may  be  seen  at  once  by  the  passing  stranger,  who  is  saluted  with  such 
a  concert  of  cackling,  crowing,  chattering,  cooing,  piping,  and  warbling, 
as  would  suffice  to  furnish  the  requisite  supply  of  idyllic  melodies  for  a 
hundred  villages.  Between  the  opposite  booths  are  usually  bridges,  from 
which  the  pictures  of  saints  are  suspended,  for  the  edification  of  the  devout. 
On  these  bridges,  and  on  the  roofs  of  the  booths,  whole  swarms  of  pigeons 
are  constantly  fluttering  about,  the  peaceful  Russian  being  a  great  lover  of 
this  gentle  bird.  Each  swarm  knows  its  own  roof,  and  tlie  birds  allow 
themselves  to  be  caught  without  much  difficulty,  when  a  bargain  is  to  be 
concluded.  The  pigeon  is  never  eaten  by  a  Russian,  wlio  would  hold  it  a 
sin  to  harm  an  animal  in  whose  form  the  Holy  Ghost  is  said  to  have  mani- 
fested itself.  Pigeons  are  bought,  therefore,  only  as  pets,  to  be  fed  and 
schooled  by  their  masters.  The  manner  in  which  a  Russian  merchant 
directs  the  flight  of  his  docile  scholars  is  curious.  With  a  little  flag  fast- 
ened to  a  long  staff  he  conveys  his  signals  to  them  —  makes  them  at  his 
will  rise  higher  in  the  air,  fly  to  the  right  or  left,  or  drop  to  the  ground  as 
if  struck  by  a  bullet  from  a  rifle  ! 

The  poor  little  singing-birds  (the  larks,  nightingales,  linnets,  bulfinches, 
&c.)  must  be  of  a  hardier  race  than  in  more  southern  lands ;  for,  in  spite 
of  the  bitter  frost,  they  chirrup  away  merrily,  and  salute  with  their  songs 
every  straggling  ray  of  sunsliine  that  finds  its  way  into  their  gloomy  abodes. 
The  little  creatures  receive  during  the  whole  long  winter  not  one  drop  of 
water,  for  it  would  be  useless  to  offer  them  what  a  moment  afterward  would 
be  converted  into  a  petrified  mass.  Their  little  troughs  are  accordingly 
filled  only  with  snow,  which  they  must  liquefy  in  their  own  beaks  when 
they  wish  to  assuage  their  thirst. 

Moscow  is  famed  for  its  cocks,  and  here  the  Moscow  cock  may  be  seen 
proudly  stalking  about,  in  cages  and  out  of  them.  The  best  pigeons  are 
said  to  come  from  Novgorod,  and  Finland  furnishes  the  chief  supply  of 
singing-birds.  Geese  are  brouglit  even  from  the  confines  of  China,  to  be 
sold  as  rarities  in  the  Tshukin  Dvor,  after  a  journey  of  more  tlian  four 
thousand  miles.  Gray  squirrels  may  be  seen  rolling  about  in  their  cages 
like  incarnate  quicksilver ;  while  rabbits  and  Guinea-pigs  without  number 
gambol  their  time  away  in  their  little  wooden  hutches. 

Within  the  booth,  a  living  centre  of  all  this  living  merchandise,  behold 
tlie  merchant,  closely  ensconced  in  his  wolfskin,  and  ready  to  dispose  of 
his  little  feathered  serfs  at  any  acceptable  price.  At  the  back  of  the 
booth,  be  sure  there  hangs  a  saintly  picture  of  some  sort,  its  little  lamp 
shedding  a  cheerful  light,  to  guard  the  feathered  tribe  against  the  evil 
influence  of  intruding  demons !  But  there  are  evil  spirits  that  the  good 
saint  can  not  banish.  Man  is  tliere,  to  hold  in  chains  or  to  sentence  to 
death,  according  as  it  may  suit  his  calculations  of  profit,  or  the  caprices 
of  his  palate.  On  shelves  around  are  ranged  the  trophies  of  his  murder- 
ous tribe ;  and  the  northern  swans,  the  heathcocks  (reptshi/d},  and  the 
snow-white  partridges  (Jmrapatki),iiVQ  piled  up  under  the  very  cages  from 


460  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

which  the  captive  larks  warble  their  liquid  notes.  It  is  astonishing  wliat 
a  quantity  of  these  birds  are  yearly  consumed  at  the  luxurious  tables  ot" 
St.  Petersburg.  In  winter  the  cold  keeps  the  meat  fresh,  and  at  the  same 
time  facilitates  its  conveyance  to  market.  The  partridges  come  mostly 
from  Saratov,  the  swans  from  Finland  ;  Livonia  and  Esthonia  must  supply 
heatlicocks  and  grouse,  and  the  wide  steppes  must  furnish  the  bustards 
which  flutter  over  their  endless  plains,  where  the  Cossack  hunts  them  on 
horseback,  and  kills  them  with  his  formidable  whip.  All  these  birds,  as 
soon  as  the  life-blood  has  flown,  are  converted  into  stone  by  the  frost,  and, 
packed  up  in  huge  chests,  are  sent  for  sale  to  the  capital. 

Whole  sledge-loads  of  snow-white  hares  find  their  way  to  the  market. 
The  little  animals  are  usually  frozen  in  a  running  position,  with  their  cars 
pointed,  and  their  legs  stretched  out  before  and  behind,  and,  when  placed 
on  the  ground,  look,  at  the  first  glance,  as  if  they  were  in  the  act  of  esca- 
ping from  the  hunter.  Bear's  flesh  also  is  offered  for  sale  in  this  market, 
and  here  and  there  a  frozen  reindeer  may  be  seen  lying  in  the  snow  by  the 
side  of  a  booth,  its  hairy  snout  stretched  forth  upon  the  ground,  its  knees 
doubled  up  under  its  body,  and  its  antlers  rising  majestically  into  the  air. 
It  looks  as  if,  on  our  approaching  it,  it  would  spring  up,  and  dash  away 
once  more  in  search  of  its  native  forests.  The  mighty  elk,  likewise,  is  no 
rare  guest  in  this  market,  where  it  patiently  presents  its  antlers  as  a  perch 
for  the  pigeons  that  are  fluttering  about,  until,  little  by  little,  the  axe  and 
the  saw  have  left  no  fragment  of  the  stately  animal,  but  every  part  of  it 
has  gone  its  way  into  the  kitchens  of  the  wealthy. 

Similar  markets  for  birds  and  game  will  be  found  in  almost  every  large 
Russian  city.  Indeed,  the  habits  and  fashions  of  the  Russian  markets  are 
completely  national.  Those  of  Moscow  vary  but  little  from  those  of  To- 
bolsk ;  and  Irkoutsk,  Odessa,  and  Archangel,  have  shown  themselves 
equally  servile  in  their  imitation  of  the  metropolitan  bazars. 

Beyond  the  Apraxin  Rinok  is  the  Sennaia  Ploschad,  or  hay-market ; 
and  here,  again,  the  manners  of  the  lower  orders  may  be  conveniently 
studied.  The  open  space  is  frequently  so  crowded  with  them,  that  the 
police  have  some  trouble  to  keep  a  passage  clear  in  the  centre  for  the 
equipages  which  are  constantly  coming  and  going.  On  one  side  of  this 
passage  stand  the  sellers  of  hay,  wood,  and,  in  spring,  of  plants  and  shrubs. 
On  the  other  side  are  the  peasants  with  their  stores  of  meat,  fish,  butter, 
and  vegetables.  Between  these  two  rows  are  the  sledges  and  equipages 
whose  owners  come  to  make  their  daily  purchases,  and  depart  laden  with 
herbs  and  vegetables,  the  bleeding  necks  of  the  poultry  often  presenting  a 
singular  contrast  to  the  splendid  carriages  from  whose  windows  they  are 
listlessly  dangling. 

The  sledges,  after  bringing  the  various  commodities  to  market,  serve 
their  owners  as  stalls  and  counters.  The  matting  thrown  aside  allows  the 
poultry  and  meat  to  be  arranged  in  a  picturesque  manner  to  catch  the  eye 
of  the  passing  stranger.     The  geese  are  cut  up,  and  the  heads,  necks,  legs, 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  THE  SENNAIA    PLOSCHAD. 


461 


and  carcasses,  sold  separotely,by  the  dozen  or  the  half-dozen,  strung  ready 
for  sale  upon  little  cords.  He  whose  finances  will  not  allow  him  to  think 
of  luxuriating-  on  the  breast  of  a  goose,  may  buy  himself  a  little  rosary  of 
frozen  heads,  while  one  still  poorer  must  content  himself  with  a  necklace 
or  a  few  dozen  of  webbed  feet,  to  boil  down  into  a  Sunday  soup  for  his 
little  ones. 

The  most  singular  spectacle  is  furnished  by  the  frozen  oxen,  calves,  and 
goats,  which  stand  about  in  ghastly  rows,  and  look  like  bleeding  spectres 
come  to  haunt  the  carnivorous  tyrants  whose  appetites  have  condemned 
the  poor  victims  to  a  premature  death.  The  petrified  masses  can  be  cut 
up  only  with  hatchets  and  saws.  Sucking  pigs  are  a  favorite  delicacy  with 
the  Russians.  Hundreds  of  the  little  creatures,  in  their  frozen  condition, 
may  be  seen  ranged  about  the  sledges,  with  their  tall,  motionless  mothers 
bv  the  side  of  them. 


Froze  n-Pkovision  Market,  St.  Petersburg. 


The  anatomical  dissections  of  a  Russian  butcher  are  extremely  simple. 
Bones  and  meat  having  been  all  rendered  equally  hard  by  the  frost,  it 
would  be  difficult  to  attempt  to  separate  the  several  joints.  The  animals 
are,  accordingly,  sawn  up  into  a  number  of  slices  of  an  inch  or  two  in 


462  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

thickness,  and  in  the  course  of  this  operation  a  quantity  of  animal  sawdust 
is  scattered  on  the  snow,  whence  it  is  eagerly  gathered  up  by  poor  chil- 
dren, of  whom  great  numbers  haunt  the  market.  Fish,  which  is  ofiered 
for  sale  in  the  same  hard  condition,  is  cut  up  in  a  similar  way.  The  little, 
diminutive  snitki  are  brought  to  market  in  sacks,  and  rattle  like  so  many 
hazel-nuts  when  thrown  into  the  scale.  The  pike,  the  salmon,  and  the 
sturgeon,  so  pliant  and  supple  when  alive,  are  now  as  hard  as  though  they 
had  been  cut  out  of  marble,  and  so  they  must  be  kept,  for  a  sudden  thaw 
would  spoil  them,  and,  to  guard  against  this,  they  are  constantly  encased 
in  ice  or  snow.  Sometimes  the  whole  mass  freezes  together,  and  the 
hatchet  must  then  be  liberally  applied  before  the  piscatory  petrifactions 
can  be  liberated  from  their  icy  incrustations. 

So  long  as  the  frost  keeps  all  liquid  matter  in  captivity,  and  so  long  as 
the  snow,  constantly  renewed,  throws  a  charitable  covering  over  all  the 
hidden  sins  of  the  place,  so  long  the  ploschad  looks  clean  enough  ;  but  this 
very  snow  and  frost  prepare  for  the  coming  spring  a  spectacle  which  no 
one  wishes  to  look  upon  who  would  keep  his  appetite  in  due  order  for  the 
sumptuous  banquets  of  St.  Petersburg.  Every  kind  of  filth  and  garbage 
accumulates  during  the  winter ;  and  when  at  last  the  melting  influence  of 
spring  dissolves  the  charm,  the  quantities  of  sheep's  eyes,  fish-tails,  crab- 
shclls,  goat's  hairs,  fragments  of  meat,  pools  of  blood,  not  to  speak  of  hay, 
dung,  and  other  matters,  are  perfectly  frightful. 

The  Zinndia  Ploschad,  near  the  winter-provision  market,  about  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  from  the  Nevskoi  Prospekt,  is  worthy  of  mention.  Here  the 
living  cattle  are  disposed  of ;  also  sledges  and  country-wagons.  Thousands 
of  specimens  of  the  Russian  telega  may  here  be  examined  at  leisure. 

St.  Petersburg  and  its  neighborhood  contain  some  splendid  industrial 
establishments,  particularly  of  the  description  which  produces  the  more 
rare  and  costly  articles  required  by  that  class  to  whom  luxuries  are  indis- 
pensable. Among  these  may  be  enumerated  that  of  the  Gobelin  tapestry, 
the  porcelain  glass,  the  playing-card,  and  one  for  cutting  and  polishing 
precious  stones  ;  also  the  cotton-factory  at  Alexandrosky,  the  paper-manu- 
factory, and  the  cannon-foundries.  All  these  are  either  the  property  of 
foreigners  or  of  the  crown,  or  are  under  tlie  management  of  foreigners, 
and  serve  as  models  to  the  whole  empire.  They  are  readily  shown  to 
strangers.  It  is  characteristic  of  Russia  that  it  had  universities  before 
schools,  and  tapestry-manufactories  before  it  had  learned  to  spin  cotton. 
The  Spalernoi  manufactory  is  the  oldest  in  St.  Petersburg,  as  the  academy 
built  by  Peter  the  Great  is  the  oldest  school.  In  that  czar's  reign,  the 
workmen  in  the  tapestry-manufactory  were,  one  and  all,  French  and  Ital- 
ians ;  now  they  are,  with  the  exception  of  the  director,  a  designer,  all 
Russians  :  the  establishment  is  recruited  from  the  great  foundling-hospital. 
Ordinary  carpets  are  made  here  for  sale,  but  the  real  Gobelin  tapestry  is 
destined  for  the  coui't  alone.     The  numerous  palaces,  and  the  expensive 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  MANUFACTORIES.  463 

manner  in  wliich  tlicy  are  furnished,  create  a  constant  demand  for  these 
productions,  which  arc  also  frequently  required  as  presents  to  Asiatic  and 
European  potentates.  The  little  boys,  who  come  here  as  apprentices,  first 
work  at  leaves  and  flowers  at  one  color :  then  they  advance  to  the  shaded 
and  varied  leaves  with  several  colors  ;  then  to  stars,  arabesques,  &c.  The 
drawings  are  placed  directly  behind  perpendicular  threads,  and,  while  the 
outline  of  the  picture  is  traced  with  a  black  coal,  it  is  transferred  to  the 
tliread,  and  the  limits  to  the  diflfcrent  tints  are  marked  out.  Every  three 
or  four  weeks  papers  are  fastened  over  the  web,  and,  as  it  is  finished,  this 
is  rolled  up,  so  that  it  may  not  be  injured  during  the  tedious  process  of 
manufacture.  Not  only  silk,  but  flax  and  wool  are  employed  in  tliis  work : 
the  brightness  of  the  silk,  the  neutral  effects  of  the  flax,  and  the  force  of 
the  wool,  each  render  their  several  services.  This  woven  painting,  if  not 
so  enduring,  is  much  richer  than  mosaic,  which  it  more  nearly  resembles 
than  it  does  anything  else.  The  gobelin-tapestry  manufactory  of  St.  Pe- 
tersburg is  perhaps  one  of  the  largest  existing  establishments  of  this  branch 
of  industry  in  Europe. 

The  porcelain-manufactory,  at  which  the  fine  vases  presented  by  the  em- 
peror to  foreign  princes  are  made,  is  on  the  road  to  Alexandrosky.  An 
annual  exhibition  takes  place  here  in  the  autumn,  when  many  objects  of 
great  value  and  beauty  are  exposed  for  sale.  The  plate-glass  manufactory 
is  situated  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Alexander  Nevskoi  convent.  The 
wealthy  Petersburgians  carry  the  use  of  plate  and  looking  glass  to  a  high 
pitch  of  luxury :  their  windows  are  colossal ;  in  garden-pavilions  a  whole 
Avail  is  sometimes  covered  with  looking-glass,  and  this  is  the  case  in  pri- 
vate houses,  where  it  is  used  to  supply  the  ^jlace  of  pictures,  and  present 
at  every  turn  the  picture  most  admired  of  all — that  of  self.  Some  of  these 
mirrors  are  eight  feet  wide,  fifteen  feet  long,  and  an  inch  and  a  half  thick. 
Articles  of  less  value  are  also  made  at  this  manufactory ;  among  them  are 
curiously-cut  glass  eggs,  which  are  purchased  as  Easter  presents,  and  nar- 
giles  for  Persia.  As  much  as  fifty  thousand  roubles'  worth  is  exported  of 
these  annually,  and,  though  so  fragile,  are  transported  by  land  to  that 
country.  A  glass  bed  of  great  value,  presented  by  the  emperor  to  the 
shah  of  Persia,  an  enormous  mirror  sent  to  the  Turkish  sultan,  and  the 
glass  railings  of  the  Smolnoi  church,  were  made  here.  The  glass-cutting 
department  is  perhaps  the  largest  in  Europe,  but  travellers  can  not  be  rec- 
ommended to  bring  their  ears  witliin  reach  of  the  crushing,  scratching,  and 
screeching,  produced  by  the  united  industry  of  the  three  hundred  workmen 
employed  here. 

A  characteristic  anecdote  of  national  intelligence  is  related  in  connec- 
tion with  this  establishment.  The  emperor  wished  to  illumine  the  Alexan- 
der column  in  grand  style.  The  size  of  the  round  lamps  was  indicated, 
and  they  were  ordered  at  this  manufactory,  where  the  workmen  exerted 
themselves  in  vain,  and  almost  blew  the  breath  out  of  their  bodies  in  the 
endeavor  to  obtain  the  desired  magnitude.     But  the  commission  must  be 


464  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF    RUSSIA. 

executed,  that  was  self-evident ;  but  liow  ?  A  great  premium  was  offered 
to  whoever  should  solve  the  problem.  Again  the  human  bellows  toiled 
and  puffed,  but  the  object  seemed  unattainable.  At  last  a  long-bearded 
Russian  stepped  forward,  and  declared  he  could  do  it ;  he  had  strong  and 
sound  lungs,  and  would  only  rinse  his  mouth  first  with  a  little  cold  water, 
to  refresh  them.  Accordingly,  he  applied  his  mouth  to  the  pipe,  and  puffed 
to  such  purpose,  that  the  vitreous  l)all  swelled  and  swelled  nearly  to  the 
required  size — up  to  it — beyond  it!  "Hold,  hold!"  cried  the  lookers- 
on,  "you  are  doing  too  much;  and  how  did  you  do  it  at  all?"  —  "The 
matter  is  simple  enough,"  replied  the  long-beard  ;  "  but,  first,  where  is  my 
premium  ?"  And,  when  he  had  clutched  the  promised  bounty,  he  ex- 
plained. He  had  retained  some  of  the  water  in  his  mouth,  which  had 
passed  thence  into  the  glowing  ball,  and,  there  becoming  steam,  had  ren- 
dered him  this  good  service. 

The  imperial  cotton-manufactory,  and  that  for  playing-cards,  at  Alexan- 
drosky,  are  not  unworthy  of  notice.  The  latter  is  under  the  direction  of 
Mr.  Delarue,  said  to  be  a  relative  of  the  partners  of  the  London  firm  of 
that  name ;  the  cotton-manufactory  and  the  iron-foundry  at  Copenha  are 
under  the  superintendence  of  another  Englishman,  a  General  Wilson.  The 
articles  manufactured  here  are  of  various  kinds :  in  one  department  cotton 
is  spun,  in  another  sheets  and  table-linen  are  wove,  and  in  a  third  are 
made  all  the  playing-cards  used  in  Russia,  for  the  manufacture  of  these, 
as  before  mentioned,  is  monopolized  by  the  crown.  About  three  thousand 
operatives  are  employed  here  ;  of  these,  nearly  one  thousand  are  foundling- 
boys  and  girls,  from  twelve  years  of  age  and  upward.  At  twenty-one  the 
men  are  allowed  to  marry  and  quit  the  establislnnent,  or  remain  as  paid 
workmen  ;  the  girls  may  do  the  same  at  eighteen.  The  children  on  their 
arrival  receive,  in  addition  to  their  food,  clothing,  and  lodging,  small 
monthly  wages,  half  of  which  is  given  to  them  by  way  of  pocket-money, 
and  the  other  half  is  placed  at  interest  in  a  savings-bank,  so  that  when 
they  come  of  age  or  marry  tliey  have  a  little  fund  of  three  or  four  hundred 
roubles  with  which  to  begin  the  world. 

"  Immediately  on  our  arrival  at  Alexandrosky,"  writes  Mr.  Venables, 
"  we  were  taken  to  see  the  foundlings  at  dinner,  which,  as  it  was  Lent 
(the  only  fast  in  the  year  Avhich  they  are  required  to  keep),  consisted  of 
soiip-maig-re,  fish,  rye-bread,  and  qvass — all  served  in  pewter.  The  day 
was  an  ordinary  working-day,  and  our  arrival  was  perfectly  unexpected  ; 
yet  nothing  could  exceed  the  neatness  and  perfect  cleanliness  of  these 
young  manufacturers,  more  especially  tlie  girls,  whose  hair  in  particular 
excited  our  admiration,  every  head  being  arranged  alike,  and  witli  a  de- 
gree of  taste  and  neatness  which  many  a  lady  might  copy.  Caps  are  never 
worn  by  the  lower  classes  in  this  country  ;  and  certainly  the  well-brushed 
hair,  drawn  smoothly  over  the  forehead  and  fastened  at  the  back  by  a  higli 
comb,  rendered  the  line  of  heads  infinitely  more  agreeable  to  the  eye,  and 
at  least  as  cleanly  in  appearance,  as  the  row  of  mob-caps  which  would 


ST.   PETERSBURG  —  MANUFACTORIES,   ETC.  465 


have  been  ranged  down  the  table  had  these  been  English  charity-girls.  A 
wooden  screen,  about  six  feet  high,  ran  down  the  middle  of  the  hall,  to 
separate  the  two  sexes."  Dinner  over,  a  bell  is  rung,  when  the  whole 
body,  young  men,  boys,  and  girls,  stand  up  and  sing  a  hymn.  The  singing 
in  the  Russian  churches  is  at  all  times  imposing  ;  but  to  hear  a  hymn  sung 
to  a  Russian  sacred  melody  by  at  least  a  thousand  voices  has  in  it  some- 
thing so  irresistibly  touching,  that  nothing  remains  for  the  stranger  but  to 
yield  to  the  impulse  of  feeling  and  join  in  this  act  of  praise.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  this  hymn,  the  bell  gives  the  signal  of  departure,  and  the  two 
sexes  move  out  of  the  hall  at  different  ends  in  the  most  orderly  manner. 
This,  like  other  public  establishments  in  Russia,  is  a  perfect  model  of 
cleanliness  —  a  fact  the  more  striking,  as  the  virtue  is  not  generally  prac- 
tised in  private  life,  even  among  the  upper  classes.  The  machinery  is  for 
the  most  part  under  the  direction  of  English  workmen,  about  seventy  of 
whom  were  employed  previous  to  the  war  of  1854,  and  divine  service  was 
performed  here  every  Sunday  evening  by  the  British  chaplain. 

On  the  road  to  Peterhoff  is  the  imperial  paper-manufactory,  and  under 
the  same  roof  is  an  establishment  for  cutting  and  polishing  stones.  In  no 
court  in  the  world  are  such  quantities  of  jewels  employed  as  in  the  Rus- 
sian. The  emperor  and  empress  never  travel  without  taking  with  them  a 
large  jewel-casket,  in  order  that  they  may  leave  behind  them  some  mark 
of  their  favor.  The  most  peculiar  and  beautiful  objects  to  be  seen  here 
are -the  large  malachite  vases,  the  material  of  which  is  brought  from  Sibe- 
ria. Some  of  these  are  valued  at  a  hundred  thousand  roubles,  and  formed 
one  of  the  chief  attractions  at  the  London  exhibition  in  1851. 

Some  of  the  private  manufactories  of  St.  Petersburg  are  likewise  on  an 
imperial  scale.  Among  them  are  the  foundries  and  refinery  of  Mr.  Baird, 
and  the  cotton-spinning  establishment  of  Baron  Stiglitz. 

The  principal  manufactures  of  the  Russian  capital,  in  addition  to  those 
already  mentioned,  are  woollen,  silk,  and  linen  tissues  ;  carriages,  leather, 
and  articles  in  leather ;  mathematical  and  musical  instruments  ;  wax  and 
sail-cloth,  cordage,  soap,  tobacco,  cabinetwork,  jewelry,  watches,  and  va- 
rious articles  in  gold,  silver,  mixed  metals,  and  bronze.  Ship-building, 
also,  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent,  for  the  navy,  in  the  public  dockyards ; 
and  for  commercial  purposes  at  several  private  yards.  The  shallowness 
of  the  river,  and  the  bar  at  its  mouth,  not  admitting  the  passage  of  vessels 
which  draw  more  than  nine  feet  water,  might  seem  at  first  sight  to  oppose 
an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  the  building  of  ships-of-the-line  ;  but  the  ad- 
vantages of  being  able  to  carry  on  the  more  important  parts  of  naval  archi- 
tecture within  the  capital,  under  the  immediate  eye  of  the  government,  are 
so  great,  that  large  sacrifices  are  made  for  the  purpose,  and  the  hulls  when 
finished  are  floated  down  by  means  of  camels  and  other  ingenious  and  labo- 
rious contrivances,  and  the  other  equipments  transmitted  by  lighters  to 
Kronstadt,  where  the  ships  are  finally  fitted  out  for  sea. 

30 


466  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OP  RUSSIA. 


CHAPTER   XYII. 

THE    GARDENS    AND    VILLAS    OF    ST.    PETERSBURG. 

PETER  THE  GREAT,  whose  name  is  associated  with  every  twig  and 
branch  of  Russian  public  or  social  life,  did  what  no  ruler  ever  did 
before — he  built  his  capital  on  hostile  ground.  Often,  Avhile  the 
building  of  the  city  was  going  on,  he  had  to  exchange  the  chisel  and  mallet 
for  the  sword,  and  drive  back  the  enemy  from  the  very  gates  of  his  infant 
capital.  On  one  of  these  suburban  battle-fields,  he  erected,  in  the  year 
1711,  without  the  city  and  close  to  the  sea,  the  castle  and  garden  of  Cathe- 
rinenhoff,  as  a  memorial  of  a  victory  obtained  over  the  Swedes.  At  first 
it  was  only  the  summer  residence  of  his  consort  Catherine,  and  of  the 
grand-duchesses  Anne  and  Elizabeth.  Their  wooden  palace  stands  yet, 
a  view  of  which  is  given  on  the  opposite  page,  but  the  gardens  are  greatly 
extended,  and  are  full  of  bowling-greens  and  restaurants.  For  a  long  time 
these  and  the  "Summer  garden"  were  the  only  pleasure-resorts  of  the 
kind  for  the  citizens ;  and  still,  probably  from  habit,  these  gardens  are 
visited  on  the  first  of  May.  On  that  day  all  St.  Petersburg  is  in  motion : 
the  poor  on  foot,  the  young  exquisites  on  horseback,  the  ladies  in  their 
carriages  —  all  flock  to  Catherinenhofi",  to  hail  the  coining  of  the  fine  sea- 
son, even  though  it  be  held  expedient,  as  it  generally  is,  to  go  well  wrapped 
up  in  bearskins.  Here  may  be  seen  half  the  magnificoes  of  the  empire 
moving  slowly  past  in  their  carriages-and-four ;  the  senators,  the  star-cov- 
ered generals,  the  reverend  bishops  and  metropolitans,  the  bearded  mer- 
chants, and  the  "foreign  guests"  —  a  spectacle  of  which,  often  as  it  is 
repeated,  a  St.  Petersburger  is  never  weary.  The  carriages  move  after  a 
certain  prescribed  plan  the  whole  day  long,  like  horses  in  a  mill.  It  is  no 
less  singular  than  true,  that  all  the  gay  world  throughout  Russia  are  mo- 
ving about  their  many  thousand  towns,  at  the  same  pace,  on  the  same  day. 
The  emperor,  whose  presence  crowns  the  festival,  is  generally  on  horse- 
back, with  the  princes  and  a  brilliant  staff.  His  arrival  is  looked  for  as 
if  he  were  the  representative  of  the  spring ;  and  when  he  has  passed  by, 
the  throng  drop  off  one  after  the  other,  and  go  home  again,  as  if  the  sun 
himself  had  disappeared. 

The  far-famed  Summer  garden  of  St.  Petersburg  is  situated  on  the  Neva, 
close  to  the  Troitzka  bridge,  and  bounds  the  eastern  end  of  the  Champ  de 
Mars.     It  is  half  a  mile  in  length  and  a  fourth  in  breadth,  and  is  the  oldest 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  THE   SUMMER  GARDEN. 


467 


1'alack  ok  C'atiikki.nkmioff,  St.  Petersbubg. 


Ill  the  city.  It  contains  a  number  of  fine  old  trees,  and  is  therefore  of 
incalculable  value  in  the  centre  of  the  stony  masses  of  the  capital.  The 
grounds  are  laid  out  in  a  number  of  long  avenues,  interspersed  witli  flower- 
beds, somewhat  in  the  ancient  style  of  gardening,  with  an  abundance  of 
marble  statues  of  "Springs"  and  "Summers,"  "Floras"  and  "Fauns," 
and  other  divinities  belonging  to  the  same  coterie.  On  the  northern  side 
is  the  celebrated  iron  railing  which  it  is  said  an  Englishman  once  travelled 
all  the  way  from  London  to  see  and  make  a  sketch  of,  and  then  returned, 
satisfied  with  his  journey,  not  deigning  to  cast  an  eye  on  any  of  the  otlier 
marvels  of  the  northern  city !  This  railing,  which  is  about  sixteen  feet  in 
height,  is  grand  and  massive ;  it  extends  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and 
the  gilded  spikes  give  it  a  very  elegant  effect. 

The  garden  is  attended  to  as  carefully  almost  as  those  of  Czarsko  Selo, 
where  a  policeman  is  said  to  run  after  every  leaf  that  falls,  that  it  may 
instantly  be  removed  out  of  sight!  In  autunni  all  the  statues  are  cased  in 
wooden  boxes,  to  protect  them  against  the  rain  and  snow  of  winter,  and 
all  the  tender  trees  and  shrubs  are  at  the  same  time  packed  up  in  straw 
and  matting,  in  which  they  remain  till  the  return  of  spring,  when  statues, 
trees,  and  men,  lay  their  winter  garments  aside  nearly  at  one  and  the  same 
time.     The  grass-plots  are  regularly  watered  in  summer,  and  the  paths  are 


468  ILLUSTRATED   DESCEIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

carefully  cleaned  and  trimmed.  And  the  garden  gratefully  repays  the 
pains  expended  on  it,  for  throughout  the  fine  season  it  forms  a  delightful 
retreat ;  and  its  turf  and  its  trees  in  spring  are  green  and  smiling,  before 
any  of  the  other  gardens  have  been  able  to  divest  themselves  of  the  chill- 
hardened  grain  into  which  their  features  have  been  stiffened  during  a  six- 
months'  winter. 

In  one  corner  of  the  Summer  garden  stands  the  palace  in  which  dwelt 
Peter  the  Great.  It  is  a  little,  low,  white  house,  with  a  few  tasteless  bas- 
reliefs^  painted  yellow.  On  the  roof,  between  the  chimneys,  St.  George, 
mounted  on  a  tin  horse,  is  in  the  act  of  piercing  the  dragon.  In  the  inte- 
rior, a  few  articles  of  furniture,  formerly  used  by  Peter,  are  still  preserved. 
The  house  seems  to  have  grown  ashamed  of  its  littleness,  for  it  hides  itself 
completely  among  the  tall  linden-trees  of  the  garden,  as  though  fearful  of 
intruding  into  the  company  of  the  stately  palaces  tliat  have  grown  up 
around.  How  different  it  must  have  looked  when  it  was  yet  sole  lord  of 
the  wilderness  —  when  it  stood  alone  amid  a  mob  of  fishermen's  huts ! 

This  garden  is  the  great  lounge  of  the  population  of  St.  Petersburg ;  it 
is  the  afternoon  resort  of  crowds  of  the  most  charming  children,  who  repair 
thither,  escorted  by  their  mothers  and  nurses,  to  people  the  solitary  walks, 
and  make  the  shrubberies  resound  with  their  innocent  mirth.  Fifteen  or 
sixteen  years  later,  these  children  reappear  upon  the  same  scene,  but  this 
time  with  less  artless  intentions,  and  to  play  a  more  perilous  game.  On 
Whit-Monday  a  strange  spectacle  is  to  be  seen  here,  for  on  that  day  the 
celebrated  festival  of  the  wife-market  takes  place.  Here,  according  to 
ancient  custom,  the  sons  and  daughters  of  the  tradesmen  assemble  in  all 
their  finery,  to  pick  and  choose  a  partner  for  life,  or,  at  any  rate,  to  lay 
the  foundation  of  a  future  marriage ;  for,  though  this  class  still  muster  in 
great  force  on  Whit-Monday,  the  practice  is  not  so  thoroughly  carried  out 
as  it  used  to  be.  In  former  days,  the  girls  on  this  momentous  occasion 
were  dressed  from  head  to  foot  in  all  their  best  apparel,  and  decorated 
with  every  ornament  they  could  borrow  from  their  family.  It  is  even  said 
that  "  a  Russian  mamma  once  contrived  to  make  a  necklace  of  six  dozen 
gilt  teaspoons  for  her  daughter,  a  girdle  of  an  equal  number  of  tablespoons, 
and  then  fastened  a  couple  of  punch-ladles  behind,  in  the  form  of  a  cross — 
Greek,  of  course." 

The  islands  of  the  Neva  have  been  before  alluded  to.  There  are  in  all 
more  than  forty  of  them,  great  and  small,  some  of  which,  although  all  be- 
long to  the  precincts  of  the  city,  are  still  completely  deserted,  inundated 
by  the  sea  and  the  Neva,  and  visited  only  by  seals,  or  by  wolves  who  come 
over  the  ice  during  the  winter,  or  by  fishermen  in  a  less  inclement  season 
of  the  year.  Many  of  these  swampy  and  birch-covered  islets  —  such,  for 
instance,  as  the  Volny  and  Truktanoff  islands  —  are  scarcely  known  to 
many  of  the  inhabitants  of  St.  Petersburg ;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  proof 
of  the  wildness  and  uncultivated  region  which  surrounds  the  capital,  at 
least  on  one  side,  that  a  man  may,  if  he  feel  so  disposed,  kill  either  a  bear 


ST.    PETERSBURG THE   ISLANDS   OP   THE   NEVA. 


469 


Nurse  with  Children,  in  the  Scmmkk  Garden,  St.  Petersburg. 

or  a  wolf  between  breakfast  and  dinner.  In  very  severe  winters,  hungry 
wolves  have  not  only  approached  the  suburbs  in  search  of  food,  but  even 
the  imperial  palace !  Kohl  tells  us  of  a  lady  who  scared  one  of  these  ani- 
mals away  with  her  parasol ;  and  of  another  who,  being  surprised  by  a 
bear  while  reading  in  her  villa  in  the  environs  of  St.  Petersburg,  repulsed 
his  advances  by  throwing  her  book,  a  novel  of  George  Sand's,  at  his  head. 
Five,  however,  of  the  islands  of  the  delta,  though  originally  yielding 
nothing  but  shrubs  and  a  few  old  oaks,  birches,  and  firs,  were  invaded  by 
the  gardener  toward  the  close  of  the  last  century,  and  are  now  laid  out  in 
the  most  tasteful  manner.  Imperial  palaces  arose,  too,  under  the  creative 
hand  of  Catherine  II.,  who  made  grants  of  land,  and  even  whole  islands, 
to  her  favorites,  that  they  might  build  and  lay  out  villas  and  houses  there ; 
hence,  perhaps,  the  name  datscha  (gift)  for  villa,  witli  Avhich  the  Kamr- 
menoi,  or  Stone  island,  is  nearly  covered.  These  buildings  are  in  every 
variety  of  style,  Gothic,  Chinese,  <fec.,  and  specimens  are  to  be  found  of  all 
ages  and  nations  in  gardening  and  villa-building ;  but,  though  costly  and 
luxurious,  they  are  destitute  of  the  comfort  of  an  English  or  American 
country-house.  One  charm,  however,  they  have,  and  for  this  they  are  in- 
debted, singular  enough,  to  the  severity  of  the  climate :  the  hothouses  are 
as  numerous  as  the  villas,  and  in  the  warm  weather  the  balconies,  doors, 


470  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

and  windows  of  the  datsches  are  adorned  with  multitudes  of  exotic  plants. 
These  villas  are  generally  inhabited  by  the  wealtliier  classes.  There  is, 
too,  on  this  island  a  summer  theatre,  in  which  French  plays  are  performed  ; 
an  imperial  villa,  and  the  hospital  for  the  disabled. 

The  datsches  of  the  nobility  are  all  of  wood,  the  emperor's  alone  being 
of  stone,  and  tortured  into  every  incongruous  form  that  bad  taste  can  de- 
vise ;  the  whole  touched  up  and  picked  out  with  painted  cornices  and  pilas- 
ters, in  red  and  yellow  ochre,  and,  once  done,  left  to  the  mercy  of  the 
seasons.  Each  has  just  enough  ground  around  to  give  the  idea  of  an  Eng- 
lish tea-garden,  with  every  appurtenance  of  painted  wooden  arch,  temple, 
and  seat,  to  confirm  it. 

In  this  neighborhood  is  also  a  Russian  village,  wooden  cottages  with 
deep  roofs,  and  galleries  running  round  like  the  Swiss,  ornamented  with 
most  delicately-carved  wood.  Of  course,  here  is  also  plenty  of  red,  blue, 
and  yellow,  for  it  would  seem  that  without  these  primary  colors  nothing 
can  be  done.  The  love  of  red,  especially,  is  so  inherent  a  taste  in  Russia, 
that  "red"  and  "beautiful"  are,  in  a  popular  sense,  expressed  by  the 
same  word.  But  this  is  evidently  the  show-village  of  the  capital,  and 
almost  entirely  let  to  families  for  the  summer. 

Joined  to  the  Kammenoi,  on  the  west,  by  a  bridge,  is  another  garden- 
island,  called  the  Ye/aginskoi,  or  Yelagin  island,  after  the  name  of  a  fam- 
ily who  once  possessed  it.  It  is  now  exclusively  occupied  by  the  imperial 
chateau  and  gardens.  The  court  frequently  reside  here  in  the  spring,  the 
most  brilliant  season  for  the  islands,  but  there  is  no  amusement  for  the 
public  beyond  that  of  strolling  about  on  foot  and  lionizing-  the  emperor's 
datscha.  This  has  the  appearance  of  an  English  or  American  country- 
residence,  with  the  gravel-walks  and  flower-beds  in  admirable  order.  The 
rooms  are  by  no  means  large,  but  yet  very  well  arranged  for  living  in  qui- 
etly and  comfortably.  The  emperor's  own  apartment  is  a  perfect  "  snug- 
gery  "  in  its  way.  This  island  is  said  to  be  a  favorite  resort  of  the  empress. 
The  view  from  the  chateau  is  delightful :  first  the  gardens  of  the  villa, 
then  the  broad  sheet  of  the  Neva  with  its  verdant  banks,  and,  lastly,  the 
lofty  spires  of  the  capital  are  seen  rising  in  the  distance.  A  promenade, 
similar  to  that  at  Catherinenhoff,  takes  place  later  in  the  year  on  the  Yela- 
gin island,  at  which  the  imperial  family  are  present.  This  fete  is  more 
attractive,  for  the  weather  is  more  settled,  and  the  scenery  is  much  finer. 

To  the  south  of  the  islands  of  Yelagin  and  Kammenoi  is  the  Krestovski/, 
or  Cross  island,  which  lies  before  the  courtly  Yelagin  and  Kammenoi  Os- 
troflf,  toward  the  sea,  and  is  larger  than  the  two  former  put  together.  Nu- 
merous avenues  have  been  opened  through  the  thick,  primeval  birch  and 
pine  wood  of  this  island,  and  afford  agreeable  views  of  the  gulf  of  Finland. 
This  island  is  peculiarly  the  resort  of  the  lower  classes  ot  St.  Petersburg : 
hither  flock  the  mvjik  and  the  kupez  in  gay  gondolas,  to  enjoy  in  the  woods 
their  national  anmsements  of  swings  and  Russian  mountains ;  and  here  on 
holydays  smokes  on  the  grass  under  every  pine-group  the  favorite  somovar. 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  THE   ISLANDS  OP  THE   NEVA. 


471 


Noblk's  Villa  on  the  Island  of  Kam.menoi. 


round  which  may  be  seen  encamped  a  party  of  long-beards,  gossiping,  sing- 
ing, and  clamoring. 

The  German  part  of  the  population  have  appropriated  to  themselves  an- 
other island,  that  of  Petrosky.  The  arrangements  are  on  a  smaller  scale, 
and  here  only  are  to  be  found  milk  and  cake  gardens,  coffeehouses  and 
taverns.  It  must  not  be  understood,  however,  that  there  is  anything  ex- 
clusive, for  datschas,  chtiteaus,  and  Russians,  mingle  here  as  elsewhere. 

The  fifth  garden-island  is  that  of  the  Aptekarskoi,  or  Apothecaries'  island, 
and  here  is  the  botanical  garden,  one  of  the  most  interesting  sights  of  the 
capital.  This  is  open  to  the  public  on  Sundays  and  holydays.  The  sci- 
ence of  hothouse  gardening  is  here  brought  to  the  utmost  perfection,  and 
one  of  the  finest  assortments  of  tropical  plants  in  existence  has  been  col- 
lected amid  the  snows  of  the  north.  The  establishment  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  Scotch  gardener,  who  has  been  eminently  successful  in  propaga- 
ting and  preserving  the  most  delicate  plants.  The  collection  of  orchi- 
daceous plants  is  one  of  the  best  in  Europe,  and  agents  are  employed  in 
many  diflerent  parts  of  the  world  in  sending  home  plants  worthy  of  these 
immense  conservatories. 

Kohl  states  how  the  islands  should  be  visited.  "  Call,"  he  observes, 
"  upon  a  friend,  if  you  have  one  in  any  of  these  elegant  swamp-villas,  and 
enjoy  the  tea  or  evening  collation  upon  his  luxurious  divans.  Then,  tow- 
ard sunset,  have  a  gondola,  manned  by  lialf-a-dozen  sturdy  fellows,  and 
row  down  the  arm  of  the  Neva  to  the  gulf  of  Finland.  Watch  there  the 
globe  of  the  northern-summer  sun  sink  into  the  lap  of  Thetis,  and  hurry 
back  through  the  magic  July  night,  and  row  round  some  of  the  islands, 


472  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

taking  a  wide  sweep,  for  there  is  plenty  of  room  here  on  the  water  also, 
punching  and  driving  your  gondoliers,  meanwhile,  to  make  them  go  the 
faster.  Listen  then  from  the  water  to  the  sounds  from  the  thick  forest, 
gaze  on  the  lights  from  the  fishing-villages,  the  late  illumination  of  the 
brilliant  datschas,  and  hearken  to  the  nightly  doings  on  the  islands,  where 
all  is  as  loud  by  night  as  it  was  by  day ;  and,  at  last,  return  home  like  a 
night-wandering  ghost,  when,  toward  one  o'clock,  the  cold  dew  announces 
the  return  of  the  sun." 

The  gardens  in  Count  Strogonoflf's  domain,  where  there  is  a  fine  park, 
are  open  to  the  public.  Here  is  to  be  seen  an  antique  sarcophagus  and 
marble,  vulgarly  called  the  tomb  of  Homer,  which  was  brought  from  the 
island  of  los,  in  the  Grecian  archipelago,  at  the  end  of  the  last  century. 
It  is  ornamented  with  bas-reliefs  representing  scenes  in  the  life  of  Achilles. 
There  is  a  little  book  written  thereon,  by  Heyne,  the  celebrated  archasolo- 
gist  and  professor  at  Gottingen,  which  has  been  reproduced  by  M.  Murall. 
These  gardens,  and  those  of  Count  Nesselrode,  the  chancellor  of  the  em- 
pire, are  open  to  the  public  daily. 

The  villages  of  St.  Petersburg,  often  spoken  of  by  travellers,  are  the 
Great  and  Little  Okhta,  the  Great  and  Little  Derevnia,  and  the  Tshornaya 
Retska.  The  houses  in  these  villages  are  constructed  of  logs  of  fir-trees 
strongly  put  together ;  and  are  planted  like  soldiers,  in  one  long,  straight 
line.  From  the  houses,  hardly  one  of  which  possesses  a  tree,  long  cabbage 
and  cucumber  plantations  stretch  into  the  country  on  the  land-side,  while 
the  road  on  the  banks  of  the  river  is  filled  on  holydays  with  carriage? 
driving  up  and  down  as  they  do  in  the  avenues  of  the  "  Garden-islands." 
Those  persons  whose  revenues  are  too  moderate  for  a  Gothic  or  a  Chinese 
datscha,  engage  a  summer  residence  in  some  of  these  cheap  houses,  and 
enjoy  there  as  much  happiness  as  a  samovar,  a  pack  of  cards,  and  a  dusty, 
galloping  drive,  can  afford  them.  A  moving  crowd  is,  however,  always 
an  animated  sight,  and  in  the  private  gardens  at  Okhta  a  German  band 
plays.     The  gardens  at  Sergola  are  also  open  to  the  public. 

The  Czarsko  Selo,  a  royal  residence,  and  favorite  resort  of  the  imperial 
family,  is  distant  about  fifteen  miles  from  St.  Petersburg.  The  road  to  it 
was  made  by  the  empress  Catherine  IL,  at  a  cost  of  a  million  of  roubles. 
Soon  after  passing  the  Moscow  barrier,  two  huge  figures  of  bulls  are  seen 
in  front  of  a  building  on  the  right  of  the  road.  This  is  the  great  cattle- 
market  ;  and  farther  on  is  a  triumphal  arch,  similar  to  that  erected  at  the 
Riga  gate.  There  is  nothing  to  attract  attention  on  this  road,  or  anything 
to  indicate  that  the  traveller  is  in  the  vicinity  of  a  large  capital,  unless  it 
be  the  imperial  milestones,  which  are  of  colossal  dimensions  ;  the  main  and 
two  side  roads  are,  it  is  true,  of  great  width,  but  the  open,  uncultivated 
plain  on  either  hand  is  swampy  and  flat.  The  road  for  the  first  five  miles 
to  Czarsko  Selo  is  that  to  Moscow,  and  at  this  point  the  former  turns  off 
to  the  right.  Near  here  is  the  royal  chjiteau  of  Tchesme,  built  by  the  em- 
press Catherine  to  commemorate  the  victory  obtained  by  Orloff  over  the 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  PALACE   OF  CZARSKO   SELO.  473 

Turks  on  the  coast  of  Anatolia.  The  edifice  is  in  the  form  of  a  Turkish 
pavilion,  with  a  central  rotunda  containing  the  full-length  portraits  of  sov- 
ereigns contemporary  with  Catherine.  Since  her  death,  this  palace  has 
been  deserted.  In  1825,  Alexander  and  his  consort  passed  it  on  their 
way  to  the  south  of  Russia ;  and,  about  eight  months  after,  their  mortal 
remains  found  shelter  in  it  for  a  night  on  their  way  to  the  imperial  sepul- 
chre.    There  is  no  other  object  of  interest  on  this  road. 

We  have  described  the  carriage-road  ;  but  the  best  and  most  rapid  mode 
of  proceeding  to  Czarsko  is  by  the  railroad,  the  first  laid  down  in  Russia, 
and  which  is  more  particularly  noticed  in  another  chapter.  At  the  stations, 
droskies,  or,  in  winter,  sledges,  are  in  readiness  to  carry  the  passengers  on. 
For  upward  of  a  mile,  before  reaching  Czarsko,  the  road  is  bounded  on 
either  side  by  a  village  which  seems  interminable  —  one  long,  monotonous 
row  of  wooden  huts,  with  nothing  to  enliven  them  but  a  few  bearded  mujiks 
and  ugly  women.  At  the  entrance  to  the  grounds  of  the  palace  are  two 
small  towers  carved  with  Egyptian  figures  and  hieroglyphics,  &c. ;  a  bar- 
rier is  here  thrown  across  the  road,  at  which  a  guard  is  stationed :  the 
entrance,  when  completed,  will  be  covered  with  iron  bas-reliefs  from  Egyp- 
tian scenes,  taken  from  the  classical  work  of  Denon  on  that  country. 

Opposite  the  gate  called  the  Caprice  is  a  cluster  of  white  houses,  in  two 
rows  of  different  sizes,  diminishing  as  they  recede  from  the  road,  and  con- 
verging at  the  farthest  extremity — altogether  a  bizarre  arrangement,  and 
showing  the  magnificence  of  Russian  gallantry.  The  empress  Catherine 
II.,  at  the  theatre  one  night,  happened  to  express  her  pleasure  on  seeing 
the  perspective  view  of  a  small  town ;  and  the  next  time  she  visited  Czar- 
sko Selo  she  saw  the  scene  realized  in  a  town  erected  by  Count  Orloff,  at 
an  immense  expense,  before  the  gate  of  the  palace ! 

The  fagade  of  the  palace  is  twelve  hundred  feet  feet  in  length.  Origi- 
nally every  statue,  pedestal,  and  capital  of  the  numerous  columns,  the 
vases,  carvings,  and  other  ornaments  in  front,  were  covered  with  gold-leaf, 
and  the  gold  used  for  that  purpose  amounted  to  more  than  a  million  of 
ducats.  In  a  few  years  the  gilding  wore  off,  and  the  contractors  engaged 
in  repairing  it  offered  the  empress  nearly  half  a  million  of  silver  roubles 
for  the  fragments  of  gold-leaf;  but  Catherine  refused,  saying,  "/e  ne  suis 
pas  dans  fusag-e  de  vendre  mes  vieilles  hardes." 

The  only  gilding  which  now  remains  is  on  the  dome  and  cupolas  of  the 
church,  which  are,  as  usual  in  Russia,  surmounted  by  the  cross  and  cres- 
cent. The  front  of  the  palace,  toward  the  gardens,  is  tawdry,  and  glaring 
in  green,  white,  and  yellow,  which  at  first  sight  appear  to  have  been 
smeared  on  the  walls  in  large  patches  and  stripes,  and  have  a  most  un- 
pleasant effect.  The  first  portion  of  the  building  generally  shown  is  the 
chapel,  a  spacious  room,  fitted  up  entirely  with  dark-colored  wood,  most 
lavishly  gilded,  even  the  ceiling  being  one  bright  sheet  of  gold.  On  the 
walls  are  some  curious  old  paintings,  particularly  one  of  a  man  with  a  solid 
wooden  beam  projecting  from  his  eye,  nearly  as  large  and  quite  as  long  as 


474  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

his  whole  body ;  while  the  mote  in  his  neighbor's  eye  is  certainly  most 
visible,  as  it  is  half  as  big  as  his  head !  A  key  of  the  city  of  Adrianople 
hangs  beside  the  altar ;  but  there  is  no  other  emblem  of  war's  havoc  and 
destruction  within  this  temple  of  the  Most  High.  The  imperial  family 
have  a  kind  of  gallery  in  the  chapel,  communicating  with  their  various 
apartments  in  the  palace,  and  situated  immediately  behind  the  screen  or 
ikonostast. 

The  palace  of  Czarsko  was,  at  the  emperor  Alexander's  death,  aban- 
doned by  the  imperial  family,  and  is  therefore  bare  of  furniture,  though 
the  walls  and  floors  are  decorated  with  exceeding  richness.  The  former 
are  either  simple  white  and  gold,  or  hung  with  rich  silks  ;  the  latter  par- 
quetted  in  the  most  graceful  designs  and  tender  colors,  and  still  as  fresh 
as  when  first  laid  down.  One  very  elegant  room  is  that  called  the 
Lapis-lazuli,  in  which  strips  of  this  stone  are  inlaid  in  the  walls,  and  the 
floor  of  this  apartment  is  of  ebony  inlaid  with  large  flowers  of  mother-of- 
pearl,  forming  one  of  the  most  splendid  contrasts  possible.  The  room 
itself  is  not  very  large,  but  the  effect  is  beautiful.  Catherine  II.  has  been 
frequently  accused  of  vandalism  in  having  the  pictures  in  this  room  cut  so 
as  to  fit  the  walls.  A  late  traveller,  however,  after  examining  them  most 
narrowly,  declares  that  this  sin  can  not  be  laid  at  her  door.  "  The  wall," 
he  observes,  "  is  certainly  covered  with  pictures  without  frames,  forming 
a  complete  lining,  and  a  most  comical  group  they  make  —  Teniers'  boors, 
with  a  beautiful  Canaletti  of  the  royal  Polish  Zamek,  most  lovingly  fast- 
ened together,  but  their  fair  proportions  have  not  been  curtailed.  Here 
is  also  a  celebrated  statue  of  the  Savior  by  Danneker." 

But  the  wonder  of  this  palace  is  the  famous  amber-room,  the  walls  of 
which  are  literally  panelled  with  this  material  in  various  architectural  de- 
signs ;  the  arms  of  Frederick  the  Great,  by  whom  the  amber  was  presented 
to  Catherine  II.,  being  moulded  in  different  compartments  with  the  impe- 
rial cipher,  the  Russian  E.  for  Ekaterina.  Accustomed  to  see  only  small 
pieces  of  this  beautiful  substance,  one  can  hardly  believe  that  the  large, 
rough  fragments  projecting  from  the  walls  are  really  amber.  These  are 
colored  a  pale  yellow,  and  in  several  places  groups  of  figures  are  formed 
with  fragments  of  this  precious  substance  ingeniously  put  together,  while 
the  frames  are  composed  of  larger  portions.  The  effect  produced  by  this 
species  of  decoration  is,  however,  too  fade  and  waxy  to  be  pleasing. 

The  bedchamber  of  Catherine  is  adorned  with  walls  of  porcelain  and 
pillars  of  purple  glass,  and  the  bedclothes  are  those  under  which  she  slept 
the  last  time  she  was  at  the  palace.  In  the  banqueting-room  the  entire 
walls  to  the  height  of  about  nine  feet  are  covered  with  gold,  which  is  also 
laid  on  most  lavishly  on  the  ceilings  in  almost  all  tlie  state-apartments. 
The  Chinese  room  is  remarkable  for  the  taste  with  which  everything  is  ar- 
ranged after  the  fantastic  manner  which  is  supposed  to  be  tliat  of  the  celes- 
tial empire.  Two  grand  ballrooms  are  also  conspicuous,  tlie  upper  end  of 
each  being  occupied  by  a  collection  of  the  most  splendid  Cliina  vases  placed 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  PALACE    OF   CZARSKO   SELO. 


475 


Imperial  I'alace  of  Czabsko  Selo. 


Oil  circular  tiers  up  to  the  ceiling,  and  marked  with  the  imperial  E.  The 
whole  palace,  in  fact,  breathes  of  recollections  of  the  great  Catherine  ;  and 
here  are  to  be  seen  private  rooms  with  a  door  communicating  with  the 
adjoining  apartments,  and  the  gentle  descent  leading  into  the  garden  by 
wiiich  slie  was  wheeled  up  and  down  when  infirmity  had  deprived  her  of 
the  use  of  her  limbs. 

"  But  the  sentiment  of  the  edifice,"  observes  a  recent  traveller,  "  dwelt 
in  the  simple  rooms  of  the  late  emperor  Alexander,  whom  all  remember 
with  affection,  and  speak  of  with  melancholy  enthusiasm.  His  apartments 
have  been  kept  exactly  as  he  left  them  when  he  departed  for  Taganrog. 
His  writing-cabinet — a  small,  light  room,  with  scagliola  walls  —  seemed 
as  if  the  imperial  inmate  had  just  turned  his  back.  There  was  his  writing- 
table  in  confusion,  his  well-blotted  case,  the  pens  black  with  ink.  Through 
this  was  his  simple  bedroom,  where  in  an  alcove,  on  a  slight  camp-bedstead 
■with  linen  coverlet,  lay  the  fine  person  and  troubled  heart  of  poor  Alexan- 
der !  On  one  side  was  the  small  table  with  the  little  green-morocco  look- 
ing-glass, his  simple  English  shaving-apparatus,  his  brushes,  combs,  and  a 
pocket-handkerchief  marked  '  Z.  23.'  On  a  chair  lay  a  worn  military  sur- 
tout,  beneath  were  his  manly  boots.  There  was  something  very  painful  in 
these  relics.  If  preserved  by  fraternal  affection,  it  seems  strange  that  the 
same  feeling  should  not  shield  them  from  strangers'  eyes  and  touch. 

"  The  palace  of  tlie  emperor  Nicholas,  originally  built,  upon  the  marriage 
of  her  grandson  Alexander,  by  the  empress  Catherine  H.,  excited  very 


476  ILLUSTRAIED  DESCEIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

different  feelings.  It  was  simpler  in  decoration  than  many  a  noble's  at 
St.  Petersburg,  clean  as  possible,  and  light  with  the  rays  of  the  bright  win- 
ter's sun.  The  only  objects  on  the  plain  walls  of  the  great  drawing-room 
were  a  small  print  of  Admiral  Sir  Edward  Codrington,  and  the  busts  of 
the  seven  imperial  children  in  infantine  beauty.  The  emperor's  own  room, 
in  point  of  heavy  writing-tables  and  bureaux,  was  that  of  a  man  of  business, 
but  his  military  tastes  peeped  through  all.  Around  on  the  walls  were 
arranged  glass  cases  containing  models  of  the  different  cavalry  regiments, 
executed,  man  and  horse,  with  the  greatest  beauty,  '  and  right,'  as  a  mili- 
tary attendant  assured  us,  '  to  a  button  ;'  and  this,  it  seems,  is  the  one  thing 
needful.  Paintings  of  military  manoeuvres  and  stiff  squares  of  soldiers 
were  also  dispersed  through  his  apartments. 

"  Leaving  this,  we  proceeded  to  the  arsenal,  a  recent  red-brick  erection 
in  English  Gothic,  in  the  form  of  many  an  old  English  gatehouse,  and  a 
picturesque  object  in  the  most  picturesque  part  of  these  noble  gardens. 
Here  a  few  weather-beaten  veterans  reside,  who,  peeping  at  our  party 
through  the  latticed  windows,  opened  the  arched  doors  ;  and,  once  within, 
to  an  antiquarian  eye,  all  was  enchantment.  For  several  successions  the 
Russian  sovereigns  have  amassed  a  collection  of  armor  and  curious  antique 
instruments.  These  have  been  increased  in  the  reign  of  his  present  majesty, 
who  erected  this  building  purposely  for  their  reception,  and  intrusted  their 
classification  and  arrangement  to  an  Englishman  ;  and  truly  that  gentleman 
has  done  credit  to  the  known  antiquarian  tastes  of  his  own  land." 

It  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  the  objects  here  preserved,  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  ancient  armor,  weapons,  and  accoutrements,  of  every  descrip- 
tion, for  man  and  horse,  from  every  warlike  nation,  both  Christian  and 
idolater.  Figures  in  armor  guard  the  entrance  and  lead  the  eye  along  the 
winding  staircase,  whence  you  enter  a  lofty,  circular,  vaulted  hall,  with 
oak  flooring,  and  walls  hung  round  with  carbines,  lances,  &c.,  in  fanciful 
devices,  and  where,  placed  on  high  pedestals  in  a  circle  round  the  room, 
are  eight  equestrian  figures  in  full  accoutrements  and  as  large  as  life,  like 
those  of  the  English  kings  in  the  Tower  of  London.  Between  these  you 
pass  on  to  various  little  alcoves  or  oratories  with  groined  ceiling  and 
stained  window,  whose  light  falls  on  the  gorgeously-wrought  silver  cross 
or  precious  missal  of  some  early  pope,  or  on  the  diamond-and-pearl-woven 
trappings  of  present  Turkish  luxury ;  or  on  the  hunting-horn,  with  ivory 
handle  of  exquisitely-carved  figures,  of  some  doughty  German  markgraf 
of  the  olden  time,  or  on  the  jousting-instruments  and  other  playthings  of 
the  amazons  of  Catherine  II.'s  court. 

In  a  glass  case  in  the  arsenal  are  preserved  the  small  silver  drum  and 
trumpet  given  by  Catherine  to  the  emperor  Paul  in  his  childhood ;  and 
beside  them  is  the  autograph  letter  of  Bessidres  to  Marshal  Davoust,  as 
governor  of  Moscow  in  1812,  ordering  him  to  evacuate  the  city. 

In  a  recess  are  placed  two  sets  of  horse-trappings  presented  by  the  sul- 
tan to  the  emperor — the  first  on  concluding  the  peace  of  Adrianople,  when 


ST.   PETERSBURG  —  THE   ARSENAL   AT   CZARSKO   SELO.  477 

the  "yellow-haired  Giaours"  passed  victoriously  the  mountain-barrier  of 
the  Balkan,  and  were  well  nigh  at  the  gates  of  his  capital.  This  saddle 
is  superb,  with  its  trappings  of  purple  velvet  studded  with  diamonds,  and 
its  stirrups  of  gold ;  but  the  other  makes  its  glories  dim  the  instant  one 
beholds  them  together.  This  was  given  when  the  Porte  sued  as  a  suppli- 
ant to  Russia  for  an  auxiliary  force  to  defend  a  tottering  throne  against  a 
rebellious  vassal  (Mehemet  Ali,  viceroy  of  Egypt),  after  the  fatal  field  of 
Konieh  had  witnessed  the  overthrow  of  the  only  army  the  sultan  possessed. 
The  diamonds  on  the  pistol-holsters  of  this  saddle  are  of  unusual  size,  and 
their  brightness  perfectly  dazzling,  while  every  part  of  the  saddle  and 
bridle  is  actually  covered  with  brilliants.  Several  swords,  studded  with 
diamonds,  are  also  preserved  here — for  the  most  part  presents  from  vari- 
ous sovereigns  to  the  emperor  Nicholas. 

But  this  pleasant  arsenal,  the  only  memento  pertaining  to  this  capital  of 
modern  objects  and  ephemeral  fashions  which  recalls  the  past,  would  re- 
quire a  volume  to  itself,  and  offers  inexhaustible  interest  to  the  artist  in 
mind,  and  a  very  treasury  of  beautiful  subjects  to  the  artist  in  profession. 
By  command  of  the  emperor  Nicholas,  a  most  careful  and  elaborate  delin 
eation  of  its  contents,  by  the  best  artists  of  the  day,  and  under  the  direc- 
tion of  M.  Velton  of  St.  Petersburg,  is  going  forward,  to  appear  in  num- 
bers, of  which  at  present  only  a  few  have  been  completed.  These  are  the 
most  exquisite  specimens  of  drawing  and  emblazonry,  and  offer  an  interest 
second  only  to  that  of  the  arsenal ;  but  the  price  is  high,  being  five  hundred 
roubles  a  number ! 

The  grounds  around  the  palace  of  Czarsko  Selo  are  eighteen  miles  in 
circumference,  and  contain  plenty  of  larch,  oak,  and  elm,  which  flourish 
well.  The  gardens  are  said  to  be  the  most  carefully  kept  in  the  world, 
the  trees  and  flowers  being  watched  and  inspected  with  the  most  anxious 
minuteness.  An  old  invalid  soldier  commands  his  five  or  six  hundred  men 
as  gardeners  and  overseers.  As  before  remarked,  after  every  falling  leaf 
runs  a  veteran  to  pick  it  up ;  and  after  a  violent  north  wind  they  have 
enough  to  do,  as  may  be  well  imagined.  Every  tiny  leaf  that  falls  in  pond 
or  canal  is  carefully  fished  out ;  they  dust,  and  trim,  and  polish  the  trees 
and  paths  in  the  gardens,  as  they  do  the  looking-glasses  and  furniture  of 
the  saloons ;  every  stone  that  is  kicked  aside  is  laid  straight  again,  and 
every  blade  of  grass  kept  in  a  proper  position.  An  inquiry  was  once  insti- 
tuted here  about  a  broken  flower,  and  carried  on  with  as  much  solemnity 
as  if  it  had  been  a  capital  offence.  All  the  gardeners  were  called  together, 
the  inspector  held  the  flower  in  his  hand,  and  every  possible  question  was 
put,  as  to  whose  division,  and  out  of  wliat  bed,  the  flower  might  have  been 
taken  ;  whether  plucked  by  a  child,  or  broken  by  a  dog :  and  this  investi- 
gation proceeded  with  the  most  profound  seriousness,  and  the  closest  con- 
templation of  the  corpus  delicti — threats  were  lavished,  rewards  for  the 
discovery  of  the  offender  were  promised,  &c. ;  but  with  what  success,  never 
transpired.     The  cost  of  all  this  polishing  and  furbishing  alone  is  above 


478  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

a  hundred  thousand  roubles  yearly,  but  then  the  sacrifice  keeps  the  gardens 
in  the  order  of  a  ballroom. 

The  odd  caprices  exhibited  in  the  decoration  of  the  grounds  are  really 
extraordinary,  and  so  numerous,  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  describe 
them  all.  In  one  corner  is  the  tower  of  Prince  (now  emperor)  Alexander, 
an  ornate  structure  in  several  stories,  where  the  young  prince  resided 
with  his  tutor :  in  another  are  the  baby-houses  of  the  young  grand-duch- 
esses, where  they  carried  on  a  mimic  menag-e.  In  front  of  a  Chinese  tower 
is  a  high  pole,  rigged  like  the  mast  of  a  frigate,  where  the  young  grand- 
duke  Constantine  (now  holding  a  high  rank  in  the  navy)  formerly  prac- 
tised his  "  hand  over  hand"  upon.  On  one  of  the  ponds  is  a  fleet  of  pigmy 
vessels,  intended  to  amuse  the  youthful  admiral  in  his  professional  studies. 

In  addition  to  all  these  strange  objects  are  a  theatre,  a  Chinese  village, 
a  Dutch  and  Swiss  cowhouse,  a  Turkish  kiosk,  a  summer-house  in  the  form 
of  an  Ionic  colonnade  supporting  an  aerial  garden,  planted  with  flowers, 
a  Gothic  building  called  the  Admiralty,  a  marble  bridge  with  Corinthian 
columns  of  polished  marble ;  also  rostral  pillars  and  bronze  statues  whicli 
Catherine  II.  erected  to  her  favorites  —  among  these  is  a  column  to  Orloff. 
There  are  likewise  some  commemorative  monuments  raised  by  Alexander 
to  his  "  companions  in  arms,"  intermingled  with  fields  of  roses,  hermitages, 
artificial  ruins,  Roman  tombs,  grottoes,  and  waterfalls. 

Since  the  death  of  Alexander,  the  palace  has  been  untenanted  except  by 
servants.  The  imperial  family,  when  they  come  here,  inhabit  a  large 
building  in  the  park.  Like  almost  all  other  royal  buildings  in  Russia, 
Czarsko  owes  its  origin  to  Peter  the  Great.  He  erected  the  first  house 
here,  and  planted,  to  his  eternal  praise,  the  avenues  of  plane-trees  with  his 
own  hand ;  but  it  was  the  empress  Elizabeth  who  built  the  castle,  which 
was  further  embellished  by  Catherine  II.,  and  after  the  great  fire  it  was 
restored  by  Alexander. 

The  two  imperial  residences  of  Paulofsky  and  Gatchina,  the  favorite 
abode  of  the  late  empress-mother,  but  now  seldom,  if  ever,  visited  by  any 
member  of  the  imperial  family,  are  situated  beyond  Czarsko  Selo ;  the  one 
at  the  distance  of  about  eight,  the  other  about  twenty-five  miles.  The 
gardens  of  Paulofsky  are  less  magnificent  but  more  attractive  than  those  of 
Czarsko  Selo.  According  to  Swinin,  the  walks  in  these  gardens  amount 
to  more  than  one  hundred  miles  in  length ;  and  there  is  so  much  variety 
in  the  disposition  of  them,  and  in  the  shrubs  and  grouping  of  the  trees, 
that  Russian  literature  may  boast  of  several  books  written  on  this  subject 
alone !  Paulofsky  may  also  be  reached  l)y  the  railway.  There  are  many 
villas  there,  and  a  band  plays  in  the  gardens  during  the  summer  months. 
These  gardens,  and  the  palace,  are  the  property  of  the  grand-duke  Michael. 

The  road  to  Czarsko  Selo  excepted,  the  coast-road  to  PeterhoflF  is  es- 
teemed the  most  lively  and  best  inhabited  of  any  in  the  environs  of  the 
capital ;  the  road,  too,  is  broad,  finely  paved,  with  excellent  bridges  and 
handsome  granite  milestones.     It  is  a  proof,  however,  of  the  general  mo- 


ST.  PETERSBURG STRELNA  AND  PETERHOFF.  479 

notony  of  Russian  roadside  scenciy,  that  the  verststones  are  almost  the 
only,  at  any  rate  the  most  striking  landmarks,  and  in  this  sense  are  really 
very  useful.  For  instance,  a  St.  Petersburgian,  wishing  to  explain  to  a 
friend  where  his  villa  is  situated,  will  say,  "  "We  are  living  this  year  on 
the  PeterhofiF  road,  at  the  seventh  verst ;"  or,  "  The  Orloff  datscha  stands 
at  the  eleventh  verst"  — "  We  will  take  our  dinner  at  the  traktir^s  (restmi- 
ratevr')  at  the  fourteenth  verst"  —  as  if  these  milestones  were  pyramids. 
But  so  it  is  —  there  are  neither  valleys,  brooks,  nor  smiling  villages,  gnarled 
oaks  or  giant  elms,  whereby  to  distinguish  places,  and  people  can  find 
their  way  only  by  considering  the  position  of  the  milestones. 

Petcrhoff  is  distant  from  St.  Petersburg  about  eighteen  miles  ;  the  road 
to  it  is  by  the  Riga  gate,  passing  under  the  triumphal  arch  erected  by  the 
inhabitants  to  celebrate  the  return  of  the  Russian  army  from  Paris  in  1814. 
This  structure  is  cumbrous  in  the  extreme,  covered  with  sheets  of  copper, 
supporting  a  brazen  triumphal  car  drawn  by  six  horses  abreast,  in  which 
is  a  figure  of  Victory.  Shortly  after  passing  the  Riga  gate,  on  the  right  is 
seen  the  old  palace  of  Catherinenhofi",  already  mentioned  as  the  rendezvous 
of  the  Russians  on  May-day.  The  castle  is  now  deserted  as  an  imperial 
residence,  and  is  fast  sinking  into  the  bosom  of  the  morass  on  which  it 
was  built ;  its  decay  was  greatly  accelerated  by  the  inundation  of  the  Neva 
in  1824.  Beyond  this  is  the  Annenhoff  lunatic-asylum,  founded  by  the 
empress  Anne,  whose  name  it  bears,  which  was  removed  here  from  its 
original  situation  within  the  city  in  order  that  the  patients  should  have  an 
additional  chance  of  regaining  their  reason  in  the  calmer  situation  and 
fresh  air  of  the  open  country. 

As  far  as  Strelna  the  traveller  follows  the  great  western  road  that  leads 
to  Germany,  which  here  branches  off  to  the  south,  while  the  road  to  Petcr- 
hoff continues  its  course  along  the  southern  bank  of  the  Neva.  This  alone 
of  all  the  approaches  to  the  capital  is  lined  with  the  villas  and  country- 
seats  of  Russian  nobles  and  merchants,  many  of  which  are  alike  conspicu- 
ous for  their  splendor  and  elegance,  but  seem  almost  without  exception  to 
be  much  better  adapted  for  the  warm  and  genial  climate  of  some  land  of 
the  sun  than  the  stern,  inhospitable  shore  of  a  sea  which  is  frozen  nearly 
half  the  vear.  At  the  distance  of  four  or  five  miles  from  St.  Petersbur<>- 
the  line  of  houses  on  the  right  hand  ceases,  and  the  wide  expanse  of  the 
Neva  spreads  before  the  windows  and  terraces  of  the  houses  which  border 
the  road  on  the  left  hand. 

The  palace  of  Strelna  is  a  pretty  Gothic  building,  situated  on  a  com- 
manding position,  immediately  overhanging  the  Neva  ;  but  its  interior  is 
plain,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  ballroom,  by  no  means  splendidly  fur- 
nished. Since  the  death  of  the  grand-duke  Constantino,  this,  like  most  of 
the  other  imperial  residences  near  the  Russian  capital,  has  been  untenanted. 
Hence  to  PeterhofiF,  a  distance  of  about  six  miles,  the  road  winds  along  the 
shore  of  the  Neva,  still  presenting  a  succession  of  villas  and  pavilions,  witli 
gardens  and  Dutch  cottages  in  every  variety  of  sliape. 


480  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

Nothing  can  be  finer  than  the  actual  situation  of  the  palace  at  Peterhoff. 
Built  on  the  verge  of  a  steep  declivity,  its  windows  command  the  whole 
extent  of  the  Neva,  from  Kronstadt  to  St.  Petersburg,  with  the  green 
islands  of  the  majestic  river,  and  the  shore  of  Finland  beyond.  But  of 
late  years  it  seems  to  have  found  but  little  favor  in  the  eyes  of  the  impe- 
rial family ;  and,  though  both  garden  and  palaces  are  still  kept  in  the 
strictest  order,  they  are  seldom  visited  by  them  except  on  the  occasion  of 
the  annual  fetes.  The  gardens  are  not  so  extensive  as  those  at  Czarsko 
Selo  ;  but  their  situation  is  far  more  beautiful,  and  their  arrangement  more 
tasteful.  The  water-works  are  considered  but  little  inferior  to  those  at 
Versailles.  That  called  the  Samson,  in  front  of  the  palace,  is  a  magnifi- 
cent jet  cfeau,  eighty  feet  high,  and  from  it  to  the  sea,  a  distance  of  five 
hundred  yards,  runs  a  canal,  wherein  are  many  smaller  fountains.  On 
each  side  of  the  fountain  of  Samson  (so  called  from  a  colossal  bronze  figure 
tearing  open  the  jaws  of  a  lion  whence  rushes  the  water)  are  other  jets 
d'eau  which  throw  water  vertically  and  horizontally ;  these  basins  are  at 
the  foot  of  the  elevation  on  which  the  palace  stands.  In  the  centre  is  a 
broad  flight  of  steps  leading  to  the  castle,  and  on  each  side  a  continuous 
range  of  marble  slabs  to  the  top  of  the  hill  over  which  the  water  pours 
down,  the  slabs  being  placed  high  and  far  apart,  so  as  to  allow  lamps  to 
be  arranged  behind  the  water.  This  is  done  at  the  Peterhoff  fetes  referred 
to  above. 

These  renowned  fetes  take  place  on  the  first  of  July  (old  style,  which 
still  prevails  in  Russia),  when  amends  are  made  to  this  charming  summer 
abode  for  the  neglect  to  which  it  is  doomed  during  the  rest  of  the  year. 
On  that  day  (July  13  of  our  style),  the  people  of  St.  Petersburg  throng  in 
vast  and  motley  multitudes  to  the  famous  Peterhoff  festival.  It  is  difficult 
to  give  an  idea  of  the  immense  concourse  that  flows  thither.  From  the 
earliest  hour  of  the  morning,  the  Neva  is  covered  with  steamboats,  skiffs, 
and  gondolas,  and  the  roads  with  vehicles  of  every  kind,  full  of  eager  holy- 
day-makers,  fearless  of  the  dust  so  long  as  they  reach  the  scene  of  enjoy- 
ment. There  the  accommodations  prepared  for  them  can  not  possibly 
suffice.  Enormous  tents  are  pitched,  to  afford  rest  and  refreshment  to  the 
weary  wayfarers ;  but  so  extraordinary  is  the  throng,  that  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  keep  a  place  even  if  obtained :  or  else  the  heat  drives  one  from 
under  cover,  to  mingle  and  be  carried  along  with  the  dense  stream  that 
fills  every  avenue.  Hurrying  from  room  to  room,  and  from  one  garden 
into  another,  the  morning  passes  away,  and  at  noon  the  empress  appears 
on  the  balcony  of  the  palace,  and  a  military  parade  ensues.  After  the 
troops  have  defiled  before  her,  the  orderlies  of  the  various  corps  march  by, 
among  which  the  Circassians  are  remarkable  for  their  personal  appearance, 
costume,  and  skill  in  military  exercises. 

After  the  parade,  which  has  been  preceded  by  divine  service,  a  court 
drawing-room  is  usually  held ;  then  comes  a  drive  through  the  park,  and 


ST.    rETERSUURG  —  FESTIVAL    AT    PETERIIOFF.  483 

then  dinner,  succeeded,  toward  eight  in  the  evening,  by  a  ball  in  tlic  pal- 
ace. To  this  ball,  every  one,  without  exception,  is  welcome.  The  country- 
people,  in  their  ordinary  garb,  mingle  with  the  wearers  of  elegant  dresses 
and  brilliant  uniforms;  a  mixture  which,  however,  in  no  w^ay  diminishes 
the  universal  enjoyment.  Suddenly  the  musicians  strike  up  ;  througli  the 
folding-doors,  thrown  wide  open,  two  chamberlains  enter,  and  courteously 
entreat  the  assemblage  to  make  room  for  their  majesties,  who  are  near  at 
hand.  Every  one  draws  back,  as  much  as  the  throng  and  pressure  permit, 
and  the  Polonaise  is  danced,  with  the  emperor  at  its  head,  through  all  the 
extensive  suite  of  apartments.  The  entrance  of  the  imperial  couple  is  the 
moment  chosen  by  the  artist  to  illustrate  the  fete,  as  seen  in  tlie  foregoing 
engraving.  The  stately  form  of  the  emperor,  with  the  empress  on  his 
riglit,  will  be  readily  recognised  in  the  picture.  All  present  have  an  op- 
portunity of  seeing  their  sovereigns,  and  all  greet  tlicm  joyfully  as  they 
pass,  until  the  royal  dancers,  retracing  their  steps,  conclude  the  dance  in 
the  same  hall  wherein  they  commenced  it. 

At  a  signal  from  the  empress,  the  whole  of  the  vast  garden  is  now  sud- 
denly illuminated.  This  takes  place  as  by  enchantment.  With  lightning 
speed  the  countless  flames  ascend  from  the  lowest  branches  to  the  very 
topmost  sprigs  of  the  trees.  In  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  park  and 
garden  appear  in  a  blaze.  The  waters  of  the  fountains  plash  and  ripple 
over  steps  which  seem  to  burn.  Lamps,  ingeniously  sheltered  from  extinc- 
tion, gleam  through  the  falling  water,  whose  every  drop  glitters,  diamond- 
like, with  all  the  tints  of  the  prism.  Eye  can  not  behold  a  more  striking 
and  beautiful  scene.  The  finest  sight  of  all  is  the  "  Golden  Staircase," 
already  described,  next  to  the  "  Samson"  —  fountains  with  whicli,  in  the 
opinion  of  some,  even  the  Grandes  Eaux  at  Versailles  can  scarcely  be 
compared.  And  now  imagine  the  monster  illumination,  reflected  on  all 
sides  in  the  colossal  cascades  and  water-works,  and  in  the  adjacent  arm  of 
the  sea ;  imagine  the  melodious  murmur  of  music  issuing  from  the  palace, 
and  mingled  with  the  whizzing  of  rockets,  with  the  booming  of  cannon  from 
the  vessels  at  Kronstadt,  and  with  the  joyous  songs  of  countless  groups, 
who, having  selected  spots  for  their  bivoiiac,\\Q  around  the  fires  in  various 
and  picturesque  attire.  All  tliese  things  combine  to  render  this  one  of  tlie 
most  beautiful  festivals  that  can  be  imagined. 

At  ten  o'clock  the  ball  ends ;  after  whicli  the  court  usually  take  a  little 
drive  on  a  sort  of  long  droskies  (jaunting-cars).  On  their  return  in-doors, 
the  lights  in  the  palace  are  suddenly  extinguished.  Gradually  the  walks 
are  deserted  by  the  promenaders,  who  establish  themselves  for  the  night 
under  tents  or  beneath  wagons,  or  round  great  watchfires  —  departing  with 
the  first  dawn,  by  land  and  by  water,  to  their  respective  homes.  Thus 
ends  the  great  holyday  at  PetcrliofF,  unquestionably  one  of  the  grandest 
and  most  agreeable  of  popular  festivals. 

The  emperor  Nicholas,  wlien  at  Peterhofi",  did  not  occupy  the  imperial 
palace,  but  a  wooden  pavilion,  in  which  he  resided  when  gran  d-d  ukc. 


484  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

The  suite  of  apartments  in  which  the  emperoi*  Alexander  lived  when  last 
at  Peterhoff  have  never  since  been  inhabited ;  and  everything  remains  as 
he  left  it.  ' 

The  principal  attraction  at  PeterhoiF  is  the  old  castle  built  by  Peter  the 
Great ;  and,  although  every  emperor  and  empress  has  made  alterations  and 
additions,  the  character  of  the  whole  is  the  same  as  that  of  all  the  palaces 
built  by  that  czar ;  even  the  yellow  color,  which  was  its  original  hue,  is 
always  renewed,  and  like  them  its  architecture  is  very  insignificant  in 
cliaracter,  and  deserves  as  little  to  be  mentioned  with  Versailles  or  the 
other  French  chateaux,  which  may  have  served  as  models,  as  the  Kazan 
church  deserves  to  be  compared  with  St.  Peter's  at  Rome.  The  interior 
presents  in  many  instances  the  same  curious  mixture  of  simplicity  and  taw- 
driness  as  the  old  Michailoff  palace  and  tlie  Taurida  in  St.  Petersburg,  whicli 
have  been  described  at  length  in  a  previous  chapter. 

Here,  however,  are  to  be  seen  some  beautiful  tapestries,  countless  arti- 
cles of  bijouterie,  tazzas  of  porcelain,  malachite,  and  marble,  and  a  number 
of  pictures  chiefly  representing  the  naval  victories  of  Orloff  and  other  Rus- 
sian commanders  of  Catherine  II.  In  the  castle  is  also  one  higlily-inter- 
esting  apartment,  containing  a  collection  of  three  hundred  and  sixty-eight 
female  portraits  executed  by  a  certain  Count  Rotali  for  that  empress  during 
a  journey  which  he  made  through  the  different  governments  of  the  empire. 
'*  They  are  all  beautiful  young  girls,  whom  the  count  has  painted  in  pictu- 
resque attitudes,  and  in  their  national  costume,  the  inventive  genius  of  the 
artist  giving  a  different  position  and  expression  to  every  face.  One  pretty 
girl  is  knitting  diligently,  another  embroidering ;  one  peeps  arclilj''  from 
behind  a  curtain,  another  gazes  expectingly  from  a  window ;  another  leans 
over  a  chair,  as  if  listening  to  her  lover ;  a  sixth,  reclining  on  cushions, 
seems  lost  in  thought.  One  slumbers  so  softly  and  so  sweetly,  that  a  man 
must  be  a  Laplander  in  apatliy  not  to  Avish  for  a  kiss ;  this  stands  before 
a  glass,  combing  her  beautiful  hair ;  that  has  buried  herself  up  to  the  ears 
in  fur,  leaving  visible  only  a  pair  of  tender,  rosy  lips,  and  soft  blue  eyes 
gleaming  from  under  the  wild  bear's  skin." 

There  are  also  some  excellent  portraits  of  old  people — two  in  particu- 
lar—  an  old  man  with  a  staff,  and  an  old  woman  by  the  fire.  This  collec- 
tion is  unique  in  its  kind,  and  would  be  invaluable  for  a  physiognomist,  if 
he  could  be  certain  that  these  portraits  were  as  exact  and  faithful  as  they 
are  pleasing  and  tasteful.  But  this  must  be  considered  doubtful,  for  they 
all  bear,  undenial)ly,  rather  the  stamp  of  the  French  school  than  of  the 
Russian,  Tartar,  Finnish,  or  any  other  nationality,  within  the  Muscovite 
empire.  It  is  also  accounted  a  suspicious  circumstance  that  the  portraits 
were  painted  by  a  gentleman  for  a  lady  ;  and  probably  behind  every  grace- 
ful attitude  some  flattering  homage  to  the  empress  lies  concealed. 

The  other  apartments  do  not  contain  anything  very  remarkable.  In 
one  are  the  little  table  and  benches  with  which  the  emperors  Alexanaer 
and  Nicholas  played  as  children ;  in  another,  some  carving  and  turner's 


ST.    PETERSBURG  —  MONPLAISIR,   AT   PETERHOFF.  485 

work  of  Peter  the  Great.  In  one  room  are  shown  tlie  blots  of  ink,  made 
by  this  emperor  or  that,  while  engaged  in  his  boyish  studies ;  and  in  an- 
other is  seen  on  the  ceiling  an  extraordinary  picture,  representing  a  whole 
corps  of  angels  playing  from  notes !  every  one  with  his  music  lying  on  a 
cloud  by  way  of  desk  !  —  wliile  a  fifth  room  contains  all  the  gods  of  Greece, 
also  reclining  on  clouds. 

Descending  from  the  palace  to  the  seashore,  the  garden  is  laid  out  in 
terraces,  and  adorned  with  fountains  and  waterfalls.  The  basins,  the  Nep- 
tuncs,  storks,  swans,  and  nymphs,  the  tritons,  dolphins,  painted  rocks,  and 
grottoes,  are  copied  from  the  engravings  in  Hushfield's  "Art  of  Garden- 
ing." These  are  commonplace  enough :  not  so  the  oaks  and  lime-trees, 
planted  by  Peter  himself,  which  one  can  not  pass  without  notice.  The 
smaller  buildings  of  "Marly"  and  "  Monplaisir,"  which  lie  under  these 
trees  as  wings  to  the  larger  edifice,  remind  the  spectator,  as  the  small 
house  in  the  Summer  garden  has  done,  of  the  modest  domestic  arrange- 
ments of  the  carpenter  of  Sardaam,  Holland — the  great  reformer  of  east- 
ern Europe. 

It  was  from  these  humble  retreats  that  Peter  the  Great  loved  to  contem- 
plate his  growing  power  over  the  Swedes  on  the  Baltic.  In  Monplaisir,  a  low, 
Dutch-built  summer-house,  the  empress  Elizabetli  used  to  amuse  her  royal 
leisure  by  cooking  her  own  dinner.  In  this  lowly  abode  the  great  Peter 
breathed  his  last,  and  his  bed  is  still  preserved  untouched  since  his  death, 
and  now  fast  crumbling  to  decay.  The  last  act  of  his  life,  the  attempt  to 
succor  a  stranded  vessel,  was  well  worthy  to  close  the  busy  career  of  such 
a  being  as  Peter.  A  view  of  this  favorite  residence  of  the  great  monarch 
is  given  on  the  following  page.  The  Rev.  John  0.  Choules,  in  his  visit 
to  the  Baltic  in  1853,  thus  speaks  of  it:  — 

"  Our  first  sight  was  the  residence  of  Peter  the  Great ;  it  is  not  far  re- 
moved from  the  old  palace.  It  is  beautifully  surrounded  by  trees,  and  the 
house  is  quite  small,  and  not  very  unlike  a  Dutch  farmhouse.  Its  interior 
is  quite  like  some  old  houses  that  I  remember  on  the  Hudson  river.  In 
this  snuggery  Peter  died.  We  saw  the  bed  on  which  he  breathed  his  last ; 
the  bedclothes  are  all  preserved  as  when  he  occupied  the  chamber.  On 
the  pillow  are  his  caps  and  nightclothes,  and  his  robe-de-chambre  lying  on 
the  coverlet  of  the  bed.  Nothing  can  be  more  simple  than  all  the  furni- 
ture. The  rooms  are  small,  and  you  can  fancy  that  the  old  people  who 
live  in  the  cottage  have  just  stepped  out.  In  the  room  adjoining  the  small 
chamber  are  his  slippers,  boots,  and  sedan-chair,  and  other  articles  of  per- 
sonal dress.  In  a  small  corner-cupboard  is  his  camp-equipage,  as  plain  as 
tin,  iron,  and  brass  can  be.  The  walls  of  the  kitchen  are  covered  with 
blue  Dutch  tiles.  Nothing  indicates  that  royalty  ever  resided  here,  but 
some  good  Flemish  pictures  and  a  few  elegant  Japanese  cabinets  and  beau- 
tiful stands.  His  escritoire  remains  as  he  last  used  it.  A  long,  narrow 
saloon,  which  is  really  a  covered  gallery,  has  many  portraits ;  and  here 
the  emperor  used  to  walk  and  receive  his  visiters.     The  dining-room  was 


486 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRII'TION    OF   RUSSIA. 


MONPLAISIR,    AT   PeTERHOFF. 

a  small  apartment,  with  a  circular  oak  table,  and  the  panel?  of  fine  Japan- 
ese work  ;  the  lower  wainscoting  of  old  black  oak.  From  a  noble  terrace, 
paved  with  marble,  Peter  could  gaze  upon  his  infant  navy,  lying  off  at 
Kronstadt.  The  rocks  of  the  seashore  come  quite  up  to  the  balustrades 
of  the  terrace,  and  greatly  add  to  the  scenery." 

The  "  Hermitage"  at  Peterhoff  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  contrivance 
by  which  the  dishes  and  plates  descend  from  the  table  through  grooves  cut 
in  the  floor,  and  are  replaced  by  others  without  any  servant  being  seen. 

The  famous  "  Cottage"  of  Catherine  II.  is,  without,  all  plain,  even  to 
poverty ;  within,  all  glorious  and  radiant  with  gold,  and  mirrors  reflecting 
each  object,  giving  the  tiny  dwelling  an  appearance  of  size  and  magnifi- 
cence quite  astonishing.  The  present  empress  has  a  small  palace  in  the 
park  of  Peterhoff,  called  S/iiiamnisky .  There  is  likewise  a  low,  thatched 
building,  called  the  "  Straw  palace."  In  a  piece  of  water  in  the  gardens 
are  a  great  many  tame  carp,  which,  says  an  English  traveller,  "  are  regu- 
larly fed,  and  come  to  the  visiters  as  readily  as  the  swans  in  James's  park, 
London,  or  a  parish-clerk  for  his  Christmas-box." 

A  few  miles  hence  is  the  country-seat  of  Ropschd,  at  which  Peter  III. 
met  his  death  by  assassination.  Beyond  Peterhoff,  in  a  situation,  if  possi- 
ble, more  beautiful  and  commanding,  stands  Oranienbaura,  now  the  prop- 
erty of  the  grand-duke  Michael.  It  was  originally  bestowed  upon  Prince 
Menchikoff  by  Peter  the  Great,  to  whom  it  again  reverted  on  the  disgrace 
and  banishment  of  that  proud  courtier. 


THE   IMPERIAL   GOVERNMENT. 


48: 


CHAPTER   XVIII, 


THE    IMPERIAL    GOVERNMENT. 


IHE  emperor  of  Russia  assumes  the  title  of 
IJitf-  sainoderjetz^  or  autocrat,  and  all  power 
centres  in  and  emanates  from  him.  The 
act  of  election  of  1613,  which  conferred 
the  crown  on  the  house  of  Romanoff, 
recognises  the  absolute  power  of  the 
sovereign.  His  will  is  unlimited,  and 
liis  authority  uncontrolled,  except  in 
the  respect  he  may  voluntarily  yield 
to  established  customs,  to  the  privi- 
leges of  certain  classes,  and  to  the 
prejudices  of  the  people.  A  rever- 
the  emperor,  amounting  almost  to  idolatrous 
'  worship,  is  instilled  into  the  Russians  from  their  ear- 
1  liest  childhood.  Next  to  the  name  of  God,  the  name 
of  the  emperor  always  occurs  in  the  religious  vocabu- 
lary of  the  people,  in  whose  eyes  the  two  names  are 
next  thing  to  synonymous.  In  every  individual  reign, 
however,  the  personal  character  of  the  sovereign  must,  in  a  great  measure, 
determine  that  of  the  administration.  Hence,  under  such  a  monarch  as 
Paul  I.,  the  most  extravagant  decrees,  the  dictates  of  a  mind  bordering  on 
insanity,  had  all  the  force  of  law,  and  exposed  every  subject,  who  ventured 
to  disregard  them,  to  the  penalties  of  rebellion ;  while,  on  the  contrary, 
under  the  late  Alexander,  the  whole  administration  assumed  almost  a  con- 
stitutional form,  and  the  emperor  himself  publicly  disclaimed  despotism, 
by  declaring  that  he  was  bound  to  rule  according  to  law,  and  that,  in  the 
event  of  his  issuing  any  decree  not  in  accordance  with  it,  the  senate  was 
entitled  to  remonstrate. 

To  Peter  the  Great  is  due  the  credit  of  the  formation  of  the  government : 
though,  subsequently  to  him,  some  changes  and  modifications  have  been 
introduced.  Previously  to  the  time  of  the  reforms  of  Peter,  the  govern- 
mental machinery  was  not  so  complicated.  In  introducing  the  change?. 
Peter,  in  some  instances,  maintained,  however,  the  old  institutions,  giving 
them  a  new  (mostly  Germanic)  name.     The  emperor  is  the  central  poii.t 


ifcy^^-.vi^ivfrf. 


48S  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

of  administration  :  evciything  emanates  from  him  in  tlie  first  instance,  and 
everything  is  referred  to  him  in  the  last,  and  his  decisions  are  law. 

The  public  business  is  transacted  under  the  emperor  by  different  boards, 
councils,  or  colleges,  which  have  each  separate  but  sometimes  not  easily- 
distinguished  functions.  The  principal  body  is  the  imperial  council,  for 
the  most  part  presided  over  by  the  emperor  in  person,  or  a  delegate  of  his 
sole  appointment.  It  has  no  limit  as  to  its  numbers,  but  is  divided  into 
four  departments — legislative,,  military,  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  and  finan- 
cial. All  matters  coming  under  deliberation  are  decided  by  a  majority  of 
votes,  either  by  the  departments  separately,  or  by  the  whole  acting  as  one 
])ody.  To  each  department  a  secretary  of  state  is  attached.  The  impe- 
rial council  was  established  on  its  present  footing  in  1810,  and  was  proba- 
bly modelled  by  Alexander  after  that  of  Napoleon. 

The  body  next  in  importance  to  the  council  is  the  senate,  which  is  also 
presided  over  by  the  emperor  in  person.  It  is  the  supreme  judicial  tribu- 
nal, and  issues  decrees  which  have  the  force  of  law,  unless  the  emperor 
interpose  to  prevent  their  execution.  It  is  divided  into  eight  departments, 
each  of  which  is  an  appeal-court  of  last  resort  for  certain  provinces  and 
governments.  The  decision  of  each  department  must  be  supported  by  a 
majority  of  two  thirds  of  the  members  present ;  and,  when  this  majority 
can  not  be  obtained,  a  general  meeting  of  all  tlie  departments  is  called  to 
decide.  The  procedure  is  not  public,  and  the  whole  pleadings  are  in  wri- 
ting, each  case  being  decided  on  a  statement  drawn  up  by  the  secretary, 
and  certified  by  the  party  as  correct.  In  a  few  cases,  however,  parties 
dissatisfied  with  its  decisions  may  petition  the  emperor.  The  senators  are 
mostly  persons  of  high  rank,  or  who  fill  high  stations  ;  but  a  lawyer  of  emi- 
nence presides  over  each  department,  who  represents  the  emperor,  and 
without  whose  signature  its  decisions  would  have  no  force.  In  tlie  plenum, 
or  genera]  meeting  of  the  sections,  the  minister  of  justice  takes  the  choir, 
as  higli  procurator  for  his  majesty.  Besides  its  superintendence  over  the 
court  of  law,  the  senate  examines  into  the  state  of  the  public  revenue  and 
expenditure,  and  has  power  to  inquire  into  public  abuses,  to  appoint  to  a 
great  variety  of  ofiices,  and  to  make  remonstrances  to  the  emperor.  Monthly 
reports  of  its  proceedings  are  published  in  the  gazette. 

The  third  college  consists  of  the  holy  synod,  composed  of  the  principal 
dignitaries  of  the  church,  and  to  it  is  committed  the  superintendence  of  the 
religious  affairs  of  the  empire. 

The  fourth  college  consists  of  the  committee  of  ministers,  of  whom  there 
are  eleven,  viz.,  the  ministers  of  the  imperial  household,  of  war,  finance, 
justice,  interior,  public  instruction,  imperial  domains,  postoffice,  roads  and 
public  buildings,  and-  the  vice-chancellor  and  comptroller-general.  The 
ministers  frequently  have  colleagues,  who  supply  their  place  when  they  ar^} 
either  sick  or  absent.  They  communicate  directly  with  the  emperor,  or  wit', 
his  chancellerie  particuliere,  in  whose  hands  all  the  executive  authority  1 1 
centred. 


THE   mrERIAL  GOVERNMENT  —  THE  JUDICIARY.  489 

The  local  administration  differs  in  different  provinces  ;  the  imperial  gov- 
ernment having  alwajs  allowed  conquered  or  annexed  countries  to  pre- 
serve their  own  laws  and  institutions,  except  in  so  far  as  they  were  hostile 
to  the  general  constitution  of  the  empire.  Finland,  for  example,  has  a 
^^pecial  form  of  government ;  and  the  provinces  wrested  from  Sweden  by 
Peter  the  Great,  together  with  Courland,  and  those  formerly  belonging  to 
Poland,  have  peculiar  institutions  and  privileges,  which,  however,  have 
latterly  been  much  modified.  But,  despite  these  exceptions,  the  form  of 
tlie  provincial  government  is,  notwithstanding,  sufficiently  uniform. 

The  empire  is  divided  into  general  governments,  or  vice-royalties,  gov- 
ernments, and  districts.  There  are  also,  as  already  stated,  extensive  ter- 
ritories, which,  from  the  thinness  of  their  population,  or  otherwise,  are  not 
organized  into  regular  governments,  that  are  called  oblasts,  or  provinces. 
The  viceroys,  or  general-governors,  are  the  representatives  of  the  emperor ; 
and,  as  such,  command  the  forces,  and  have  the  supreme  control  and  direc 
tion  of  all  affairs,  whether  civil  or  military.  All  the  functionaries  withia 
their  jurisdiction  are  subordinate  to,  and  make  their  reports  to  them. 
They  sanction  or  suspend  the  judgments  of  the  courts,  &c.  A  civil  gov- 
ernor, representing  the  general-governor,  assisted  by  a  council  or  regency, 
to  which  all  measures  must  be  submitted,  is  established  in  each  government 
or  province.  In  case  of  dissent,  the  opinion  of  the  governor  is  provision- 
ally adopted  till  the  pleasure  of  the  emperor  with  respect  to  the  matter  be 
ascertained.  A  vice-governor  is  appointed  to  fill  the  place  of  the  civil  gov- 
ernor when  the  latter  is  absent  or  ill.  There  are  also,  in  every  govern- 
ment, a  council  of  finance  under  the  presidency  of  the  vice-governor,  who 
manage  the  crown  estates,  and  superintend  the  collection  of  the  revenue ; 
a  college  of  general  provision,  which  has  the  direction  and  inspection  of 
all  charitable  foundations,  prisons,  workhouses,  schools  for  the  instruction 
of  the  poor,  &c. ;  and  a  college  of  medicine,  which  attends  to  all  matters 
connected  with  the  public  health,  appoints  district  physicians,  inspects 
pharmacopeias,  <fec.  The  districts  have  each  their  local  functionaries. 
The  towns  have  a  municipal  body,  elected  once  every  three  years  by  the 
different  classes  into  which  the  population  is  divided ;  and  each  town  has, 
also,  according  to  its  importance,  a  commandant  or  bailiff,  appointed  by 
the  crown,  who  has  charge  of  the  police,  of  the  public  buildings  and  maga- 
zines, and  who  executes  sentences,  pursues  criminals,  &c. 

The  Russian  judicial  system  is  complicated,  and  not  easily  understood, 
except  by  natives.  There  are  civil  and  criminal  courts  in  every  circle ; 
and  a  supreme  court  of  justice,  divided  into  civil  and  criminal  sections,  is 
established  in  every  government.  Cases  decided  in  the  inferior  courts  may 
be  appealed  to  it.  Its  sentence  is  final  in  all  criminal  cases,  and  in  all 
civil  matters  relating  to  sums  under  five  hundred  roubles.  Those  involving 
property  to  a  greater  amount  may  be  carried  before  the  senate. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that,  notwithstanding  the  despotical  nature  of  the 
government,  all  the  provincial  tribunals  consist  partly  of  elective  function- 


490  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

aries.  Thus,  the  superior  court  for  a  circle  consists  of  a  judge  and  secre- 
tary, and  of  two  assessors  chosen  annually  by  the  nobles,  and  two  by  the 
peasants ;  and  the  superior  court  of  justice  for  a  government,  which  is 
divided  into  a  civil  and  criminal  chamber,  consists  of  a  president,  secretary, 
and  four  assessors  for  each  chamber,  two  of  the  assessors  being  chosen  by 
the  nobility,  and  two  by  the  burghers.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  principle  in  Russia 
that  a  portion  of  the  judges  in  every  court  should  belong  to  the  same  class 
as  the  party  whose  interests  are  under  discussion,  and  be  elected  for  that 
purpose  by  his  compeers.  In  the  case  of  the  nobles  and  burghers,  this 
is  a  most  valuable  privilege ;  but  in  the  case  of  the  peasantry,  who  stand 
most  in  need  of  protection,  this  privilege  is  quite  illusory — their  serfdom 
and  ignorance  making  them  utterly  incapable  of  profiting  by  it. 

Previously  to  the  reign  of  the  empress  Catherine  II.,  the  judges,  particu- 
larly in  the  inferior  courts,  were  wretchedly  paid.  That  princess  increased 
their  salaries ;  but  they  are  still  far  too  low.  And  seeing  that  the  judges 
are  removeable  at  pleasure,  and  owe  their  situation  to  favor  rather  than  to 
merit,  we  need  not  wonder  that  the  greatest  abuses  continue  to  exist  iu 
the  administration  of  justice.  The  proceedings  are  dilatory  in  the  extreme. 
The  prohibition  against  taking  fees  from  suitors  is  rarely  complied  with  ; 
and  in  most  tribunals  it  is  affirmed  that,  if  justice  can  not  be  altogether 
defeated,  it  may  at  least  be  indefinitely  postponed,  by  dint  of  money. 

These  abuses  have,  however,  been  in  part,  at  least,  obviated  by  the  pub- 
lication, between  1826  and  1833,  by  the  legislative  commission,  of  an  ex- 
tensive digest  {Siood  Zakonow,  "  Body  of  Law")  of  all  the  laws  then  in 
force  relative  to  the  rights  of  citizens  and  the  administration  of  pubhc 
justice.  This  publication  has  greatly  simplified  the  law ;  and  it  is  of  vast 
importance  from  its  being,  as  it  were,  a  charter  of  rights  which  may  be 
appealed  to  on  all  future  occasions,  and  which  it  will  be  very  difficult  for 
any  succeeding  sovereign  to  abi-idge.  But  it  would,  notwithstanding,  be 
idle  to  expect  any  very  material  improvement  in  the  ordinary  administra- 
tion of  justice,  until  the  judges  be  better  trained,  selected,  and  paid  ;  and 
till  the  influence  of  public  opinion,  and  of  a  comparatively  free  press,  nei- 
ther of  which  has  at  present  any  existence  in  Russia,  be  brought  to  bear 
on  the  administration  of  justice,  and  of  public  affairs  generally.  The  lat- 
ter, in  fact,  is  the  only  security  against  abuse  on  wliich  any  reliance  can 
safely  be  placed.  Wherever  judges  are  exempted  from  the  control  of 
public  opinion,  and  the  animadversion  of  the  press,  they  are  most  com- 
monly the  obsequious  instruments  of  government,  and  seldom  scruple  to 
commit  injustice  when  they  believe  it  will  be  acceptable  to  tlieir  superiors; 

The  system  of  police  in  Russia  is  efficient,  and  yet  in  many  respects 
comparatively  worthless  from  the  lack  of  honesty  in  its  members.  They 
are  quick  in  discovering  thefts,  in  ferreting  out  the  offenders,  and  prompt 
in  the  application  of  punishment ;  but  so  great  is  their  faculty  of  retention, 
that  a  person  who  has  been  robbed  never  considers  his  chance  of  recover- 
ing his  property  so  small  as  when  the  police  have  detected  the  thief !    From 


THE   IMPERIAL   GOVERNMENT THE   POLICE.  491 

flic  tliief's  hands  he  deems  it  possible  he  may  get  back  his  own,  but  from 
the  clutches  of  the  authorities  —  never.  So  strong  and  universal  is  this 
feeling,  that  robberies  would  seldom  be  reported,  did  not  the  laws,  in  the 
interest  of  public  security,  render  such  report  compulsory.  Many  instances 
are  given  by  travellers  in  illustration  of  this  feature  in  the  operation  of  the 
Russian  police  system,  one  or  two  of  which  we  will  narrate :  — 

A  Courland  nobleman,  Mr.  Von  H ,  lost  some  silver  spoons,  knives 

and  forks,  stolen  out  of  his  plate-chest.  Some  weeks  afterward  one  of  his 
servants  came  rejoicing  to  him  :  he  had  found  the  stolen  goods  ;  they  were 

openly  exposed  for  sale  in  a  silversmith's  shop-window.     Mr.  H went 

to  the  window,  recognised  his  property,  took  a  police-officer  with  him,  and 
made  the  silversmith  show  them  the  plate.  His  arms  and  initials  were 
upon  it ;  the  dealer  admitted  he  had  bought  it  of  a  stranger,  and  offered  to 

restore  it  to  its  rightful  owner.     Mr.  H would  have  taken  away  his 

property,  but  the  lieutenant  of  police  forbade  that,  drew  up  a  formal  state- 
ment of  the  affair,  and  requested  Mr.  H ,  as  a  proof  that  the  plate  was 

his,  to  send  to  the  police  some  other  article  out  of  the  chest  to  which  he 

affirmed  it  to  belong.     Mr.  H sent  the  whole  case,  with  its  contents, 

to  the  police-bureau.     He  never  saw  either  of  them  again ! 

Mr.  Yon  H mentioned  the  circumstance  to  a  physician,  a  friend  of 

his,  whom  he  thought  very  much  to  astoninh.  Astonished  he  certainly  was 
—  not,  however,  at  the  rascality  of  the  police,  but  at  the  simplicity  of  Mr, 

H ,  who  ought  to  have  known  them  far  too  Avell  to  have  trusted  them 

with  his  plate-chest. 

The  St.  Petersburg  thieves  are  exceedingly  skilful  and  daring.  The 
doctor,  above  referred  to,  also  had  his  tale  to  tell.  He  wanted  a  coach- 
man ;  one  applied  for  the  place  just  as  his  drosky  happened  to  be  at  the 
door,  and,  by  the  doctor's  desire,  he  drove  up  and  down  the  street,  to  give 
a  specimen  of  his  skill,  which  was  satisfactory.  The  doctor  called  to  him 
to  come  up  stairs,  and  sat  down  to  dinner.  The  man  did  not  appear: 
inquiry  was  made ;  he  had  driven  away  the  horse  and  carriage,  and  was 
nowhere  to  be  found.  The  doctor  made  his  report  to  the  police,  as  in  duty 
bound,  but  at  the  same  time  made  a  formal  declaration  that  he  renounced 
all  claim  to  the  stolen  property,  and  declined  taking  it  back  again.  The 
jirecaution  was  most  judicious.  He  could  not  do  Avithout  a  vehicle,  so 
bought  another  the  same  day;  and  when  the  police,  six  weeks  afterward, 
brought  him  back  horse  and  drosky,  they  were  in  so  wretched  a  state,  and 
the  charges  so  enormous,  that  he  was  heartily  glad  to  have  it  in  his  power 
to  decline  receiving  his  property,  or  paying  the  costs. 

The  boldness  of  the  St.  Petersburg  thieves  is  at  least  as  striking  as  the 
rascality  of  those  employed  to  detect  them.  Kakuschkin,  a  former  chief 
of  police,  was  not  very  popular  in  the  Russian  capital ;  but  by  the  thieves 
he  was  especially  detested,  for  his  severity  almost  equalled  their  audacity. 
So  there  was  a  double  temptation  to  despoil  him — the  gain  to  the  spoilers, 
and  the  vexation  of  the  spoiled.     He  possessed,  among  other  things,  a 


492  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

magnificent  porphyry  vase,  which  stood  npon  a  no  less  ^costly  pedestal. 
How  the  thieves  managed  to  steal  the  vase  is  still  a  riddle ;  but  stolen  it 
was.  For  six  months  the  police  hunted  after  it :  not  a  trace  but  was  fol- 
lowed up  and  explored  ;  not  a  thieves'  hiding-place  but  was  examined  ;  but 
all  was  in  vain.  At  last  hope  was  abandoned,  and  the  authorities  relaxed 
their  vigilance.  One  day,  however,  a  policeman  went  to  Kakuschkin's 
wife,  and  took  her  the  joyful  intelligence  that  the  thief  was  discovered, 
the  vase  already  at  the  police-office,  and  that  lier  Imsband  had  sent  him 
for  the  pedestal,  in  order  to  identify  the  stolen  object.  Madame  Kakusch- 
kin  was  overjoyed :  and  when  her  husband  came  home  to  dinner,  she  ran 
to  meet  him,  in  high  glee.  "  Well,"  she  cried,  "  and  tlie  vase  ?"  —  "  What 
vase?" — "  The  stolen  vase,  which  has  been  found  :  the  vase  whose  pedes- 
tal you  sent  for  ?"  —  "  Whose  pedestal  I  sent  for !  Whom  did  I  send  ?"  — 
"A  policeman."  —  "  Say,  rather,  ii policeman'' s  uniform.  I  sent  no  police- 
man, nor  have  I  heard  aught  of  the  vase,  or  of  its  pedestal." 

The  following  instance  of  the  dexterity  of  a  St.  Petersburg  pickpocket 
is  related  by  Kohl :  "  The  French  embasssador  was  one  day  vaunting  the 
dexterity  of  the  Parisian  thieves  to  one  of  the  grand-dukes,  and  related 
many  anecdotes  of  their  address.  The  grand-duke  was  of  opinion  that  the 
St.  Petersburg  thieves  were  quite  their  equals ;  and  offered  to  lay  a  wager 
that,  if  the  embassador  would  dine  with  him  the  next  day,  he  would  cause 
his  excellency's  watch,  signet-ring,  or  any  other  articles  of  his  dress  which 
he  thought  most  secure,  to  be  stolen  from  liim  before  the  dessert  was  over. 
The  embassador  accepted  the  wager,  and  the  grand-duke  sent  immediately 
to  the  chief  of  the  police,  desiring  him  to  send  the  adroitest  thief  he  might 
happen  to  have  in  custody  at  the  time.  The  man  was  dressed  in  livery, 
instructed  what  to  do,  and  promised  a  pardon  if  he  accomplished  his  task 
well.  The  embassador  had  named  his  watch  as  tlie  particular  object  of 
attention,  both  for  himself  and  the  thief;  and  when  he  had  got  the  watch, 
the  supposed  servant  was  to  give  tlie  grand-duke  a  sign. 

"  The  dinner  began  r  the  preliminary  whet,  the  soups  and  the  roti,  came 
and  disappeared  in  their  turns  ;  the  red,  white,  Greek,  Spanish,  and  French 
wines,  sparkled  successively  in  the  glasses  of  the  guests.  The  embassador 
kept  close  guard  on  his  watch,  and  the  grand-duke,  observing  his  earnest 
anxiety,  smiled  with  good-humored  archness.  The  pretended  lackey  was 
busily  assisting  in  the  removal  of  tlie  dishes,  the  dinner  was  nearly  over, 
and  the  prince  awaited  with  impatience  the  expected  signal.  Suddenly 
his  countenance  brightened  :  he  turned  to  the  embassador,  who  was  in  deep 
conversation  with  his  neighbor,  and  asked  him  what  was  the  hour.  His 
excellency  triumphantly  put  his  hand  to  his  pocket — he  had  had  it  on  his 
watch  a  few  moments  before  —  and  to  the  amusement  of  all,  but  particu- 
larly of  the  grand-duke,  drew  out  a  very  neatly-cut  turnip !  A  general 
laugh  followed.  The  embassador,  somewhat  embarrassed,  would  take  a 
pinch  of  snuff,  and  felt  in  all  his  pockets  for  his  gold  snuff-box  —  it  was 
gone  1     The  laughter  became  louder :  the  embassador  in  his  embarrassment 


THE   IMPERIAL   GOVERNMENT — TUNISHMENTS.  493 

and  vexation  had  recourse  to  his  seal-ring,  to  turn  it  as  he  was  accustomed 
—  it  was  gone  !  In  short,  he  found  that  lie  had  been  regularly  plundered 
of  everything  but  what  had  been  fastened  on  him  by  the  tailor  and  the 
shoemaker — of  ring,  watch,  snuft-box,  handkerchief,  toothpick,  and  gloves. 
The  adroit  rogue  was  brought  before  him,  and  commanded  by  the  grand 
duke  to  give  back  the  stolen  property ;  when,  to  the  great  surprise  of  the 
prince,  the  pickpocket  took  out  tivo  watches,  and  presented  one  to  the 
embassador,  and  the  other  to  his  imperial  highness ;  two  rings,  one  for  the 
embassador,  and  the  other  for  the  grand-duke  ;  two  snuff-boxes,  &c.  In 
astonishment,  his  highness  now  felt  in  iiis  pockets  as  the  embassador  had 
done,  and  found  that  he  too  had  been  stripped  of  his  moveables  in  a 
like  manner.  The  grand-duke  solemnly  assured  the  embassador  that  he 
had  been  quite  unconscious  of  the  tlieft,  and  was  disposed  at  first  to  be 
angry  Avith  the  too-dexterous  artist.  However,  upon  second  thoughts,  the 
fellow,  who  had  enabled  him  to  win  his  wager  so  triumphantly,  was  dis- 
missed with  a  present,  and  a  warning  to  employ  his  talents  in  future  to 
more  useful  purposes." 

Property  generally,  however,  througliout  the  empire,  is  as  well  protected 
as  it  is  in  any  other  country.  The  houses  being  commonly  built  of  wood, 
fires  in  great  towns  are  often  very  destructive,  and  the  most  effectual  pre- 
cautions are  taken  to  prevent  their  occurrence.  All  strangers  arriving  in 
Russia  must  produce  their  passports  at  the  police-office,  and  notify  their 
arrival  in  the  public  papers.  The  officers  of  police  are  empowered  to  dis- 
charge various  functions  besides  those  which  come  more  peculiarly  within 
tlieir  province,  such  as  the  decision  of  differences  between  masters  and 
servants,  &c. 

Capital  punishments  are  rare  in  Russia,  liigh-treason  being  the  only  crime 
visited  with  death.  In  its  place  are  the  rod  and  the  knout.  Sentences  to 
punishment  by  the  former  often  condemn  to  such  a  vast  number  of  blows, 
that  the  hide  of  an  elephant  could  scarcely  withstand  them  :  human  nature 
must  sink  and  expire  under  them.  What  man  can  endure  four  thousand 
blows  of  a  stick  ?  They  would  inevitably  kill  him,  whicli  is  no  part  of  the 
condemnation ;  and,  as  a  proof  that  tliis  is  not  desired,  the  sentence  con- 
cludes by  ordaining  that,  after  the  criminal  has  recqived  his  punishment, 
he  shall  be  sent  for  life  to  Siberia. 

The  officer  in  command  of  the  troops  ordered  for  the  execution  of  the 
sentence  is  responsible  for  its  being  literally  and  completely  carried  out. 
This  responsibility  he  lays,  in  his  turn,  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  regimental 
surgeon.  The  delinquent — civilian  or  soldier,  it  matters  not  which  — 
marches  down  the  fatal  street  of  men,  with  a  soldier  in  front  and  in  rear, 
whose  levelled  bayonets  prevent  his  hanging  back  or  unduly  hurrying  on. 
Upon  his  left  walks  the  surgeon,  holding  the  unhappy  wretch's  hand  in  his, 
and  anxiously  watching  the  state  of  the  pulse.  When  its  diminished  beat 
gives  token  of  danger,  the  punishment,  on  a  signal  from  the  medical  man, 
is  immediately  suspended,  the  exhausted  sufferer  is  placed  on  a  cart,  and 


494  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 

taken  to  the  hospital.  The  horrible  but  yet  humaner  practice  of  the  Aus- 
trians  —  to  inflict  tlie  entire  number  of  blows  prescribed  by  the  sentence, 
even  though  the  latter  portion  of  them  fall  upon  a  corpse  —  is  in  Russia 
strictly  prohibited.  The  patient  is  taken  care  of  in  the  hospital  until  re- 
covery, and  then  again  beaten.  If  this  process  be  often  repeated,  he  usu- 
ally dies  in  consequence  of  his  wounds  ;  but  in  that  case,  "justice"  has  not 
actually  killed  him!  Should  he  ultimately  recover,  he  is  sent  to  Siberia. 
It  seems  incredible,  but  is  nevertheless  true,  that  many  criminals  have  thus 
taken,  by  instalments,  four  or  five  thousand  blows,  and  lived  to  drag  out 
many  years  of  melancholy  existence  in  Siberian  deserts. 

The  second  and  still  severer  punishment  is  that  of  the  knout ;  but  before 
this  punishment  can  be  inflicted,  it  must  be  proved  that  such  a  crime  has 
been  committed  as  would  entail,  in  every  civilized  country,  the  penalty  of 
death.  For  the  knout  is  the  substitute  for  capital  punishment.  It  can 
not  be  inflicted  without  the  emperor's  own  signature.  As  for  the  rest, 
though  the  sentence  proceeds  from  the  judge,  its  effect  depends  entirely 
upon  the  executioner  who  wields  the  knout. 

The  criminal,  surrounded  by  a  guard  of  Cossacks,  is  conducted,  half 
naked,  to  the  place  chosen  for  this  kind  of  execution ;  all  that  he  has  on  is 
simply  a  pair  of  linen  drawers  round  his  extremities  ;  his  hands  are  bound 
together  by  cords,  with  the  palms  laid  flat  against  one  another.  He  is 
stretched  prostrate  upon  his  belly,  on  a  frame  inclined  diagonally,  and  at 
the  extremities  of  which  are  fixed  iron  rings ;  his  hands  are  fastened  to 
one  end  of  the  frame,  and  his  feet  to  the  other ;  he  is  then  extended  in 
such  a  manner  that  he  can  not  make  a  single  movement. 

At  a  distance  of  five-and-twenty  paces  stands  another  man :  it  is  the 
public  executioner.  He  is  dressed  in  black-velvet  trousers,  stuffed  into 
his  boots,  and  a  colored  cotton  shirt,  buttoning  at  the  side.  His  sleeves 
are  tucked  up,  so  that  nothing  may  thwart  or  embarrass  him  in  his  move- 
ments. With  both  hands  he  grasps  the  instrument  of  punislmient — the 
terrible  knout !  This  knout  consists  of  a  thong  of  thick  leather,  cut  in  a 
triangular  form,  from  four  to  five  yards  long,  and  an  inch  wide,  tapering 
off  at  one  end,  and  broad  at  the  other :  the  small  end  is  fastened  to  a  little 
wooden  handle,  about  two  feet  long. 

The  signal  is  given :  no  one  ever  takes  the  trouble  to  read  the  sentence. 
The  executioner  advances  a  few  steps,  with  his  body  bent,  holding  the 
knout  in  both  hands,  while  the  long  thong  drags  along  the  ground  between 
his  legs.  On  coming  to  about  three  or  four  paces  from  the  prisoner,  ho 
raises,  by  a  vigorous  movement,  the  knout  toward  the  top  of  his  head,  and 
then  instantly  draws  it  down  toward  his  knees.  The  thong  flies  whistling 
through  the  air,  and,  descending  on  the  body  of  the  victim,  twines  round 
it  like  a  hoop  of  iron.  In  spite  of  his  state  of  tension,  the  poor  wretch 
bounds  as  if  he  were  submitted  to  the  powerful  shock  of  galvanism.  The 
executioner  retraces  his  steps,  and  repeats  the  same  operation  as  many 
times  as  there  are  blows  to  be  inflicted.     When  the  thong  envelops  the 


THE   IMPERIAL   GOVERNMENT  —  THE   KNOUT. 


495 


body  with  its  edges,  the  flesh  and  muscles  are  literally  cut  into  stripes  as 
if  with  a  razor ;  but  when  it  falls  flat,  then  the  bones  crack :  the  flesh,  in 
that  case,  is  not  cut,  but  crushed  and  ground,  and  the  blood  spurts  out  in 
all  directions !  The  sufferer  becomes  green  and  blue,  like  a  body  in  a 
state  of  decomposition. 


Punishment  of  the  Knout. 


The  knout  is  fatal,  if  tlic  judgment  of  the  emperor,  or  the  executioner, 
wills  it  to  be  so.  Docs  the  latter  mean  to  be  humane  to  his  victim  ?  —  he 
kills  him  with  the  first  lash  ;  for  so  great  is  the  instrument's  weight,  that 
it  enables  him  to  break  the  spine  at  a  single  blow !  This  is  not,  however, 
usually  done,  and  the  unfortunate  culprit  receives  the  whole  number  pre- 


496  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

scribed,  which  rarely  exceeds  half  a  dozen.  Here  no  surgeon  attends,  as 
on  occasions  of  ranning  the  gauntlet,  to  regulate  the  punishment.  If  the 
criminal  dies  under  the  knout,  no  one  is  answerable  —  the  motive  for  such 
exemption  from  responsibility  doubtless  being  that  the  yerjjirst  blow  ma}' 
be  fatal.  If  he  survives,  he  is  sent  to  the  hospital,  and,  when  cured,  to 
Siberia,  where  he  disappears  for  ever  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth. 

When  a  Russian  subject  is  condemned  to  Siberia,  his  beard  is  shaved 
oflF,  and  his  hair  is  cut  short  in  the  shape  of  a  brush,  like  that  of  the  sol- 
diers, and  quite  close  behind.  He  is  dressed  in  a  pair  of  linen  trousers,  a 
great-coat  of  very  coarse  cloth,  a  round  cap,  and  enormous  leather  boots. 
In  company  with  other  exiles,  he  is  then  despatched,  under  an  escort,  to 
his  destination  beyond  the  Urals.  Before  starting,  the  convicts  are  in- 
spected by  a  surgeon,  and  those  who  are  unable  to  walk  are  placed  in  car- 
riages ;  of  the  others,  every  two  men  carry  a  chain  of  about  five  pounds' 
weight,  attached  to  the  leg.  They  walk  but  fifteen  miles  a  day ;  but  they 
have  to  pursue  their  journey  in  all  weathers,  no  matter  how  inclement,  or 
how  intense  the  cold  may  be.  While  en  route,  they  generally  experience 
much  kindness  from  the  Russian  peasantry^  who  send  them  presents  of 
their  best  food  at  every  resting-place ;  and  in  large  towns  the  excess  of 
such  contributions  over  what  they  consume  is  so  great,  that  it  is  sold  to 
buy  them  additional  clothing.  Wives  are  allowed,  or  rather  expected, 
to  accompany  their  husbands  ;  but  where  any  decline  going,  the  marriage 
is  dissolved  —  a  consequence,  no  doubt,  calling  for  serious  deliberation. 
Leitch  Ritchie,  who  witnessed  the  departure  from  Moscow  of  a  party  of 
exiles  destined  for  Siberia,  describes  the  scene  as  follows :  — 

"  The  departure  of  the  exiles  for  Siberia  is  a  scene  which  should  not  be 
missed  by  the  traveller :  but,  in  order  to  let  him  enjoy  it  at  his  ease,  one 
thing  is  necessary  to  be  understood.  The  mere  fact  of  transportation  is 
not  looked  upon  as  a  severe  punishment ;  for  the  great  body  of  the  crimii 
nals  consists  of  persons  who  have  been  accustomed  all  their  lives  to  a  com- 
pulsory servitude  as  severe  as  that  which  awaits  them  beyond  tlic  Ural 
mountains.  Condemnation  to  the  mines  in  Siberia  is  what  they  dread  — 
and  with  great  justice ;  for  this  is  a  substitution  for  capital  punishment, 
and  answers  the  same  purpose,  only  extending  the  time  occupied  by  the 
act  of  dying  from  a  few  minutes  to  a  few  years. 

"  In  a  temporary  depot,  erected  on  the  summit  of  the  Sparrow  liills,  I 
found  the  destined  wretches  about  to  commence  their  march.  A  long  chain 
secured  both  legs  at  the  ankles,  and,  to  prevent  it  from  incommoding  them 
in  walking,  was  fastened  to  their  belt,  or  sash.  A  great  many  were  Jews, 
most  of  them  mujiks ;  and  all,  with  the  exception  of  one  man,  were  free 
from  those  physiognomical  marks  of  atrocity  which  are  commonly  supposed 
to  distinguish  the  guilty.  Some  carts  were  near,  filled  with  their  wives 
and  children,  and  some  of  their  male  relations  stood  beside  them  unman- 
acled,  who  had  likewise  petitioned  to  be  permitted  to  share  their  exile. 
In  the  middle  stood  a  man  who  had  a  good  deal  of  the  air  of  an  Englisli 


THE   IMPERIAL   GOVERNMENT SIBERIAN    EXILES. 


497 


Exiles  on  thkib  Wat  to  Siberia. 


<lissenting  clergyman ;  but  the  shape  of  his  clothes  and  hat,  and  the  large 
buckles  in  his  shoes,  seemed  to  belong  to  the  fashion  of  an  earlier  day. 
His  appearance  inspired  me  with  instinctive  respect,  and  his  face  seemed 
.•ibsolutely  to  beam  with  the  purest  and  noblest  philanthropy.  He  was 
occupied  in  distributing  moral  and  religious  books  to  such  of  the  prisoners 
as  could  read,  and  in  liearing  patiently,  and  often  redressing  instantly, 
their  complaints.  The  exiles,  on  their  part,  seemed  to  look  upon  him  as  a 
friend  —  a  fiither  ;  but  their  affection  was  mingled  with  the  deepest  respect. 
Many  prostrated  themselves  at  his  feet,  as  before  a  holy  image,  and  touched 
the  ground  with  their  forehead.  On  taking  leave,  he  embraced  and  kissed 
them  all,  one  by  one ;  and  the  rattle  of  their  chains,  as  they  began  the 

march,  was  mingled  with  sobs  and  blessings Dr.  Haas,  for  this  was 

the  philanthropist's  name,  was  in  a  kind  of  official  situation,  acting  as  the 
secretary  of  a  charitable  body ;  and  he  passed  his  life  among  the  sick  and 
the  captives,  in  the  double  capacity  of  physician  to  the  soul  and  body." 

The  journey  lasts  seven  months.  In  the  Asiatic  portion  of  it,  the  com- 
fort of  the  exiles  is  far  less  cared  for ;  while,  wearied  out  with  their  pro- 
tracted travel,  their  powers  of  endurance  are  proportionately  lessened,  and 
there  is  often  great  mortality:  between  1823  and  1832  it  amounted  to 
about  one  fifth,  and  the  average  number  of  exiles  was  ten  thousand  a  year. 

32 


498  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

On  their  arrival,  tlio  worst  subjects  are  sent  to  the  mines ;  and,  in  former 
times,  they  hardly  ever  again  saw  daylight,  but  by  the  regulations  of  the 
emperor  Nicholas  they  are  not  kept  underground  more  than  eight  hours  a 
day,  and  on  Sunday  all  have  undisturbed  freedom.  Others  of  this  class 
are  confined  to  nortlieastern  Siberia,  the  climate  of  which  is  especially 
severe.  Those  of  a  less  heinous  stamp  are  employed  on  public  works  for 
some  time,  and  then  allowed  to  become  colonists.  The  least  serious  offend- 
ers are  at  once  settled  as  colonists  in  southern  Siberia,  and  thenceforth 
may  be  considered  'as  quite  free,  except  that  they  can  not  quit  their  loca- 
tion. In  such  a  soil  and  climate,  it  is  asserted  by  Haxthausen  that,  with 
industry,  they  may  within  two  or  three  years  find  themselves  established 
in  good  houses  of  their  own,  amid  fields  supplying  every  want  of  a  rising 
family.  It  is  also  affirmed  that  the  young  people  reared  in  these  abodes 
turn  out,  on  the  whole,  of  most  respectable  character,  and  are  associated 
with  accordingly  on  the  kindest  terms  by  neighbors  of  other  classes  — 
especially  by  the  peasants  of  native  Siberian  race,  who,  by-the-way,  are  all 
entirely  free,  and  many  of  them  very  rich. 

As  above  remarked,  with  the  exception  of  what  the  nature  of  their 
crimes  may  impose,  no  restraint  is  laid  upon  their  freedom,  or  precautions 
taken  to  prevent  their  leaving.  They  possess  no  passports,  and  it  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  travel  twelve  hours  anywhere  in  the  Russian  dominions 
without  them.  But  in  spite  of  the  lack  of  the  necessary  papers,  many 
exiles,  after  a  longer  or  shorter  stay  in  Siberia,  manage  to  slip  away  to 
more  congenial  climes. 

The  whole  number  of  exiles  in  Siberia  amount  to  about  one  hundred 
thousand,  of  whom  about  one  fourth  are  females ;  most  of  the  latter  are, 
however,  as  already  shown,  voluntary  exiles,  who  have  accompanied  their 
husbands  or  other  near  relatives  thither. 

The  military  power  of  the  Russian  empire  rests  on  an  organized  army 
and  navy.*  The  first  regularly-organized  corps  of  infantry  in  the  Russian 
service  was  the  Strelitzes,  who  seem  to  have  had  their  origin  about  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century ;  and  continued,  till  their  suppression  by 
Peter  the  Great,  to  constitute  the  principal  strength  of  the  army.  They 
enjoyed  various  privileges  ;  were  always  about  the  person  of  the  emperor ; 
and  by  their  licentiousness  and  insubordination,  as  well  as  bravery,  bore 
a  close  resemblance  to  the  prcetoHan  bands  of  ancient  Rome,  and  the  Jani- 
zaries of  the  Ottoman  Porte.  The  abolition  of  this  formidable  corps,  and 
the  reconstruction  of  the  army  on  a  plan  similar  to  that  followed  in  the 
more  civilized  countries  of  Europe,  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  greatest 

*  The  inilitai-y  power  of  Russia  has  been  veiy  much  under-estimated  by  some  writers,  and  as 
much  exaggerated  by  others.  Many  of  the  details  in  our  sketch  of  it  we  have  gathered  from  an 
article,  one  of  a  series,  from  the  pen  of  Count  A.  De  Gurowski,  first  published  in  the  "  New  York 
Tribune."  He  gives  the  most  intelligible,  and,  after  a  close  comparison  with  others,  we  are  satis- 
fied, the  most  reliable  account,  of  this  arm  of  the  Russian  government.  We  are  indebted  to  the 
same  source,  we  may  perhaps  here  properly  acknowledge,  for  facts  with  which  we  have  eniiclied 
one  or  two  other  chapters  in  this  volume. 


THE   IMPERIAL   GOVERNMENT — THE    ARMY.  499 

services  rendered  by  Peter  the  Great.  At  his  death,  in  1725,  the  regular 
army  amounted  to  about  one  hundred  and  ten  thousand,  exclusive  of  the 
imperial  guard  ;  and  the  success  which  attended  his  prolonged  contest  with 
the  Swedes  showed  that  this  army  became  in  time  a  match  for  the  best 
troops  that  could  then  be  opposed  to  it. 

Under  Catherine  II.,  the  army  was  greatly  augmented  and  improved. 
This  able  and  ambitious  princess  increased  the  pay  of  the  troops  and  offi- 
cers, and  gave  them  a  new,  more  commodious,  and  elegant  uniform,  than 
that  formerly  in  use.  She  formed  the  Cossacks  into  a  light  cavalry,  which, 
after  being  successfully  opposed  to  the  Spahis  of  the  Turks,  has  since  dis- 
tinguished itself  in  the  great  contests  of  more  recent  times.  During  the 
latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Catherine,  the  regular  army  amounted  to  about 
two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men ;  and  little  was  wanting  to  place  it 
on  a  level  with  that  of  the  surrounding  powers,  save  the  better  organiza- 
tion of  the  commissariat  department,  and  the  choice  of  better-educated  and 
more  skilful  native  officers . 

It  is,  however,  to  Alexander  and  Nicholas  that  the  Russian  array  is  in- 
debted for  the  more  efficient  organization,  discipline,  and  power,  by  which  it 
is  now  distinguished.  The  momentous  struggles  in  which  the  former  was 
engaged  called  forth  all  the  military  resources  of  the  empire  ;  many  abuses 
were  rectified,  and  improvements  introduced  ;  and  tlie  armies  of  Alexander 
were  at  length  enabled  to  contend  successfully  with  those  of  the  greatest 
captain  of  the  age.  Under  the  emperor  Nicholas,  the  discipline  and  or- 
ganization of  the  army  have  been  still  further  improved  ;  and  it  is,  at  pres- 
ent, in  a  comparatively  high  state  of  efficiency. 

The  Russian  army  was  newly  organized,  by  an  imperial  ukase  of  tho  9th 
of  August,  1835.  Down  to  that  period,  two  large  armies  were  maintained  ; 
but  those  were  then  consolidated,  and  the  staff  of  one  of  them  reduced. 
The  army  is  now  divided  into  corps,  divisions,  brigades,  regiments,  battal- 
ioms,  and  companies ;  the  cavalry  into  squadrons,  &c.  A  corps  on  full 
active  footing  is  composed  of  three  divisions  of  infantry  and  one  of  cavalry, 
with  sometimes  a  division  of  reserve ;  the  artillery  of  a  corps  consists  of 
from  one  hundred  and  ten  to  one  hundred  and  fifteen  guns.  A  division 
is  composed  of  two  brigades,  and  a  brigade  of  two  regiments.  A  regiment 
in  full  ought  to  have  four  battalions,  a  battalion  four  companies,  and  a  com- 
pany should  have  between  one  hundred  and  seventy  and  two  hundred  men. 
All  these  numbers  are  seldom  complete,  except  in  the  imperial  guard  and 
a  few  of  the  other  corps. 

According  to  the  official  reports  for  1852,  the  armed  force  was  in  the 
following  state :  The  corps  of  imperial  guards,  commanded  by  the  grand- 
duke  (now  the  emperor,  Alexander  II.),  is  established  in  St.  Petersburg, 
and  for  a  distance  of  one  hundred  miles  around  that  city.  It  consists  of 
three  divisions  of  infantry  and  one  of  reserve,  of  four  divisions  of  caA'-alry. 
a  large  force  of  artillery,  with  from  one  hundred  and  twenty  to  one  hun- 
dred and  forty  cannon,  and  a  special  body  of  field-engineers,  sappers,  and 


GOO  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

a  pontoon  corps.  Next  comes  the  corps  of  the  grenadiers.  Its  headquar- 
ters are  in  the  ancient  city  of  Novgorod.  Its  regiments  are  established 
})rincipally  in  the  military  colonies.  This  corps  has  three  divisions  in  full 
of  infantry,  and  one  of  cavalry ;  the  park  of  artillery  amounts  to  between 
one  hundred  and  fifteen  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  pieces. 

After  these  two  separate  corps  come  what  is  called  the  active  army.  It 
is  composed  of  six  corps  (or  nearly  twenty  divisions)  of  infantry,  six  divis- 
ions of  regular  cavalry,  with  an  irregular  one  of  Cossacks,  &c.,  adjoined 
in  time  of  war,  and  at  least  seven  hundred  pieces  of  artillery.  This  army 
is,  or  was  in  1854,  commanded  by  Prince  Paskiewitch,  the  governoi- 
t^eneral  of  Poland,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  Russian  forces  employed 
ill  the  Turkish  war.  Its  headquarters  are  at  Warsaw.  It  faces  the  west- 
ern frontier  of  Europe  exclusively.  It  is  quartered  from  the  Baltic,  througli 
Lithuania  and  Poland,  to  tlie  Danube,  the  Black  sea,  and  the  frontiers  of 
the  military  cavalry  colonies  in  southern  Russia.  A  separate  corps  occu- 
pies the  city  of  Moscow  and  several  surrounding  governments. 

The  army  of  the  Caucasus  is  composed  of  four  divisions  of  infantry, 
one  of  regular  cavalry,  numerous  irregular  Cossacks  of  various  denomina- 
tions, and  a  body  of  mussulmans  and  militia  (chiefly  Circassians  and  Tar- 
tars) from  among  the  natives.  A  large  proportion  of  the  regular  troops 
forming  tliis  corps  are  said  to  be  Poles,  the  policy  of  the  government  being 
t(»  withdraw  them  from  their  own  country.  A  division  of  infantry  occupies 
Finland,  and  another  is  scattered  through  Siberia.  This  active  army  is 
backed  by  a  reserve,  composed  of  twenty-five  brigades  of  infantry  and  two 
hundred  and  seventy  squadrons  of  cavalry. 

The  military  colonies  for  the  infantry  are  formed  principally  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Novgorod,  and  partly  in  those  of  Pskov  and  Vitepsk.  They 
are  divided  into  twenty-four  brigades.  The  colonies  for  cavalry  are  in 
southern  Russia,  in  the  governments  of  Poltava,  Ekatherinoslav,  Kherson, 
in  the  Ukraine,  &c.  They  amount  to  seventy-five  squadrons.  To  these 
are  to  be  added  the  sappers  and  artillery  reserve,  with  fifty-four  parks  of 
lieavy  calibre  destined  for  the  siege  of  fortresses,  the  military  engineers, 
and  military  workmen,  Avith  a  numerous  train. 

Finally,  there  is  the  guard  of  the  interior,  formed  of  armed  veterans, 
quartered  in  all  the  districts  of  Russia,  and  performing  in  the  cities  and 
boroughs  the  internal  service.  It  amounts  to  fifty  battalions,  which,  how- 
ever, are  not  full.  In  addition,  there  is  a  corps  of  gendarmes,  containing 
eight  brigades,  horse  and  foot,  and  spread  over  the  whole  empire.  It  is 
commanded  by  Count  Orloff,  whose  function  answers  to  that  of  chief  of  the 
secret  police.  The  gendarmes  fulfil  the  duties  of  the  police  of  the  army 
during  war,  and  of  a  political  police  through  the  country  at  all  times.  The 
officers  of  this  corps  form  in  all  circles  and  districts  the  knots  of  that  vast 
net  of  espionage  extended  over  Russia  and  the  entire  European  continent, 
as  well  as  throughout  a  great  portion  of  Asia.  They  are  in  close  connec- 
tion with  all  the  agents  of  the  secret  police. 


THE    IMPERIAL   GOVERNMENT THE    ARMY.  501 

The  irregular  cavalry  consists  principally  of  Cossacks.  There  are  sev- 
eral denominations  of  them  (as  we  have  already  mentioned,  in  the  chapter 
on  ''  Southern  Russia"),  derived  mainly  from  the  regions  or  the  banks  of 
the  rivers  along  which  they  are  settled.  Their  general  and  commander, 
or  grand  hetman,  was  Alexander,  the  late  grand-duke,  but  now  wearing  the 
imperial  crown,  but  each  tribe  may  have  its  own  principal  and  subordinate 
chiefs.  They  are  divided  as  follows  :  1.  The  Cossacks  of  the  Don  or 
Tanais,who  are  the  most  numerous.  2.  Those  on  the  shores  of  the  Black 
sea,  called  Tschernomortsy.  3.  Those  of  the  line  of  the  Caucasus,  mainly 
on  the  banks  of  the  Kouban.  4.  Those  of  the  government  of  Astrakhan. 
5.  Those  of  the  government  of  Orenburg  and  the  neighboring  districts, 
commonly  called  tlie  Cossacks  of  the  Volga.  6.  Those  of  the  river  Ural 
(ancient /aiicA;) .  7.  Those  of  Siberia.  8.  The  Mesteheracks,  who  are  a 
mixed  race  of  Tartars.  9.  The  Cossacks  of  the  sea  of  Azov.  10.  Those 
of  the  Danube. 

The  Cossacks  muster  in  all  seven  hundred  and  sixty-five  squadrons,  each 
containing  a  few  more  than  one  hundred  men,  of  which  more  than  a  third 
can  be  concentrated.  In  time  of  war  they  are  supported  by  detacliments 
of  Bashkirs,  Calmucks,  Buriats  and  Tungusi  from  Siberia,  mussulmans 
from  the  Trans-Caucasian  provinces,  Lesghians,  &c.  These  Asiatic  irregu- 
lars, as  previously  shown,  form  generally  a  kind  of  military  posts  or  chain 
uniting  the  advancing  army  with  the  mother-country.  Such  was  the  case, 
for  example,  in  1813-'14,  when  they  were  extended  from  Siberia  across 
the  whole  of  Europe  ! 

We  may  thus  sum  up  the  whole  bulk  of  the  armed  land-forces  of  the 
empire  as  consisting  of  seventeen  corps,  with  four  thousand  nine  hundred 
companies  of  infantry,  fourteen  hundred  and  sixty-nine  squadrons  of  cav- 
alry, and  three  hundred  and  thirty  batteries  of  heavy  or  light  artillery  — 
which,  if  full,  would  form  an  aggregate  of  over  a  million  of  men.  More 
than  a  third  of  this  number,  however,  must  be  deducted  as  not  capable  of 
being  moved  toward  the  extreme  frontiers  of  the  empire,  as  well  as  for 
incomplete  numbers  in  the  various  battalions,  companies,  and  squadrons. 
The  remainder  makes  up  the  Russian  warfaring  army,  which  can  be  moved 
and  directed  by  the  order  of  a  single  man  according  to  his  sovereign  will 
and  pleasure.  But  natural  impossibilities  oppose  and  impede  the  concen- 
tration in  one  spot,  and  even  in  one  region,  of  such  enormous  masses  of 
men  and  animals.  In  the  struggle  with  Napoleon,  Alexander  was  unable 
to  oppose  more  than  two  hundred  thousand  troops,  and  a  still  less  number 
for  the  invasion  of  France  in  1814 ;  while  in  the  Turkish  war  of  1828-'30 
the  Russian  forces  amounted  to  but  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand ;  but 
such  numbers  were  required  to  fortify  the  principal  points  on  the  line  of 
passage,  that  only  twenty-one  thousand  were  spared  to  cross  the  Balkan, 
and  of  these  but  fifteen  thousand  actually  reached  Adrianoi)le.  In  the  pres- 
ent war,  however,  the  imperial  troops  operating  on  the  entire  southern 
frontier  greatly  exceed  any  previous  numbers. 


502 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 


Some  idea  of  the  appearance  of  the  finest  regiments  of  the  regular  troops 
may  be  drawn  from  tlie  accompanyiug  engraving,  in  which  figure  1  repre- 
sents a  grenadier  of  the  impe- 
rial guard  ;  2,  a  chasseur  of  the 
guard  ;  3,  a  fifer  of  the  guard  ; 
4,  a  grenadier  of  the  horse- 
guard  ;  5,  a  cuirassier ;  and  6, 
a  hussar.  In  the  more  select 
regiments,  the  men  and  horses 
are  classified  in  the  most  minute 
manner  as  to  resemblance.  In 
one  cavalry  regiment  the  horses 
are  all  black,  in  another  they 
are  all  bay,  &c.  The  men  are 
arranged  according  to  the  color 
of  their  hair  or  beard,  or  of 
their  eyes,  and  also  the  general 
shape  of  their  features  :  so  that 
in  one  regiment  all  have  aqui- 
line noses,  and  black  eyes  and 

Regular  Troops  of  Russia.  bcardS  ;   and  iu  anOthcr  all  have 

pug-noses,  blue  eyes,  and  red 
•  •eards  —  which  latter  class,  by-the-way,  describes  the  physiognomy  and 
complexion  of  the  genuine  Muscovite. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  irregular  troops  of  the  empire  is  shown 
iu  the  accompanying  group,  in 
which  figure  1  represents  a 
Lesghian  from  western  Dag- 
liestan  ;  2,  a  Don  Cossack  ;  3, 
a  Circassian,  in  full  dress ; 
4,  a  "  Tartar-Cossack"  of  the 
Crimea ;  5,  a  Cossack  of  the 
line  of  the  Caucasus  ;  and  6, 
a  Cossack  of  the  Ural.  The 
reader  will  bear  iu  mind  that 
the  Circassians  employed  in 
the  Russian  service  belong  to 
the  subdued  tribes  at  the  foot 
of  the  Caucasian  mountains, 
a  large  portion  of  the  mount- 
ain warriors  being  still  hostile 
to  the  imperial  rule. 

The  foregoing  gives  a  general  idea  of  the  Russian  armed  force.  "  It  is 
undoubtedly  strong  for  the  defensive,"  says  Count  Gurowski,  "  but  it  is 
utterly  impossible  to  throw  these  masses  on  Europe.     Without  mentioning 


Irregular  Troops  of  Russia. 


THE   IMPERIAL  GOVERNMENT  —  THE   ARMY.  503 

tlii^  penury  of  the  treasury — as  on  a  war-footing  the  pay  is  nearly  quad- 
rupled— to  gather  them  together  at  any  point  within  the  frontier,  would 
have  the  same  eflect  as  destruction  by  locusts  for  many  hundred  miles. 
Tlie  same  result  would  take  place  if,  in  case  of  a  war  between  Prance  and 
Russia,  the  army  of  the  czar  should  enter  Germany,  even  as  a  friendly 
country.  All  would  be  destruction  and  desolation  with  friend  as  well  as 
with  foe.  The  region  thus  traversed  would  be  reminded,  not  of  Napoleon, 
l)ut  of  the  swarms  of  Attila — more  disciplined,  it  is  true,  but,  for  the  sake 
of  existence  and  self-preservation,  obliged  to  destroy  and  swallow  all  the 
resources  within  their  reach.  For  such  an  impossible  invasion  of  western 
]']urope,  the  Russian  masses  might  be  divided  into  two  parts,  one  entering 
Prussia  and  the  other  Austria.  But  such  invasions  in  the  present  state  of 
the  Avorld  are  impossibilities.  Masses  will  be  raised  against  masses,  the 
invaded  country  stripped  in  advance  of  all  resources  to  nourish  the  enemy, 
and,  whatever  may  be  the  inborn  gallantry  of  the  Russian  soldier — Napo- 
leon himself  admired  it — no  army  in  the  world  can  be  for  ever  invincible." 

The  drill  of  these  forces  is  perhaps  the  best  existing  in  Europe.  But 
])ossibly  they  are  overdrilled.  Those  acquainted  with  the  mysteries  of  the 
military  profession,  affirm  that  in  the  firing  of  the  Russian  infantry  as  well 
as  of  the  artillery,  the  principal  object  is  a  quick  discharge  —  so  quick, 
that  neither  the  soldiers-of-the-line  nor  the  artillerymen  are  able  to  take 
good  aim  ;  and  thus,  in  a  battle,  out  of  the  immense  number  of  shots,  com- 
paratively few  are  destructive. 

The  army  is  formed  by  means  of  conscription,  out  of  the  taxed  classes 
of  the  population,  such  as  merchants,  citizen-burghers,  artisans,  workmen, 
free-peasants,  and  serfs  —  every  individual  belonging  to  them  being  liable 
to  compulsory  service,  provided  he  be  of  the  proper  age  and  stature.  The 
levies  are  ordinarily  in  the  proportion  of  one  or  two  to  every  five  hundred 
males  ;  but  during  war  the  proportion  is  at  least  as  two  or  three  to  every 
five  hundred,  and  sometimes  as  much  as  four,  and  even  five,  to  five  hun- 
dred. This  last  proportion,  however,  may  be  taken  as  the  maximum  levy, 
and  is  rarely  exceeded.  The  number  of  recruits  to  be  furnished  by  the 
empire  in  general,  and  by  each  district  in  particular,  is  fixed  according  to 
the  results  of  the  preceding  census.  The  nobles  nominate  such  of  their 
serfs  as  they  please  to  complete  their  quotas,  the  only  conditions  being  that 
they  should  have  a  good  constitution,  and  be  of  the  requisite  size,  and  not 
less  than  eighteen  nor  more  tlian  thirty-five  years  of  age ;  and,  as  idle,  ill- 
disposed  individuals  are  sure  to  be  nominated  in  preference  for  recruits, 
those  who  are  averse  to  the  service  endeavor  to  distinguish  themselves  by 
industry  and  good  conduct. 

The  recruits  are  first  sent  to  the  recruiting-establishments,  and  thence 
forwarded  to  the  corps  to  which  tlioy  are  assigned.  Nobles,  magistrates, 
clergymen,  and  students,  are  exempted  from  the  service.  Merchants  and 
traders  enrolled  in  the  different  g-idlds  are  also  exempted.  The  levies 
furnished  by  the  Cossacks  are  regulated  by  particular  treaties ;  and  many 


504  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

half-savage  tribes  are  excused,  partly  on  account  of  their  diminutive  size, 
and  partly  because  of  their  great  aversion  to  a  military  life.  Generally, 
it  is  found  that  a  levy  of  two  on  every  five  hundred  males  produces  a  sup- 
ply of  about  ninety  or  a  hundred  thousand  men.  Substitutes  are  allowed, 
and  may  be  effected  by  mutual  consent,  provided  the  noble  do  not  oppose 
it.  The  period  of  service  is  twenty  years  in  the  imperial  guard,  and  twenty- 
two  in  the  other  corps.  Every  individual,  with  his  family,  if  he  have  one, 
becomes  free  the  moment  he  is  enrolled  in  the  army.  In  case  of  desertion, 
he  is  again  enslaved ;  but  desertion  is  exceedingly  rare  in  Russia.  The 
imperial  guard  is  recruited  from  the  grenadiers ;  the  latter  from  the  in- 
fantry of  the  line  and  the  light  chasseurs. 

A  commoner  can  rise  only  to  the  grade  of  sergeant.  A  very  extraordi- 
nary distinction  in  time  of  war  may  push  him  over  the  barrier,  and  make 
him  an  officer,  with  a  possibility  of  further  preferment.  In  time  of  peace, 
twelve  years  of  service,  combined  with  some  natural  capacity,  can  raise 
the  son  of  a  burgher  to  the  grade  of  an  officer.  The  grades  of  lieutenants 
and  captains  confer  personal  nobility,  and  with  that  of  major  it  becomes 
hereditary.  From  the  nobility  exclusively  are  derived  the  body  of  officers 
in  the  army,  while  this  class  alone  have  access  to  the  civil  service.  The 
choice  between  the  two  is  free  for  any  nobleman,  but  the  military  service 
hds  the  precedency.  A  nobleman  never  begins  his  career  as  a  common 
soldier.  Numerous  and  various  military  establishments  for  every  kind  of 
military  education,  to  which  the  nobles  are  almost  exclusively  admitted, 
prepare  the  youth  from  childhood  practically  as  well  as  theoretically.  The 
education  consists  of  all  the  sciences  connected  with  the  military  art,  and 
witli  its  highest  branches,  including  the  French  language,  Russian  litera- 
ture, history,  national  and  universal,  geography,  &c.  A  cadet,  having 
gone  through  all  the  classes,  enters  the  army  with  the  grade  of  second 
lieutenant.  Those  who  have  been  educated  in  civil  establishments,  gym- 
nasia and  universities,  entering  as  volunteers,  are  admitted  as  ensigns  and 
cadets.  They  wear  the  uniform  of  the  common  soldiers,  but  with  lace ; 
are  exempted,  as  all  nobles  are,  from  corporeal  punishment ;  and,  as  soon 
as  they  master  the  rudiments  of  the  service,  become  officers. 

For  the  children  of  soldiers,  and,  above  all,  for  their  orphans,  establish- 
ments are  provided  where  they  are  received  from  their  earliest  childhood, 
and  trained  for  the  military  service.  There  they  are  taught  to  read  and 
write  the  vernacular  language,  with  Russian  history,  the  general  outlines 
of  geography,  and  also  arithmetic  and  drawing.  Then  they  enter  the  ser- 
vice for  life,  or  nearly  so.  They  are  placed  in  the  topographical  and  engi- 
neer's corps,  and  at  the  telegraphic  stations,  which,  in  Russia,  are  exclu- 
sively for  military  use,  and  under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  emperor. 

The  Russian  army  is  supported  at  very  little  expense  in  time  of  peace. 
Exclusive  of  their  pay,  the  higher  class  of  officers  receive  considerable 
allowances,  as  mess-money,  &c. ;  and  they  generally  contrive  to  eke  out 
their  emoluments  iu  various  indirect  ways.     The  pay  of  the  subalterns  is 


THE  IMPERIAL  GOVERNMENT — THE  ARMY,  505 

the  most  inadcquute ;  and  it  is  hardly  possible  for  any  one  to  serve  as  a 
subaltern  in  the  cavalry,  especially  in  the  cavalry  of  the  imperial  guard, 
unless  he  have  private  resources.  Officers  are  allowed,  according  to  their 
rank,  one  or  more  servants  (deutschisk) ,  maintained  by  government,  but 
equipj)cd  at  the  expense  of  their  masters.  They  are  taken  from  among  the 
recruits,  the  least  suitable  for  active  service. 

The  pay  of  a  common  Russian  soldier  does  not  exceed  five  dollars  a 
year!  —  and  various  deductions  are  made  even  from  this  miserable  pit- 
tance. He  receives  a  new  uniform  each  year  ;  and  is  allowed,  in  addition, 
three  barrels  of  flour,  twenty-four  pounds  of  salt,  and  a  certain  quantity  of 
rye,  barley,  or  oatmeal.  On  fete-days  the  soldiers  of  the  guard  receive 
a  certain  allowance  of  butchers'  meat,  but  this  is  very  rarely  tasted  by 
their  fellows  of  the  line.  At  home,  the  soldier  is  paid  in  paper  ;  but  when 
he  crosses  the  frontier,  he  is  paid  in  silver  roubles  :  and  as  one  of  the  latter 
is  equivalent  to  four  of  the  former,  his  pay  when  abroad  is,  of  course,  aug- 
mented in  the  same  proportion.  Tliis  may,  perhaps,  have  been  partly 
intended  as  a  stimulus  to  the  soldier  to  undertake  offensive  operations ; 
but,  besides  having  this  effect,  it  was  absolutely  necessary,  to  enable  him 
to  subsist  among  foreigners  without  robbing.  The  cavalry-horses  are  very 
good  ;  and,  fodder  being  very  cheap,  they  are  well  kept. 

Soldiers  leaving  the  army  on  the  expiration  of  their  compulsory  service, 
are  entitled  to  a  small  pension ;  and  those  who  have  been  maimed  or 
wounded  are  received  and  supported  in  some  of  the  hospitals  established 
with  that  view  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  Soldiers  who  continue  in 
the  army  after  their  term  of  compulsory  service  has  expired,  acquire  sev- 
eral advantages.  They  receive,  exclusive  of  the  retiring  pension  to  which 
they  are  entitled,  double  pay ;  and  after  five  years  voluntary  service,  they 
ai-e  entitled  to  a  retiring  pension  equal  to  three  times  their  original  full  pay. 

The  inadequate  pay  of  the  officers  and  men  is  the  grand  evil  in  relatio)i 
to  the  Russian  army.  It  compels  all  classes  to  resort  to  underhand  meth- 
ods of  making  money ;  and  hence  the  jobbing  and  corruption  of  the  first, 
and  the  thieving  habits  of  the  latter.  Government  is  plundered  in  every 
possible  way ;  and  while  the  army  loses  in  strength  and  efficiency,  it  may 
be  questioned  whether  it  would  not  be  more  advantageous,  even  in  a  pecu- 
niary point  of  view,  for  government  to  increase  the  pay  of  the  officers  and 
troops,  so  as  to  raise  them  above  the  necessity  of  indulging  in  practices 
injurious  to  the  service,  of  the  existence  of  which  it  is  well  aware,  but  at 
which,  as  matters  now  stand,  it  is  obliged  to  wink. 

Capital  punishments  are  at  all  times  rare  in  the  Russian  army,  and  arc 
never  inflicted  except  during  war.  In  time  of  peace,  culprits  are  uniformly 
condemned  to  transportation  to  Siberia,  and  to  forced  labor  in  the  mines. 
Corporeal  punishments  may  be  ordered  by  the  commanding  officers  of  regi- 
ments. Soldiers  who  continue  in  the  army  after  their  full  period  of  com- 
pulsory service  is  expired,  can  not  be  corporeally  punished  except  by  the 
command  of  a  council  of  war. 


506  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

Generally,  the  Russian  soldiers  are,  in  respect  of  bodily  vigor,  inferior 
perhaps  to  those  of  England.  They  have  little  enthusiasm  ;  and,  in  respect 
of  activity  and  intelligence,  are  very  far  below  those  of  England,  France, 
and  Prussia.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  they  possess,  in  the  greatest 
perfection,  the  two  first  qualities  of  a  soldier — the  most  unflinching  cour- 
age, and  the  most  implicit  obedience.  Subjected  from  birth  to  a  master 
whose  will  is  their  law,  the  habit  of  prompt  and  implicit  obedience  becomes, 
as  it  were,  a  part  of  themselves.  Regardless  of  dangers  or  difficulties, 
they  will  attempt  whatever  they  are  ordered ;  and  will  accomplish  all  that 
the  most  undaunted  resolution  and  perseverance  can  effect.  They  also 
endure,  without  a  murmur,  the  greatest  hardships  and  privations,  and  sup- 
port themselves  in  situations  where  others  would  starve. 

The  military  colonies  of  Russia  are  a  sort  of  agricultural  soldiers  estab- 
lished by  a  ukase  issued  in  1818,  agreeably  to  the  suggestion  of  General 
Count  Araktchief,  the  favorite  of  the  emperor  Paul  and  the  companion  of 
Alexander.  The  object  was  to  create  a  military  force  at  the  least  possible 
expense,  by  engrafting  military  service  upon  the  labors  of  the  peasants, 
modelled  after  the  military  colonies  established  by  Austria  between  the 
Austro-Slavic  and  Turko-Slavic  frontiers.  For  this  purpose,  certain  dis- 
tricts belonging  to  the  crown  were  selected  in  the  environs  of  Lake  Ilmen, 
in  the  government  of  Novgorod,  and  in  some  of  the  southern  governments, 
the  territory  of  which  was  distributed  among  the  peasantry,  at  tlie  rate  of 
about  fifteen  deciatines,  or  forty-five  acres  of  arable  land  to  each  head  of  a 
family,  villages  on  an  improved  and  uniform  plan  being  at  the  same  time 
erected  for  their  accommodation.  The  stock  and  implements  necessary 
for  the  cultivation  of  this  land  are  furnished  to  the  colonist  by  the  crown, 
and  he  is  charged  with  its  cultivation,  with  contributing  to  the  common 
magazine  of  the  village,  keeping  up  the  roads,  &c. ;  the  surplus  produce, 
after  these  outgoings  and  the  provision  for  his  family  are  deducted,  being 
at  his  disposal.  A  soldier  is  assigned  to  each  colonist,  to  be  maintained 
by  the  latter ;  but  the  soldier  is,  in  return,  obliged,  when  not  absent  or 
engaged  in  duty,  to  assist  the  colonist  in  the  labors  of  his  farm.  The  colo- 
nists, as  well  as  the  soldiery,  are  deprived  of  their  beards,  and  wear  uni- 
form, everything  in  the  colony  being  subjected  to  military  regulation. 
There  is  no  restraint  on  the  marriage  of  the  soldiers ;  and  their  male  chil- 
dren, and  those  of  the  colonists,  are  all  bred  up  to  be  soldiers.  The  girls 
are  educated  in  separate  schools ;  and,  though  there  be  no  regulation  to 
that  effect,  are  generally  married  to  the  young  men  belonging  to  the  colo- 
nies. Exclusive  of  the  principal  soldiers  already  alluded  to,  there  is  in 
every  cottage  a  substitute  or  supplementary  soldier,  generally  a  son  of  the 
colonist,  who  is  bound  to  take  the  place  of  the  principal  soldier  in  the 
event  of  his  death  or  sickness,  so  that  the  regiments  distributed  among  the 
colonies  can  never  want  their  full  complement  of  men. 

The  insurrection  of  1831,  among  the  colonists  of  Novgorod  and  Pskov, 
together  with  the  causes  which  led  to  it,  is  thus  related  by  the  count  do 


THE   IMPERIAL  GOVERNMENT  —  THE   NAVY.  507 

<Jurowski :  "The  military  system  was  introduced  with  an  iron  hand,  and 
an  implacably  rigidity  akin  to  cruelty.  Unmerciful  corporeal  punishments 
were  daily  occurrences.  In  the  villages  tlius  transformed  the  military  offi- 
cers forming  the  staff  ruled  most  despotically.  Every  sort  of  labor,  as 
well  as  every  movement  of  tlie  newly-enslaved  people,  was  directed  by  an 
order  from  the  military  commandant.  Thus,  an  order  issued  from  the 
headquarters  of  a  district,  would  appoint  for  the  whole  colony — for  exam- 
ple, a  day  for  ploughing,  another  for  sowing,  another  for  harvest,  and  all 
agricultural  labor  was  similarly  arranged.  The  whole  rural  population 
was  bound  under  penalties  to  move  on  the  same  day — nay,  at  the  same 
hour.  A  peasant  could  not  go  to  market  nor  sell  an  egg  without  a  permis- 
sion from  the  officers.  At  the  same  time,  neither  his  wife  nor  his  daughter 
was  safe  from  their  lust.  Assassination  and  punishments  for  it  happened 
very  often,  but  the  system  took  root.  However,  during  the  Polish  cam- 
paign, in  the  spring  of  1831,  when  the  colonies  became  liberated  from  the 
pressure  of  the  grenadiers  quartered  among  them,  a  terrible  insurrection 
broke  out.  The  greater  part  of  the  officers  were  killed.  In  several  cases 
they  were  sunk  in  the  earth  to  the  waist,  and  then  mowed  with  the  scythe  ! 
Despair  and  vengeance  animated  the  wronged,  the  oppressed.  These  co- 
lonial and  other  insurrections  give  a  foretaste  of  the  character  of  a  future 
vengeful  uprising  of  the  Russian  serfs  and  peasants. 

"  Finally,  the  rebellion  was  quenched  in  blood  by  Count  Orlofif.  Numbers 
were  decimated  on  the  spot,  and  hundreds  of  families  transported  to  Sibe- 
ria. Less  cruel  discipline,  however,  was  thenceforth  introduced,  and  it 
would  seem  that  the  next  generation  had  become  accustomed  to  the  heavy 
yoke.  Things  now  appear  to  go  on  there  rather  smoothly  ;  but  the  curse 
of  the  peasants  is  poured  out  with  every  breath.  The  tradition  of  better 
times  of  old,  and  of  ancient  liberty,  glimmers  still  at  the  domestic  hearth. 
The  time  will  probably  come,  and  is  perhaps  not  far  distant,  when  these 
colonies,  organized  to  shelter  and  enforce  despotism,  will  become  a  deadly 
weapon  in  the  hand  of  the  avenger." 

Tiie  Russian  navy  is  composed  of  three  fleets  or  squadrons.  Each  squad- 
ron has  a  three-decker  of  from  a  hundred  to  a  hundred  and  twenty  guns, 
and  eight  smaller  two-deckers,  of  from  seventy  to  ninety  guns,  with  six 
frigates  and  a  very  few  steamers  and  other  smaller  vessels,  sloops,  schoon- 
ers, &c.  Three  squadrons  form  the  fleet  of  the  Baltic,  and  two  that  of  the 
Black  sea.  Aside  from  these,  there  is  a  small  flotilla  in  the  Caspian  sea, 
and  a  steamer  and  a  few  other  vessels  in  the  sea  of  Aral,  in  independent 
Tartary,  where  Russia  is  extending  her  influence. 

In  the  Baltic,  as  well  as  in  the  Euxine  and  the  sea  of  Azov,  there  are 
numerous  gunboats.  All  the  vessels  are  well  manned,  but  the  quality  of 
the  men  does  not  correspond  with  their  numbers.  Russia,  having  only  a 
very  slender  commercial  marine,  has  no  great  number  of  sailors,  or  of  mas- 
tors  and  mates.  The  latter  are  nearly  all  foreigners  on  the  small  number 
of  Russian  commercial  vessels,  notwithstanding  the  existence  of  a  law 


608  ILLUSTRATED   DESCEIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

according  to  wliich  the  master  of  a  Russian  vessel  ought  to  be  a  native 
Russian.  But  this  law  is  evaded,  as  there  is  no  possibility  whatever  of 
finding  such  men.  The  sailors  for  the  navy  are  selected  principally  from 
among  the  people  living  along  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  the  Euxine,  and 
tlie  sea  of  Azov,  and  from  among  the  boatmen  on  the  Don  and  the  Volga. 
Greeks  and  Armenians  may  be  found  among  the  number.  All  these  put 
together  do  not  furnish,  however,  a  third  part  of  the  required  number,  and 
the  remainder  of  the  crews  is  composed  of  men  who,  previous  to  enlisting, 
liad  never  been  on  water,  except  perhaps  in  a  ferry-boat.  A  great  many 
Jewish  conscripts  are  thus  employed.  The  mass  of  the  crews  are  in  a 
season  transformed  into  sailors  by  mere  drill  and  force  of  discipline.  The 
greater  number  can  not  even  swim.  The  vessels  of  the  fleets  in  the  Baltic 
can  scarcely  be  kept  four  months  on  the  high  seas,  and  those  in  the  Euxine 
but  four  or  six  weeks  longer.  This  is  consequently  the  whole  time  which 
can  be  devoted  to  practising  naval  exercises  and  manoeuvres.  The  remain- 
der of  the  year,  the  crews  are  garrisoned  in  harbors,  and  trained  in  the 
military  land-exercise.  Thus,  the  greater  part  of  the  crews  are  not  only 
neither  real  nor  skilful  sailors  or  gunners,  but  form  scarcely  second-rate 
infantry. 

The  officers  are  educated  from  childhood  in  special  nautical  establisli- 
ments,  and  most  of  them,  at  least  theoretically,  are  as  capable  and  as  well 
informed  in  all  the  specialities  of  the  duty  as  those  of  any  other  service 
whatever. 

Russia  is  indebted  for  her  naval  power,  as  she  is  for  her  ascendency  by 
land,  her  civilization,  and,  indeed,  everything  else,  to  the  creative  genius 
of  Peter  the  Great.  Previously  to  his  accession,  Russia  had  no  seaport, 
other  than  Archangel,  and  did  not  possess  a  single  gunboat.  As  soon, 
liowever,  as  Peter  had  acquired  a  footing  on  the  Baltic,  he  set  about  crea- 
ting a  navy  ;  and,  the  better  to  qualify  himself  for  the  task  of  its  construc- 
tion, he  visited  Holland,  where  he  not  only  made  himself  acquainted  with 
the  principles  of  naval  architecture,  but  with  the  practical  business  of  a 
ship's  carpenter,  by  working  himself  at  this  employment!  The  monarchs 
?ince  Peter,  and  especially  Catherine  11.  and  the  emperor  Nicholas,  have 
all  exerted  themselves  to  increase  and  improve  the  fleet ;  and  it  is  now, 
perhaps,  in  as  high  a  state  of  efficiency  as  it  is  likely  to  attain,  under  the 
disadvantages  of  which  we  have  already  spoken. 

The  vessels,  however,  have  little  uniformity  in  their  construction,  some 
being  as  heavy  as  old  Dutch  galliots,  while  others  are  modelled  on  Eng- 
lish and  American  patterns.  The  material  for  the  hulls,  which  is  mostly 
oak,  is  inferior ;  not  that  there  is  a  scarcity  of  ship-timber  in  Russia,  but 
that  the  navy-yards  and  arsenals  are  under  the  same  system  of  venality  and 
peculation  which  pervades  all  other  branches  of  the  administration.  Thus 
the  vessels  last  only  from  ten  to  fifteen  years.  In  general,  the  Russian 
navy  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  defensive  wooden  wall,  which  can  never  be 
transformed  into  a  formidable  weapon  of  offence  against  Europe,  or  be 


THE   IMPERIAL   GOVERNMENT  —  THE    FINANCES.  509 

made  to  act  single-handed  against  any  of  the  maritime  powers,  with  tlic 
exception  of  Sweden,  Turkey,  and  the  like  smaller  ones. 

An  old  proverbial  distribution  of  capacities  respecting  the  officers  among 
the  various  grades  of  the  service  in  Russia,  assigns  "  the  dandy  to  the  cav- 
alry, the  learned  man  to  the  artillery,  the  drunkard  to  the  navy,  and  the 
stupid  to  the  infantry."  So  it  was  once,  but  so  it  is  no  longer,  at  least 
with  respect  to  the  infantry  and  navy.  The  infantry-officers,  though  they 
do  not  belong  to  the  higher  aristocratic  class,  are  for  the  greater  part  well 
educated  and  tolerably  well  bred.  The  brother  of  the  new  emperor,  the 
gi-and-duke  Constantino,  is  the  grand-admiral  and  now  the  minister  or  sec- 
retary of  the  navy.  From  childhood  he  has  been  thoroughly  educated  for 
this  purpose.  This  has  given  a  stimulus  to  the  service.  Educated  and 
well-bred  youths,  of  higher  family  connections,  enter  it  continually,  and 
thus  its  ancient  disreputable  character  is  almost  wholly  changed. 

Owing  to  the  low  state  of  civilization  in  most  parts  of  the  Russian  em- 
pire, and  the  want  of  manufactures  and  large  towns,  the  public  revenue  is 
hy  no  means  so  great  as  might  be  supposed  from  the  vast  extent  of  the 
empire,  and  the  magnitude  of  the  population.  In  consequence,  however, 
of  the  cheapness  of  most  of  the  necessary  articles  in  Russia,  and  the  small 
rates  of  pay  of  the  soldiers  and  other  public  functionaries,  her  limited  rev- 
enue goes  a  great  way,  and  she  is  able  to  meet  outgoings  that  elsewhere 
could  not  be  met  with  less  than  twice  or  three  times  the  sum. 

In  the  reign  of  Alexis-Michailovich,  father  of  Peter  the  Great,  the  annual 
revenue  of  tlie  government  was  but  five  millions  of  silver  roubles,  notwith- 
standing which  his  court  was  one  of  the  most  magnificent  in  Europe.  He 
maintained  a  numerous  army,  and  left,  at  his  death,  considerable  sums  of 
money.  At  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great,  the  revenues  had 
doubled,  being  over  ten  millions  of  roubles.  The  poll-tax  produced  four 
millions  three  hundred  thousand  roubles ;  the  customs,  one  million  two 
Imndred  thousand  ;  the  tax  on  brandy,  one  million  ;  and  the  salt-tax,  seven 
liundred  thousand.  In  1770,  under  Catherine  II.,  the  revenue  was  over 
one  hundred  millions,  and  at  a  later  period  of  her  reign  it  reached  one 
hundred  and  seventy  millions.  In  1804,  the  revenue  approached  one  hun- 
dred and  nine  millions.  At  the  present  time  it  is  not  under  five  hundred 
millions  of  roubles  annually. 

The  most  important  article  of  the  revenue  is  the  farming  out  of  the  man- 
ufacture of  brandy,  which  produces  one  hundred  and  thirty  millions  of 
roubles.  The  customs  occupy  the  next  rank,  and  exceed  one  hundred 
millions  of  roubles ;  the  poll-tax  is  about  eighty  millions ;  the  obrak,  or 
hmd-tax,  produces  from  thirty  to  forty  millions;  the  tax  on  guilds,  or  on 
the  capital  of  merchants,  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  millions  ;  the  postoffice 
about  fifteen  millions ;  patents,  three  or  four  millions ;  stamps,  three  or 
four  millions  ;  mines,  twenty  millions.  To  this  must  be  added  the  appa- 
nages, the  rents  of  the  farms,  the  monopoly  of  tobacco,  the  duty  on  cards, 
the  imposts  on  salt,  and  the  crown  manufactories,  making  in  the  aggregcite 


510 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 


the  annual  amount  of  five  hundred  millions  of  roubles  previously  men- 
tioned. 

The  taxes,  it  will  be  seen,  are  partly  farmed,  and  partly  collected  by 
government-officers.  There  is,  as  already  stated,  in  every  government,  a 
council  charged  with  the  administration  of  everything  pertaining  to  the 
finances. 

Our  information  with  respect  to  the  expenditures  of  the  Russian  empire 
is  less  accurate  than  that  relating  to  its  income,  most  topics  connected 
therewith  being  involved  in  a  mystery  which  it  is  not  always  possible  to 
penetrate.  It  is  likewise  evident,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  government, 
that  the  official  reports,  especially  in  time  of  war,  are  not  to  be  relied  upon 
in  the  same  degree  as  those  emanating  from  the  financial  department  ol" 
our  own  country  or  that  of  England.  In  time  of  peace,  however,  the  in- 
come and  expenditures  of  Russia  are  understood  to  be  nearly  equal ;  but 
during  war,  or  on  extraordinary  occasions,  involving  an  increase  of  expen- 
diture, the  ordinary  revenue  is  quite  insufficient  to  meet  the  outgoings,  and 
it  is  usual  both  to  increase  the  rate  of  taxation  and  to  resort  to  loans. 
The  expense  of  the  army  and  navy  (the  latter  being  about  one  fifth  or  one 
sixth  part  of  the  former)  amounts  to  more  than  half  the  revenue.  The^ 
next  great  items  are  the  interest  and  sinking-fund  on  account  of  the  public 
debt ;  the  civil  list,  internal  administration,  public  works,  &c. ;  the  diplo- 
matic service,  and  various  other  items. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  minister  of  finance,  the  public  debt  of 
Russia  amounted,  in  1853,  to  upward  of  three  hundred  millions  of  dollars, 
which  the  expenses  of  the  present  war  must  greatly  increase. 


Russian  Silver  Rouble. 


THE  PEOPLE  —  THE   NOBILITY.  511 


CHAPTER   XIX. 


THE    PEOPLE. 


POLITICALLY  considered,  the  people  of  Russia  are  divided  into  four 
general  classes — the  nobility,  the  clergy,  the  merchants  and  bur- 
ghers, and  the  peasants  and  serfs.  Previously  to  the  reign  of  Peter 
the  Great,  the  Russian  nobility  consisted  principally  of  the  descendants  of 
tiie  ancient  petty  princes  of  the  country,  or  of  lords  possessed  of  vast  es- 
tates. They  were  in  the  exclusive  possession  of  all  situations  of  trust  and 
emolument,  to  which  they  succeeded  according  to  their  rank.  Peter,  who 
early  saw  the  disadvantage  of  this  state  of  things,  and  the  necessity  of 
undermining  the  influence  of  the  nobles,  most  of  whom  were  violently  op- 
posed to  his  projects  for  the  regeneration  of  the  country,  had  recourse,  in 
furtherance  of  his  plans,  to  the  scheme  of  creating  a  new  order  of  nobility. 
With  this  view,  he  divided  all  the  civil  and  military  functionaries  in  the 
service  of  the  state  into  fourteen  classes :  enacting,  at  the  same  time,  that 
the  six  highest  classes  should  confer  on  the  individuals  in  them  the  distinc- 
tion of  hereditary  nobility ;  that  some  of  the  other  classes  should  confer 
the  distinction  of  personal  nobility,  or  of  nobility  for  life ;  and  that  those 
enrolled  in  the  others  should  be  deemed  gentlemen,  or  Men  nees.  Some 
modifications  were  made  in  this  arrangement  by  the  empress  Catherine  II. ; 
but  it  is  still  maintained  nearly  as  it  was  contrived  by  Peter  the  Great. 

The  creation  of  a  new  nobility  founded  on  merit,  or  on  services  rendered 
to  the  state,  was,  no  doubt,  a  material  improvement  at  the  time.  By  illus- 
trating many  new  families,  it  has  served  to  lessen  the  influence  of  the  old 
nobility,  and  to  liberalize  the  order,  at  the  same  time  that  it  has  opened  a 
l)rospect  to  all  enterprising  individuals  of  rising  to  the  liighest  dignities. 
On  the  whole,  liowever,  it  would  seem  that  the  system,  having  served  its 
purpose,  might  now  be  advantageously  abandoned. 

In  Russia,  properly  so  called,  the  nobles  are  not  numerous ;  but  they 
abound  in  Podolia,  Volhynia,  and  other  provinces  acquired  from  Poland, 
and  especially  in  Poland  itself,  which  has  about  three  hundred  thousand 
nobles !  Few,  however,  of  the  latter  possess  estates,  and  many  of  them 
are  in  a  very  destitute  condition.  In  the  Polish  provinces,  and  in  Cour- 
land,  Livonia,  and  Esthonia,  none  but  nobles  can  inherit  landed  property ; 
but  this  is  not  the  case  in  Russia  proper,  though,  with  the  exception  of  the 
crown-estates,  they  are,  in  fact,  almost  the  sole  proprietors. 


512  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

The  titles  of  prince,  count,  and  baron,  have  superseded  those  formerly 
in  use.  In  the  government  of  Toula,  there  are  said  to  be  more  than  one 
hundred  families  having  the  dignity  of  prince !  All  the  members  of  noble 
families  are  noble,  and  have  the  same  title  as  the  head  of  the  family.  On 
the  death  of  a  noble  person,  his  estate  is  divided,  according  to  a  fixed 
scale,  among  his  children  of  both  sexes.  Nobles  are  exempted  from  all 
personal  charges,  and  from  the  obligation  to  serve  in  the  army,  but  they 
are  obliged  to  furnish  recruits  according  to  the  number  of  their  vassals. 
Nobles  are  also  exempted  from  corporeal  punishment ;  have  leave  to  distil 
all  the  spirits  required  for  the  consumption  of  their  establishments ;  may 
engage  in  manufactures  or  trade ;  have  a  right  to  all  the  minerals  on  their 
estates,  &c.  Precedence  is  determined,  in  Russia,  by  military  rank ;  and 
an  ensign  would  take  the  pas  of  a  nobleman  not  enrolled  in  the  army,  or 
occupying  some  situation  giving  military  rank. 

The  property  of  a  noble  who  has  been  condemned  is  not  confiscated  by 
the  state,  but  goes  to  his  family.  The  nobles  likewise  elect  various  local 
magistrates,  assessors,  &c.,  and  (deliberate  at  their  meetings  on  different 
matters  connected  with  the  local  administration.  There  is  also  in  every 
government  a  committee  of  nobles  to  watch  over  the  interests  of  the  body, 
and  to  take  care  of  the  establishments  that  belong  to  it ;  and  every  circle 
has  a  committee  of  nobles  who  manage  the  estates  and  affairs  of  nobles 
who  are  under  age.  These  privileges,  which  are  obviously  of  considerable 
importance,  were  embodied  and  set  forth  in  a  ukase  by  Catherine  II.,  in 
1762  ;  and  another  ukase  of  the  emperor  Alexander  prohibits  all  govern- 
ment functionaries  from  interfering  with  the  election  of  the  assessors  and 
other  functionaries  chosen  by  the  nobles. 

It  is  not  easy  to  form  a  fair  estimate  of  the  character  of  the  Russian 
nobles.  Generally  speaking,  their  education  is  more  superficial  than  solid  ; 
but  many  are,  nevertheless  highly  accomplished.  They  are  all  well  ac- 
quainted with  French,  and  numbers  with  the  English  and  German  lan- 
guages ;  those  who  have  travelled  being  distinguished  by  the  superior 
polish  and  elegance  of  their  manners.  They  are  universally  hospitable ; 
and  most  of  them  affect,  and  many  relish,  the  society  of  literary  men  and 
artists.  That  they  are  more  sensual,  more  given  to  ostentatious  display, 
and  less  distinguished  by  a  gentlemanly  bearing  toward  their  inferiors, 
than  the  higher  classes  in  England  and  France,  is  no  doubt  true.  But  it  is 
affirmed  that  the  representations  of  Clarke,  Lyall,  and  other  travellers,  of 
their  caste,  are,  notwithstanding,  mere  vulgar  caricatures,  which,  though 
they  may  perhaps  apply  to  a  few  individuals,  are  generally  quite  as  wide 
of  the  truth  as  M.  Fillet's  accounts  of  the  women  of  England,  or  those  of 
Captain  Basil  Hall  and  Madame  TroUope  with  respect  to  tlie  Americans. 
Considering,  indeed,  that  the  Russian  nobility  have  no  exciting  political 
occupation,  that  in  most  parts  of  the  empire  there  is  no  middle  class,  and 
that  the  occupiers  of  their  estates  are  not  freemen  but  serfs,  the  wonder  is, 
not  that  their  tastes  and  habits  should  be  in  some  respects  barbarous,  but 


00 

a 


o 


a 

CO 

i 


> 
,5 


THE   PEOPLE  —  THE   NOBILITY.  515 

that  they  should  have  made  so  great  an  advance  as  they  have  done  since 
the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  that  they  should  be  so  intelligent  and 
refined  as  they  are  found  to  be. 

The  Russian  nobles,  like  those  of  England  and  other  countries  in  feudal 
times,  are  in  the  habit  of  keeping  great  numbers  of  vassals  in  their  houses 
as  servants.  The  number  of  such  retainers  in  some  great  families  exceeds 
all  belief,  amounting  sometimes  to  above  five  hundred  !  They  receive  only 
a  trifling  pittance  as  vrages,  but  that  is  quite  enough  for  their  wants,  as 
they  are  fed  and  clothed  by  their  masters.  Several  Russian  noblemen 
have  recently  distinguished  themselves  by  their  attention  to  their  estates, 
and  by  the  efi"orts  they  have  made  to  introduce  the  improved  processes  and 
implements  in  use  in  more  advanced  countries.  In  some  instances  they 
have  brought  land-stewards  and  laborers  from  Great  Britain  and  Germany. 
Latterly,  also,  many  of  the  principal  nobles  have  become  extensive  manu- 
facturers, and  some  of  the  greatest  manufacturing  establishments  in  the 
empire  are  at  present  in  their  hands.  They  are  driven,  in  fact,  to  adopt 
this  course  by  the  circumstances  under  which  they  are  placed.  All  agri- 
cultural and  most  out-of-door  employments  being  suspended  during  winter, 
the  noblemen,  who  must  provide  for  the  subsistence  of  their  serfs,  whether 
the  latter  be  employed  or  not,  naturally  endeavor  to  avail  themselves  of 
their  services  during  the  interruption  of  husbandry  pursuits,  by  setting  on 
foot  some  species  of  manufacture.  The  latter,  indeed,  is  frequently  car- 
ried on  only  during  winter,  the  peasants  being  employed  in  agriculture 
during  the  rest  of  the  year.  Wlien,  however,  a  nobleman  establishes  a 
manufacture  on  a  large  scale,  and  keeps  it  constantly  at  work,  the  peas- 
ants are  usually  put  on  the  footing  of  hired  laborers,  and  instead  of  getting 
an  allotment  of  land,  are  paid  for  their  work,  and  left  to  supply  themselves 
witli  necessaries.  Some  manufactures  conducted  in  this  way  have  been 
eminently  successful :  though  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that,  if  they 
be  of  the  higher  class,  or  require  any  peculiar  skill,  economy,  or  attention, 
they  are  not  of  a  kind  that  can  be  successfully  carried  on  by  the  agents  of 
noblemen ;  and  that  the  moment  the  protection  afforded  by  oppressive  cus- 
tomhouse duties,  under  which  they  have  grown  up,  is  withdrawn,  they  will 
at  once  fall  to  the  ground. 

Mr.  Coxe  and  Dr.  Pinkerton,  who  are  regarded  as  among  the  best  and 
most  trustworthy  of  the  English  travellers  who  have  visited  Russia,  speak 
very  favorably  of  the  Russian  nobility.  The  former  says  that,  although 
they  liave  adopted  the  delicacies  of  French  cookery,  they  neither  afi"ect  to 
despise  their  native  dishes,  nor  squeamishly  reject  the  solid  joints  which 
characterize  an  English  repast.  The  plainest  as  well  as  the  choicest  viands" 
are  collected  from  the  most  distant  quarters.  At  the  tables  of  opulent 
persons  in  St.  Petersburg  may  be  seen  sterlet  from  the  Volga,  veal  from 
Archangel,  mutton  from  Astrakhan,  beef  from  the  steppes,  and  pheasants 
from  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  The  common  wines  are  claret.  Burgundy, 
and  champagne ;  and  English  beer  and  porter  may  be  had  in  perfection 


'516  11.LUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

and  abundance.  It  is  usual  to  take  a  "  whet"  before  dinner ;  but  the  sto- 
ries engrafted  on  this  practice,  of  the  prevalence  of  inebriety  among  the 
higher  classes,  are  pronounced  to  be  wholly  without  foundation.  In  this 
respect  tlieir  habits  have  undergone  a  total  change  since  the  days  of  Peter 
the  Great,  and  they  are  now  remarkable  for  sobriety.  The  peasantry, 
however,  often  indulge  to  excess  in  their  potations. 

The  lengthened  stay  of  the  Russian  armies  in  the  western  and  more  civ- 
ilized European  states,  after  the  defeat  of  Napoleon's  invasion,  made  a 
large  number  of  the  nobles,  and  of  the  more  intelligent  classes  (which  in 
Russia  consist  of  the  military  officers),  familiarly  acquainted  with  a  more 
advanced  state  of  society,  and  a  better  form  of  civil  polity.  This  circum- 
stance, also,  gave  an  increased  stimulus  to  the  desire  for  travelling  that 
previously  prevailed  among  the  nobility,  many  of  whom  withdrew  to  Franco, 
England,  and  Italy.  It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  the  influence  of  these  con- 
curring circumstances  has  since,  on  various  occasions,  made  itself  sensibly 
felt  in  Russia ;  and  that  the  government  has  sometimes  had  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  a  considerable  portion  of  the  nobility,  and  even  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  regiments  of  the  army,  would  not  be  displeased  to  see  some 
limit  set  to  the  powers  of  the  czar. 

Next  to  the  nobility  stand  tlie  clergy,  which  number  over  three  hundred 
thousand,  and,  including  their  families,  nearly  a  million.  As  they  will  be 
fully  and  more  properly  described  in  the  chapter  appropriated  to  an  ac- 
count of  the  church,  we  will  pass  them  by  here  without  further  notice. 

The  merchants,  burghers,  <fec.,  comprise  a  class  between  the  nobles  and 
the  peasants,  and  is  thus  alluded  to  by  the  empress  Catherine  II.,  in  her 
instructions  for  a  new  code  of  laws:  "This  class,  composed  of  freemen, 
belong  neither  to  the  class  of  nobles  nor  to  that  of  peasants.  All  those 
who,  being  neither  gentlemen  nor  peasants,  follow  the  arts  and  sciences, 
navigation,  commerce,  or  exercise  trades,  are  to  be  ranked  in  this  class. 
In  it  should  be  placed  all  those  who,  born  of  plebeian  parents,  sliall  have 
been  brought  up  in  schools  or  places  of  education,  religious  or  otherwise, 
founded  by  us  or  by  our  predecessors.  Also  the  children  of  officers  and 
of  the  secretaries  to  the  chancery." 

This  body  is  divided  into  various  classifications,  as  follows :  1.  The 
class  of  the  corporation  legally  called  merchants ;  all  of  them  must  be  in- 
scribed in  one  of  the  three  guilds.  2.  Respectable  citizens.  3.  Citizen- 
burghers  not  inscribed  in  any  of  the  guilds ;  and  artisans  and  mechanics, 
belonging  to  special  handicraft  corporations.  4.  Freemen,  such  as  dis- 
charged soldiers,  emancipated  serfs,  and  all  others  of  free  condition  not 
belonging  to  any  special  corporation,  but  registered  in  the  general  one  of 
the  city  inhabited  by  them.  5.  Workmen,  and  all  other  inhabitants  own- 
ing houses  in  cities,  but  not  registered  in  the  general  or  in  any  of  the  spe- 
cial corporations,  can,  if  they  choose,  be  called  citizen-burghers,  without, 
however,  losing  their  privileges,  if  from  the  order  of  the  nobility,  or  ac- 
quiring those  of  burghers,  if  still  belonging  to  rural  communes. 


THE   PEOPLE  —  MERCHANTS   AND    BURGHERS. 


517 


Russian  Merchant. 


The  three  guilds  into  which  the  merchant  class  is  divided  are  formed 
according  to  the  amount  of  capital  employed  and  declared  by  those  wishing 
to  got  an  inscription,  on  which 
an  interest  of  about  six  per 
cent,  is  to  be  paid  yearly  into 
the  treasury.  The  sum  neces- 
sary for  an  inscription  into  the 
first  guild  is  about  twenty  thou- 
sand dollars  ;  for  the  third,  or 
lowest,  about  six  thousand. 

Aside  from  this  order  of 
mercliants,  all  other  burghers 
form  a  general  body,  whatever 
their  trade  or  occupations.  A 
corporation  of  handicraftsmen 
is  formed  of  masters,  foreman, 
and  apprentices.  The  mem- 
bers of  such  a  corporation  are 
either  for  life,  or  temporary. 
To  the  first  belong  those  born 
as  citizen-burghers ;  to  the  sec- 
ond foreign  artisans,  free  peas- 
ants, as  well  as  serfs  who  have 

learned  the  special  handicraft,  or  are  received  among  the  masters  in  the 
corporation,  being  thus  inscribed  for  a  certain  time,  without,  however,  be- 
longing to  the  general  class  of  citizen-burghers.  The  body  of  workmen  is 
composed  of  all  registered  in  the  records  of  the  town,  and  not  belonging 
to  any  of  the  above-mentioned  classes ;  of  men  unfit  for  the  military  ser- 
vice, or  those  having  furnished  it ;  of  foreign  immigrants,  artisans,  or  ap- 
prentices ;  but  excluding  those  of  bad  character,  and  all  those  expelled  for 
bad  behavior,  or  for  the  non-payment  of  communal  taxes,  or  the  evading 
to  fulfil  personal  duties. 

Any  one  enjoying  the  right  to  make  a  selection  of  a  corporation,  trade, 
or  occupation  for  life,  can  enter  tlie  class  of  citizen-burghers,  a])andoning 
thus  his  inferior  position,  and  passing  over  to  this  superior  one.  For  this 
he  must  be  legally  and  ofiicially  accepted  by  the  community  which  he 
wishes  to  join.  Exceptions  exist  for  some  artisans  where  the  legal  assent 
of  the  community  to  the  act  of  admission  is  not  necessary.  Thus,  for 
example,  cloth-weavers,  dyers  and  dressers,  and  machinists,  can  join  a 
general  city  corporation  or  community,  without  obtaining  the  formality  of 
its  consent. 

Free  or  crown  peasants  can  join  the  corporation  of  burghers  individually 
or  with  their  families,  and  so  can  rural  communes,  if  they  are  traders,  me- 
chanics, artisans,  or  manufacturers,  but  not  as  agriculturists.  Individu- 
als passing  thus  from  one  state  to  another,  must  obtain  the  assent  of  the 


518  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

commune  which  they  abandon,  as  well  as  the  acceptance  of  that  which  they 
enter.  When  this  is  to  be  done  by  a  whole  rural  community,  the  permis- 
sion of  the  government  is  necessary.  Widows  and  daughters  of  free  peas- 
ants can,  under  certain  conditions,  become  incorporated  among  citizen- 
burghers.  Independent  agriculturists  (a  kind  of  free  yeomen),  as  well  as 
emancipated  serfs,  cun  join  a  city  corporation  with  its  assent. 

Jews,  as  well  as  seceders  from  the  national  or  orthodox  Greco-Russian 
church,  can  only  join  corporations  in  Trans-Caucasian  cities.  Asiatic  no- 
mades,  of  all  races  and  kinds,  Kirghiz,  &c.,  can,  at  their  choice,  enter  any 
city  corporation  whatever,  and  no  objection  can  be  raised  to  this  by  the 
commune.  The  community  of  any  city  can  erect  a  communal  bank  accord- 
ing to  the  prescriptions  of  special  laws.  No  citizen-burgher  can  be  de- 
prived of  his  standing  or  special  privileges  otherwise  than  by  the  verdict 
of  a  criminal  tribunal.  In  all  civil  as  well  as  criminal  matters,  if  both 
the  parties  are  of  the  same  class,  the  case  comes  first  before  the  board  of 
magistrates. 

Merchants  of  the  first  guild,  or  their  children,  when  the  parents  have 
belonged  for  twenty-five  years  uninterruptedly  to  the  guild,  liave  the  right 
to  enter  the  civil  or  military  service  under  the  same  conditions  as  the  chil- 
dren of  personal  nobles.  Merchants  of  the  second  guild,  or  their  cliildren, 
can  not  enter  the  civil  service  at  all,  and  the  military  only  as  volunteers, 
that  is,  with  the  right  to  leave  it  again  at  any  time.  All  other  merchants, 
citizen-burghers,  or  their  children,  are  not  admitted  into  the  civil  service 
on  any  condition  whatever  ;  and  when  they  enter  the  military,  do  not  enjoy 
any  kind  of  privilege,  but  are  treated  like  all  the  common  recruits.  A 
citizen-burgher  registered  in  one  of  the  three  guilds  is  free  from  tlie  gen- 
eral recruiting  to  which  all  other  burghers  are  subject.  He  also  does  not 
pay  the  state  the  capitation-tax,  called  poduschnoe  ("  from  the  soul"),  as 
he  already  pays  an  interest  on  the  capital  for  which  he  is  inscribed  in  the 
guild.  All  other  commercial  taxes  are  paid  by  the  burghers  in  common 
with  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants.  Any  citizen-burgher  can  own  houses  or 
other  real  estate  situated  in  cities  or  villages,  or  lots  of  naked  land  —  that 
is,  land  without  serfs.  Citizen-burghers  not  inscribed  in  any  guild,  but 
owning  houses  in  cities  valued  above  five  thousand  dollars,  are  obliged  to 
register  their  names  at  least  in  the  third  guild,  and  pay  the  interest  on 
their  capital.  Such  houses  can  be  owned  by  widows  or  unmarried  daugh- 
ters of  the  class  of  merchants,  but  on  condition  of  registration  in  a  guild. 
Merchants  can  belong  to  and  be  registered  in  rural  communities  according 
to  certain  prescriptions  of  the  law. 

If  a  merchant,  or  in  general  any  citizen-burgher,  inherits  any  landed 
estates  with  serfs  on  them,  the  serfs  are  to  be  sold  immediately  to  the 
crown-domains  at  the  average  price  of  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two 
hundred  dollars  for  each  individual  —  the  right  of  owning  serfs  being 
reserved  exclusively  to  the  nobility.  The  citizen-burghers  can  be  deprived 
of  their  property  only  by  the  judgment  of  a  civil  tribunal. 


THE  PEOPLE — "respectable   CITIZENS." 


5iy 


The  Bocbgeoisie  —  a  Russian  Pic-nic." 


No  citizen-burgher  registered  in  the  general,  or  in  any  of  the  special 
corporations,  can  step  out  of  it,  and  abandon  the  city  where  he  is  incorpo- 
rated, by  settling  in  another,  without  the  assent  of  the  coinmunity  or  the 
permission  of  the  government.  Any  citizen-burgher  can  pass  into  the  close 
corporation  of  the  merchants,  on  declaring  the  amount  of  capital  required 
to  be  inscribed  in  one  of  the  three  guilds,  and  paying  into  the  treasury  the 
interest  thereon. 

Each  community  can  exclude  any  member  under  criminal  condemnation, 
or  of  notoriously  bad  character.  The  city  of  Moscow  has  alone  the  privi- 
lege of  giving  up  such  individuals  to  the  government,  either  as  recruits  to 
be  reckoned  ns  furnished  in  any  future  levy,  or  for  the  colonization  of 
Siberia.  Cliildren  of  such  convicts,  above  fourteen  years  of  age,  have  the 
option  citlier  to  follow  the  father  or  to  remain  in  the  community.  Minors, 
not  having  a  mother,  never  follow  the  parent  when  sent  to  Siberia. 

Above  all  the  subdivisions  of  the  bourgeoisie^  and  thus  above  the  close 
corporation  of  the  merchants  —  even  those  of  the  first  guild — rises  the 
legal  privilege  of  the  respectable  citizen  {postchotnoi  g-razdanin) .  This 
is  a  privilege  either  hereditary  or  enjoyed  for  life.  Children  of  personal 
nobles  become  hereditary  respectable  citizens. 

•  The  scene  illustrated  by  this  engraving  is  incidentally  mentioned  near  the  close  of  page  470. 
It  represents  a  party  of  burghers,  who,  with  their  families,  are  enjoying  a  "  Russian  pic-nic,"  on  a 
holyday,  on  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Neva.  The  "  favorite  somovar,"  it  will  be  seen,  charactens- 
ticully  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  this  picture  of  Russian  social  festivity. 


520  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

One  who,  in  virtue  of  the  social  position  of  his  father  as  a  merchant  of 
the  first  guild,  or  as  a  savant,  a  physician,  &c.,  has  acquired  the  right  to 
complete  a  course  of  studies  in  one  of  the  universities  of  the  empire,  can 
petition  the  government  to  be  included  in  the  class  of  respectable  citizens, 
on  producing  testimonials  of  having  finished  the  higher  studies,  and  of 
good  conduct  during  his  stay  at  the  university.  The  same  is  conceded  to 
artists  when  they  produce  testimonials  from  the  national  academies  of  art ; 
to  cliildren  of  merchants  of  the  first  and  second  guilds,  who  have  passed 
with  special  distinction  through  the  studies  of  the  universities,  to  pupils  of 
special  commercial  schools,  to  artists  who  are  foreigners  by  birth,  &c. 

At  first  sight  it  would  seem  laudable  that  laborious  and  well-accom- 
plished studies,  as  well  as  artistical  distinction,  should  open  the  door  to  a 
higher  grade  in  the  social  scale.  But,  on  more  close  consideration,  this 
apparent  liberality  loses  greatly  in  its  character.  It  is  deprived  of  the 
lofty  spirit  of  universality  which  alone  makes  such  distinction  praisewor- 
thy ;  it  has  the  narrowness  inherent  in  exceptions  and  superpositions  ;  it  is 
a  privilege  conceded  to  one  already  privileged  ;  jt  excludes  here,  as  it  does 
everywhere,  the  man  of  genius  who  by  accident  is  not  born  in  a  certain 
privileged  cradle  ;  it  reduces  to  some  few  what  ought  to  be  accessible  to 
all :  it  is  tiius  restricted,  narrow,  and  exclusive.  Vainly  is  it  represented 
as  being  a  stimulus  to  the  acquisition  of  social  distinction  by  intellectual 
labor,  by  mental  accomplishments.  It  is  so  but  partially,  in  a  very  limited 
way ;  it  possesses  the  odor  of  caste,  instead  of  having  the  elevated  charac- 
ter of  being  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole  people  ;  it  shuts  out  the  poor,  the 
unprotected  by  purse  or  patronage ;  it  is  stale  and  musty  in  its  nature, 
rather  than  bright  and  serene  as  ought  to  be  a  genuine  incitement  of  true 
civilization,  securing  well-deserved  social  superiority  and  consideration  to 
intellectual  proficiency. 

Members  of  the  merchant-class,  on  whom  the  government  has  conferred 
the  honorary  title  of  commercial  or  manufacturing  councillors,  if  they  have 
never  suffered  any  criminal  indictment,  and  never  failed  in  business,  can 
themselves,  as  can  their  widows,  rise  into  the  class  of  hereditary  respect- 
able citizens.  So  can  merchants,  who  have  belonged  uninterruptedly  for 
ten  years  to  the  first,  and  for  twenty  to  the  second  guild.  And  any  one 
who  has  obtained  the  diploma  of  doctor  or  of  master  from  any  of  the  Rus- 
sian universities,  can  petition  the  government  to  be  included  in  the  class 
of  hereditary  respectable  citizens.  Artists  and  special  pupils  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Art  have  also  this  right  on  presenting  tlieir  diploma  of  membership. 
Foreigners  living  in  Russia,  if  they  are  savans,  artists,  merchants,  or  own- 
ers of  extensive  manufacturing-establishments,  if  they  become  Russian  sub- 
jects, and  have  already  belonged  for  ten  years  to  the  class  of  personal 
respectable  citizens,  have  the  right  to  petition  for  admission  into  tlie  he- 
reditary class  of  the  same  title.  The  riglits  and  privileges  of  respectable 
citizens  consist  in  liberating  them  from  the  poduschnoe,  or  capitation-tax  , 
from  the  recruitment ;  from  corporeal  punishment,  by  either  civil  or  military 


THE  PEOPLE  —  FREE  PEASANTS.  521 

judgment;  and  from  having  their  heads  shaved  during  arrest  and  pending 
trial.  All  the  rest  of  the  bourg-eoisie,  in  criminal  as  well  as  in  police 
affairs,  are  subject  to  personal  punishment,  inflicted  bj  rods  {palki),  or  the 
"cat-o'-nine-tails"  (;?/e^wm). 

Below  the  bourg-eoisie — with  all  the  above-enumerated  subdivisions  and 
various  special  corporations,  from  that  of  the  merchants  down  to  that  of 
the  workmen  —  there  exists  a  still  inferior  class,  called  that  of  the  subur- 
ban inhabitants,  not  separately  incorporated,  but  administered  by  the  boards 
of  magistrates  of  the  city  to  which  they  belong.  It  is  composed  principally 
of  agriculturists  or  day-laborers,  who  thus  form  the  last  link  between  the 
bourgeoisie  and  the  peasants.  All  other  persons  living  in  any  city  by 
special  permission,  and  devoted  to  trade,  or  artisans,  are  called  simply 
inhabitants  or  citizens  (zytel,  obywatel,  from  bywat,  "  to  frequent"). 

The  fourth  and  lowest  class  of  the  people  of  Russia,  the  peasants  and 
serfs,  are  by  far  the  most  numerous.  This  class  forms,  in  about  equal 
numbers,  legally  and  socially,  two  great  principal  divisions  —  that  of  the 
so-called  free  or  crown  peasants,  and  the  serfs.  The  former  are  cut  up 
into  several  subdivisions,  according  to  the  rights  by  which  they  hold  prop- 
erty or  soil,  and  according  to  the  kind  and  the  nature  of  the  servitudes 
which  they  have  to  fulfil. 

The  code  of  laws  {Sivod  Zakonoff)  calls  the  peasantry  rural  inhabit- 
ants, and  divides  them  as  follows  :  1.  Those  inhabiting  or  settled  on  lands 
belonging  to  the  treasury,  or  kazna  (a  word  of  Tartar  origin).  2.  Those 
on  special  crown-domains.  3.  Those  on  lands  forming  the  personal  prop- 
erty of  the  emperor.  4.  Those  settled  on  lands  belonging  to  the  imperial 
habitations  or  palaces,  dwortsowyie  (from  dworets,  a  palace).  5.  Those 
settled  on  private  lands  —  that  is,  on  lands  belonging  to  the  nobility — or 
the  class  of  serfs.  Finally,  a  small  number  of  freedmen,  or  freeholders, 
having  lands  of  their  own. 

With  the  exception  of  the  serfs,  all  the  others  have  certain  special  per- 
sonal rights,  as  well  as  special  duties  or  services  to  perforni=— owing  dues, 
most  of  Ihem,  however,  rather  communal  than  personal;  Among  these 
communal  services,  the  principal  are  those  pertaining  to  military  colonies, 
already  spoken  of  in  the  chapter  immediately  precedirig;  others,  such  as 
are  attached  to  the  imperial  or  governmental  studs ;  'others,  to  the  mines 
of  Siberia  ;  others,  again,  who  keep  posthorses  for  public  and  goveriimental 
use.  Villages  of  the  latter  tenure  are  called  iama,  and  the  peasants; 
iamschtschik.*    There  are  several  others  of  a  similar  kind. 

To  the  class  of  free  peasants  belong  likewise  foreign  (mostly  German) 
agricultural  colonists  —  a  kind  of  yeomen  called  adnodivortsy,  from  nobles'* 
having  forfeited  their  privilege  —  and  free  agriculturists,  all  of  whom  pos- 
sess the  soil  as  personal  property. 

*  "  Foreigners,"  says  Gurowski,  "  may  be  struck  at  the  often-repeatrd  occurrence  of  so  many 
consonants,  as  in  the  word  iamschtschik ;  but  in  Russian,  the  sound  composed  out  of  schlsch  is 
given  by  a  single  sign,  or  letter." 


522  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

These  last  two,  adnodwortsy  and  free  agriculturists,  live  scattered  iii 
single  habitations  and  on  farms ;  all  the  other  peasantry  form  rural  com 
munes,  and  enjoy  the  communal  franchise.  Thus  the  commune  is  the  cra- 
dle of  the  social  organism.  The  .basis  of  the  commune  is  the  land  on 
which  the  population  is  settled,  and  thus  is  incorporated  with  it.  Every 
peasant  not  a  serf  must  belong  to  such  a  commune,  which  may  be  large  or 
small  according  to  the  quantity  of  land  owned  and  the  density  of  popula- 
tion. There  are  communes  amounting  to  nearly  twenty  thousand  souls. 
Such  a  commune  is  called  ivolost;  it  is  composed  oi  dereumia,  or  hamlets, 
and  selo,  or  villages :  just  as  an  American  township  may  embrace  several 
villages.  Several  such  communes  form  a  rural  district  or  canton.  A  vil- 
lage generally  counts  between  six  and  eight  hundred  families. 

The  intei'nal  police,  the  correction  of  small  offences  by  short  imprison- 
ment, or  by  no  more  than  fifteen  blows  ;  the  settling  of  contests  among  the 
members  ;  the  superintendence  of  a  primary  school,  whose  maintenance  is 
obligatory ;  the  administration  of  the  recently-founded  communal  rural 
banks  ;  the  equal  distribution  of  the  military  recruits  from  among  families  ; 
in  one  word,  everything  concerning  the  internal  administration  and  work- 
ing of  the  commune,  is  done  by  the  commune  itself.  The  commune  is 
responsible  to  the  treasury  foV  the  rent  levied  from  each  family  having  a 
separate  communal  household  ;  this  rent,  called  obrok,  generally,  through 
the  whole  of  Russia,  even  on  the  estates  of  serfs,  amounts  to  ten  roubles. 
The  commune  also  maintains  the  highways  and  roads  on  its  own  territory. 

The  crown  or  free  peasants,  whatever  may  be  the  nature  of  their  tenure, 
have  no  other  special  master  tlian  the  sovereign  or  the  government,  and 
never  can  have  another.  Once  the  czars  granted  to  individuals  vast  ter- 
ritories of  lands,  with  crown  peasants  or  serfs  on  them.  This  is  the  origin 
of  many  great  fortunes  in  Russia,  consisting  in  large  estates,  and  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  souls,  as  that  of  Scheremeteff,  Naryschkin,  the  Orloflfs,  and 
the  Branickis,  the  last  of  which  rose  out  of  the  ruins  of  ancient  Poland. 
Peter  the  Great  rewarded  real  services,  as  in  the  case  of  Scheremeteff; 
Catherine  II.  was  very  lavish  to  her  favorites  of  every  kind,  and  she  thus 
laid  the  foundations  of  numerous  large  fortunes  still  existing  in  Russia ; 
and  Paul  was  most  indiscriminate  in  bestowing  his  favors. 

For  the  glory  of  Alexander  it  must  be  recorded  that  in  his  youth,  when 
under  the  influence  of  a  generous  and  humane  inspiration,  he  published  a 
ukase  by  which  it  was  henceforth  and  for  ever  prohibited  to  any  sovereign 
to  make  donations  of  crown-peasants  to  any  private  individual  whatever, 
or  to  sell  them,  or  render  them  liable  to  any  statute  for  husbandry  servi- 
tude. The  emperor  Nicholas  to  his  death  religiously  maintained  this 
ukase.  Even  in  Poland,  since  the  revolution  of  1831,  the  emperor,  in 
dividing  the  numerous  estates  of  the  crown,  called  starostwa,  among  the 
Russian  generals  and  others  of  his  servants,  by  a  special  clause  in  every 
grant  directed  that  the  statute  labor  existing  until  that  time  should  ulti- 
mately become  extinguished,  and  the  peasant  on  such  lands  become  the 


THE  PEOPLE FREE  PEASANTS. 


523 


Russian  Peasant  and  his  Family. 


free  and  independent  owner  of  a  suitable  homestead.  It  must  be  men- 
tioned here  that,  in  the  actual  kingdom  of  Poland,  slavery  was  abolished 
by  the  late  king  of  Prussia  in  the  year  1800,  when  this  part  of  Poland 
formed  one  of  the  Prussian  provinces.  This  was  confirmed  by  the  code 
of  Napoleon,  introduced  after  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  in  1807,  and  is  still 
maintained.  But  neither  of  these  governments  secured  for  the  peasantry 
any  homestead  on  crown  or  private  lands. 

The  free  peasantry  in  Russia  enjoy  some  rights  and  privileges,  render- 
ing their  position  by  far  more  supportable  than  that  of  the  private  serfs. 
It  has  been  already  shown  that  a  free  peasant  can  freely  engage  in  any 
mercantile,  manufacturing,  mechanical,  or  other  industrial  pursuit,  and 
establish  his  domicil  in  any  city  of  the  empire,  if  he  possesses  a  permission 
of  his  commune,  which  permission  can  no  wise  be  refused  as  long  as  the 
individual  pays  the  ohrok  and  the  taxes  in  the  commune  to  which  he  be- 
longs, and  fulfils  through  any  hand  all  other  communal  duties.  Provided 
with  such  a  permission  or  certificate,  the  movements  and  actions  of  a  peas- 
ant are  perfectly  free.  He  can  make  proposals  for  all  kinds  of  public  jobs 
contracted  with  the  government.     In  such  cases,  other  contractors  are 


•'24  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

(>l>liged  to  give  securities  ;  but  a  crown-peasant  presents  only  the  authori- 
zation of  his  commune.  He  can  enter  into  the  class  of  burghers  by  aban- 
doning his  commune  with  its  consent,  passing  thus  into  what  is  considered 
a  higher  social  corporation. 

The  chains  of  serfdom  do  not  hang  on  him  ;  but  if  he  has  no  special  mas- 
ter, he,  like  the  burgher,  has  still  to  deal  with  rapacious  officials.  What 
is  true  of  the  one  is  still  and  even  more  largely  to  be  applied  to  the  other. 
Entering  the  superior  corporation,  the  peasant  can  meliorate  his  position ; 
but  this  melioration  is  very  limited.  All  openings  for  education  are  abso- 
lutely shut  before  him ;  all  that  he  can  learn  is  to  read  and  write  wretch- 
edly. If  there  are  exceptions,  they  are  very  rare,  and,  so  to  speak,  rather 
the  work  of  a  miracle. 

Free  agriculturists  (wolny'e  chlehopaschtsif)  are  principally  manumitted 
serfs,  with  soil  or  without ;  and,  in  this  last  case,  they  can  buy  land  from 
anybody.  The  manumissions  with  soil  must  be  made  by  the  owner  during 
his  lifetime,  and  not  by  will.  If  they  are  numerous  enough,  they  form 
rural  cominunes  on  the  general  principle ;  if  not,  they  are  incorporated  in 
the  existent  ones.  They  can  sell  and  buy  lands,  and  divide  them  among 
their  children,  but  in  lots  not  under  sixteen  acres.  They  can  contract  for 
public  jobs  Qpodriad'),  enter  guilds,  erect  manufactories,  carry  on  trade, 
and  enjoy  all  the  privileges  of  free  peasantry.  There  are  still  some  few 
other  kinds  of  privileged  peasantry,  but  their  number  is  small  and  wholly 
insignificant. 

As  previously  remarked,  about  one  half  of  the  Russian  peasantry  are 
serfs  or  bondsmen,  attached  to  the  soil  (^g-IebcB  adscripti),  rather  than  to 
the  person  of  the  nobleman,  and  thus  they  are  at  least  not  chattels.  The 
power  of  the  master  is  not  wholly  arbitrary  and  unlimited ;  but  the  servi- 
tude is  reduced  to  a  certain  method,  regulated  as  follows  by  the  civil  law : 

By  usage,  the  serfs  are  of  two  kinds  —  agriculturists  and  house-serfs  — 
but  the  law  does  not  recognise  these  distinctions.  A  ukase,  published  by 
Catherine  II.  in  1781,  prohibited,  for  the  future,  the  enslaving  of  the  peas- 
antry. The  ownership  of  a  serf  or  serfs  is  proved  by  the  census.  The 
first  census  was  made  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1714  ;  the  next  in  1744.  In 
the  present  century  the  census  is  made  every  ten  years.  In  the  government 
of  Bessarabia,  neither  Russian  nor  Moldavian  nobility  can  own  serfs  from 
among  the  Russian  peasantry,  and  other  races  can  not  be  enslaved.  This 
law  was  published  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  serfdom  in  a  newly  con- 
quered and  annexed  territory.  It  is  a  kind  of  "  Wilmot  proviso."  The 
children  of  a  male  serf  remain  in  the  condition  of  the  father,  even  if  the 
mother  belongs  to  a  better  class. 

If  any  nobleman  sends,  for  punishment,  his  serf  to  Siberia,  and  the  serf 
receives  there  lands  from  the  crown  as  a  colonist,  his  children,  the  males 
under  seven  years  of  age  and  the  girls  under  ten,  follow  the  father  to  the 
new  condition.  Colonized  exiles  in  Siberia  form  successively  communities 
of  free  peasantry. 


THE  PEOPLE  —  THE  SERFS.  525 

A  woman  from  a  free  class,  marryiiioj  a  serf,  becomes  free  again  as  a 
widow ;  a  woman  from  bondage,  marrying  a  free  peasant,  becomes  like- 
wise free.  When  the  husband  becomes  free  by  law,  or  by  manumission, 
or  by  contract,  his  wife  shares  his  freedom  ipso  facto,  hut  not  the  children  ; 
they  must  be  emancipated  by  a  special  act. 

If  a  master  demands  from  his  serfs  anything  contrary  to  law,  as  revolt, 
murder,  or  stealing,  and  they  accomplish  it,  they  are  punished  as  his  ac- 
complices. The  serfs  pay  the  expenses  of  the  administration  in  each  dis- 
trict. This  is  the  only  direct  tax  levied  on  the  property  of  the  nobility. 
In  criminal  matters,  the  serfs  are  judged  by  common  criminal  tribunals, 
before  whom  they  likewise  can  appear  in  the  character  of  accusers  and 
witnesses.  The  law  makes  it  obligatory  on  the  serf  to  resist  any  attack 
made  on  the  property  of  the  master,  as  well  as  upon  the  honor  of  his  wife 
and  daughter.  The  owner  can  not  force  his  serfs  to  marry  against  their 
will,  or  point  out  whom  they  shall  marry ;  this  provision  of  the  law  is 
very  generally  evaded.  If  a  serf  makes  an  unjust  complaint  against  his 
master,  or  if  he  dares  to  present  such  a  petition  to  the  emperor,  the  peti- 
tioner and  the  writer  of  the  petition  are  both  most  severely  punished. 

In  case  of  insubordination,  disobedience  to  the  master  or  the  overseer, 
tlie  serfs  are  punished  by  a  military  commission,  and  pay  the  expenses 
thereof.  All  civil  or  police  and  military  functionaries  are  prohibited  to 
receive  any  denunciation  made  by  the  serf  against  his  master,  with  the 
exception  of  a  conspiracy  against  the  person  of  the  sovereign ;  or  when 
the  master  tries  to  make  a  misstatement  as  to  the  census ;  or  when,  if  a 
Roman  catholic,  he  tries  to  convert  his  orthodox  serfs. 

A  serf  can  not  change  his  master,  leave  him,  or  enter  any  corporation. 
For  all  these  the  consent  of  the  owner  is  necessary.  Without  such  a  con- 
sent, serfs  can  not  be  received  as  volunteers  into  the  army.  Runaway 
serfs  are  returned  to  the  owners  at  the  cost  of  those  who  had  kept  or  se- 
creted them.  After  ten  years,  a  master  forfeits  the  right  to  claim  a  run- 
away. Such  claims,  supported  by  proofs,  must  be  made  during  the  first 
yeai  after  the  escape,  if  the  master  is  in  Russia,  and  in  the  course  of  two 
years  if  the  master  is  abroad.  If  a  servant  is  killed  by  accident,  his  owner 
receives  from  the  culprit  the  sum  of  three  hundred  and  thirty  dollars ;  but 
if  it  Ih  a  murder,  then  the  murderer  suffers  the  same  as  if  the  crime  was 
committed  on  any  one  else.  In  such  a  case^  the  owner  of  the  murdered 
man  does  not  receive  any  compensation. 

A  serf,  who  is  not  a  house-servant,  must  work  for  his  master  three  days 
a  week.  He  can  not  be  forced  to  do  any  work  on  Sundays  or  any  other 
church  and  parish  holydays,  or  on  the  day  of  the  patron-saints  of  the  reign- 
ing sovereigns.  The  master  can,  at  his  pleasure,  transform  the  house-serf 
(divorowoi^  into  a  soil-tiller,  and  vice  versa.  He  can  hire  his  serfs  to 
mechanics,  manufacturers,  and  to  any  other  labor  whatever.  He  is  the 
supreme  judge  in  all  civil  contests  between  his  serfs.  •  He  can  punish  them 
corporeally,  but  not  cripple  them,  or  put  life  in  jeopardy.     He  can  require 


526  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

the  assistance  of  the  government  for  the  coercion  of  his  serfs.  In  case  of 
a  criminal  offence,  the  master  must  abstain  from  any  punishment,  but  de- 
liver the  oifender  to  the  law.  He  can  send  serfs  to  Siberia  or  to  any  other 
penitentiary  establishment. 

No  serf  can  live  in  any  city,  or  serve  any  person  whatever,  without  the 
consent  of  the  master,  and  the  authorities  are  to  see  that  this  provision  be 
not  transgressed — and  are  severely  responsible.  The  master  gives  to  the 
serf  a.  passport,  and,  furnished  with  this,  he  can  move  freely  in  the  whole 
empire.  The  master  has  the  power  to  transfer  the  serfs  individually  or 
by  whole  communities  from  one  village,  district,  or  circle,  into  another. 
Any  nobleman  owning  serfs  of  any  kind  must  have  for  every  one  at  least 
twenty  acres  of  land.  Only  a  nobleman  can  receive  a  power  of  attorney 
for  the  buying  or  selling  of  serfs.  The  master  can  not  hire  his  serfs  to 
individuals  whom  the  law  prohibits  to  own  serfs,  nor  let  them  learn  any 
profession  anywhere  else  than  from  masters  inscribed  in  a  guild.  Serfs, 
either  servants  or  agriculturists,  held  by  those  who  have  no  right  to  own 
them,  become  free ;  that  is,  they  become  incorporated  into  the  free  crown- 
peasantry,  and  the  unlawful  owners  pay  a  fine  into  the  treasury. 

Families  can  not  be  separated  by  sale.  The  family  consists  of  the  pa- 
rents and  the  unmarried  children,  even  if  of  age.  The  children  form  a 
family  after  the  death  of  the  parents.  Serfs  can  not  be  brought  to  market, 
but  are  to  be  sold  only  together  with  the  estate.  If  sold  separately,  the 
crown  takes  them  as  its  peasants,  and  the  transgressors  of  the  law  are 
fined.  Serfs  acquiring  their  liberty  in  such  a  way  can  make  the  choice  of 
a  mode  of  life,  and  of  a  corporation  into  which  they  will  become  inscribed. 

In  cases  of  scarcity  or  famine,  the  owner  can  not  send  away  his  serfs, 
but  is  obliged  to  take  care  of  them.  He  is  likewise  obliged  to  take  care 
of  the  aged  and  the  invalids. 

If  there  be  any  abuse  of  power  by  the  master,  any  cruelty  or  rape,  the 
law  takes  from  the  owner  the  administration  of  the  estate,  and  puts  it  in 
the  hands  of  guardians,  or  of  a  board  selected  for  this  purpose  in  each  dis- 
trict from  among  the  nobility.  Such  masters  can  not  acquire  new  estates 
by  purchase,  and  in  aggravated  cases  can  be  given  up  to  the  criminal 
courts.  For  this  the  special  decision  of  the  sovereign  is  required.  Like- 
wise the  owners  can  not  live  on  the  estates  whose  administration  is  thus 
taken  out  of  their  hands.  The  villages  or  estates  are  responsible  for  gov- 
ernmental taxes.  If  a  serf  has  a  lawsuit,  his  master  must  prosecute  it ; 
and  the  master  is  answerable  for  the  results  whenever  the  serf  has  had  his 
permission  to  enter  into  a  civil  liability.  In  criminal  matters  concerning 
a  serf,  the  interference  of  the  master  is  optional. 

Serfs  can  not  be  sold  separate  from  the  soil,  or  at  any  public  auction  in 
execution  of  the  debts  of  the  master.  If  one  or  more  serfs  sue,  on  legal 
grounds,  their  master  for  emancipation,  having  been  brought  into  serfdom 
contrary  to  the  provisions  of  the  law  —  while  the  legal  proceedings  are 
pending,  the  master  can  not  inflict  on  them  any  corporeal  punishment  under 


THE  PEOPLE  —  THE  SERFS.  627 

tlie  penalty  of  a  criminal  prosecution ;  nor  can  he  mortgage  or  let  them 
out  by  lease ;  and  if  the  first  court  decide  in  their  favor,  and  the  affair 
goes  to  the  court  of  appeal,  the  master  can  not  give  them  to  the  military 
service  pending  the  final  decision. 

Serfs  carrying  on  a  legal  trade,  with  the  consent  of  the  master,  can  not 
be  given  up  by  him  as  recruits,  or  for  the  colonization  of  Siberia.  Serfs 
can  not  own  immoveable  property  ;  all  houses  and  lands  possessed  by  them 
are  the  property  of  the  master.  Should  a  serf  inherit  such  property,  it 
must  be  sold,  and  the  money  handed  over  to  him.  Serfs  erecting  shops 
and  manufactories,  must  have  a  special  permission  of  the  master,  likewise 
for  entering  the  guild  of  artisans,  and  for  selling  the  produce  of  their  in- 
dustry in  cities  and  markets.  For  taking  public  jobs  {podriad),  or  keeping 
j)Ost-horses  on  public  roads,  they  must  have  the  consent  and  the  guaranty 
of  the  master. 

The  serf  can  lend  out  money  on  legal  terms,  but  not  take  mortgages  on 
land  in  villages  or  estates.  Only  with  the  consent  of  the  master  can  they 
buy  on  credit  goods  for  traffic  —  otherwise  they  can  not  be  prosecuted,  and 
any  bargain  or  stipulation  is  void  by  itself. 

The  master  has  the  right  to  manumit  his  serfs  individually,  or  by  whole 
hamlets  and  villages,  with  or  without  giving  them  lands.  A  permission 
given  by  the  master  to  his  serf  to  marry  a  girl  who  is  a  pupil  and  educated 
in  a  public  establishment  for  the  children  of  burghers,  is  equivalent  to 
manumission.  A  manumitted  serf  can  not  be  brought  again  into  serfdom. 
A  serf  can  obtain  his  liberty  by  a  legal  juridical  decision  :  1.  If  he  proves 
an  antecedent  right  to  liberty.  2.  If  his  master  does  not  belong  to  any 
Christian  confession.  3.  If  the  master  has  made  a  forcible  attack  on  the 
virtue  of  his  wife  or  daughter,  or  committed  any  other  impropriety.  4.  If 
the  serf  was  made  a  prisoner  by  the  enemy  and  carried  beyond  the  fron- 
tiers of  the  empire  —  on  returning,  he  does  not  return  into  serfdom.  5.  If 
by  the  master  he  is  given  up  to  the  disposition  of  the  government.  The 
serf  obtains  his  liberty  if  he  proves  against  his  master  the  crime  of  treason, 
or  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of  the  sovereign.  A  serf  condemned  legally 
to  exile  to  Siberia  ceases  to  be  owned  by  the  master ;  his  wife,  following 
him  into  exile,  becomes  free.  A  serf  also  becomes  free  if  sold  without 
lands,  or  if  the  buyer  does  not  possess  the  quantity  of  land  required  by 
law,  or  if  his  family  is  separated  from  him  by  sale. 

These  are  the  principal  features  of  the  legal  organization  of  serfdom. 
As  before  remarked,  part  of  the  serfs  are  agriculturists,  called  pachatnaia 
duscha;  the  others  house-serfs,  or  dworowdia.  The  agricultural  serfs  are 
settled  in  hamlets  and  villages,  till  their  own  soil  and  that  of  the  manor- 
farm,  fulfilling  there  all  the  labors  of  husbandry.  In  more  populous  vil- 
lages, and  above  all  in  large  estates,  they  are  organized  in  communes  on 
nearly  the  same  principles  as  are  the  free  peasants.  But  such  an  organi- 
zation depends  absolutely  upon  the  will  of  the  owner.  It  is  mostly  thf) 
case,  where  the  arable  land  is  not  extensive  enough,  or  for  some  other 


528  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

reason  is  wholly  abandoned  to  the  peasants,  and  they  pay  for  its  use  to  the 
landlord  a  redevance  or  obrok,  and  in  such  case  they  are  called  ohrotschnye 
duscliy  (renting  souls)  ;  or  the  master  receives  from  his  farm-lands  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  the  produce  of  the  soil :  but  all  such  arrangements  depend 
absolutely  upon  the  master. 

The  house-serfs  live  on  the  manor  and  its  immediate  dependencies  :  they 
are  often  very  numerous,  and  thus  a  heavy  burden  to  the  owner,  sometimes 
even  his  ruin.  They  generally  refuse  to  be  settled  as  agriculturists,  look- 
ing upon  it  as  altogether  below  their  condition.  They  constitute  the  male 
and  female  servants  of  the  household,  stewards,  private  overseers,  house- 
hold artisans,  mechanics,  and  workmen  —  sometimes  even  personal  attor- 
neys when  by  choice  or  whim  the  master  has  given  to  such  one  a  suitable 
education.  Generally  the  master  takes  care  to  make  the  males  learn  some 
handicraft ;  and  when  they  are  able  to  earn  their  living,  he  gives  them  a 
permission  or  passport,  and  they  go  over  the  country  in  search  of  suitable 
employment.  They,  as  well  as  all  other  serfs  who  are  furnished  with  such 
a  passport,  can  be  called  home  by  the  master  at  any  time.  These  wander- 
ing serfs  are  obliged  to  report  to  him  their  whereabouts ;  and  they  pay 
him  a  rent  proportioned  to  their  earnings,  or  the  cost  of  their  education. 
Others  establish  themselves  as  tradesmen,  &c.  The  serfs  compose,  to  a 
great  extent,  the  floating  population  of  cities.  In  the  largest  of  them,  as 
St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Nijnei-Novgorod,  &c.,  serfs  can  be  found  who  are 
wealthy  tradesmen.  The  obrok  paid  by  them  to  their  owner  is  generally 
the  customary  one,  and  at  a  rate  not  at  all  proi)ortioned  to  their  fortune. 
But  they  are  completely  dependent  on  the  Avill  of  the  master,  Avho  can 
recall  and  transplant  them  to  any  of  his  villages  and  hamlets.  There  are 
cases  where  masters  are  comparatively,  nay,  even  positively  poorer  than 
their  serfs,  and  still  refuse  to  sell  them  their  liberty,  even  for  a  large  sum. 
Such  a  refusal  is  generally  the  result  of  an  inveterate  pride,  and  of  a  repul- 
sive feeling  concerning  emancipation. 

To  a  certain  degree,  the  law  watches,  in  a  more  or  less  tutelary  manner, 
over  the  fate  of  the  serfs.  Its  provisions  have  been  enumerated.  But 
abuse,  or  evasion  of  the  law,  can  not  be  prevented.  Its  handling,  its  exe- 
cution, as  well  as  the  framing  of  public  opinion,  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
nobility.  Only  very  tyrannical  abuses  of  power  come  to  daylight.  They 
are  corrected  either  by  the  law,  or  by  the  interference  of  the  sovereign,  or, 
in  the  last  and  supreme  appeal,  by  the  sufferers  themselves.  The  owners 
of  large  estates  do  not  live  on  them,  and  sometimes  do  not  visit  many  of 
them  at  all.  The  task  of  ruling  the  serfs  is  given  up  totally  to  overseers, 
who  are  generally  severe  enough,  whatever  may  be  their  nationality,  Ger- 
man or  native.  The  small  nobility  commonly  want  more  than  their  fortune 
yields,  and,  to  get  it,  squeeze  as  much  as  possible  the  laboring  serf;  and, 
without  being  inhuman,  they  will  not  sacrifice  their  own  well-being  to  that 
of  the  peasantry. 

In  large  estates — the  prescriptions  of  the  law  to  the  contrary  notwith- 


THE  PEOPLE — THE   PEASANTRY. 


529 


.standing — the  marriages  of  the  serfs  are  always  made  with  the  interference 
of  the  master  or  the  overseer,  but  on  such  estates  the  choice  of  the  serf  isi 
generally  regarded.  As  the  wife  follows  the  husband,  a  maiden  is  seldom 
taken  from  a  neighboring  estate,  except  where  the  bridegroom  is  rich 
enough  to  buy  his  bride.  In  smaller  estates,  where  the  choice  is  more  lim- 
ited, generally  after  the  field-labors  are  over,  in  the  fall  season,  the  master 
calls  the  families  together  and  inquires  about  their  mutual  inclinations, 
pays  attention  to  them,  and  endeavors  to  arrange  things  by  mutual  agree- 
ment; but  when  all  is  of  no  avail,  then  he  decides  arbitrarily  —  points  out 
the  pairs,  and  then  the  ceremony  is  fulfilled  by  the  parish-priest. 

Previously  to  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great,  it  was  customary  for  the 
"Russians,  of  all  ranks,  to  marry  their  children  very  early,  even  before  the 
age  of  puberty.  Though  restrained  by  Peter  and  Catherine  II.,  this  cus- 
tom of  early  marriage  still  prevails,  and  is  said  to  be  fraught  with  many 
pernicious  consequences.  A  ukase,  issued  in  1801,  prohibits  priests  from 
solemnizing  marriages  unless  the  man  be  eighteen  and  the  woman  sixteen 
years  old. 

The  Russian  peasants  generally  are  of  a  sound  constitution,  stout  and 
firmly  built,  and  mostly  of  a  middle  stature.  They  live  in  cottages,  formed 
of  logs  piled  upon  each  other,  and  built  singly  or  together  in  villages,  the 


Russian  Prasa.ntk  uuilulng  a  Cottagb 

34 


6S0  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

gables  to  the  road.  Sometimes  they  consist  of  two  stories,  but  more  fre- 
quently only  of  one.  They  are  heated  with  stoves,  and,  though  dirty,  arc 
not  uncomfortable  nor  ill  suited  to  the  climate.  Their  furniture  consists 
generally  of  wooden  articles,  and  a  pan  or  two.  Beds  are  little  used,  the 
family  generally  sleeping  on  the  ground,  on  benches,  or  on  the  stove. 

The  dress  of  the  peasant  consists  of  a  long,  coarse  drugget  coat,  fastene<l 
by  a  belt  round  the  waist,  but  in  winter  they  wear  a  sheepskin  with  the 
woolly  side  inward.  Their  trousers  are  of  coarse  linen  ;  instead  of  stock- 
ings (when  not  barefoot),  woollen  cloth  is  wrapped  round  the  legs, and  shoes 
of  matted  linden-bark  are  frequently  substituted  for  those  of  leather.  The 
neck,  even  in  winter,  is  bare  (a  fact  which,  according  to  a  French  travel- 
ler, is  a  decisive  criterion  by  Avhich  to  distinguish  the  genuine  Russian), 
find  the  head  is  covered  by  a  peaked  round  hat  or  cap. 

The  Russian  peasant  considers  himself  well  fed  if  he  liave  rye-bread, 
which  is  the  staple  article  of  food  throughout  the  empire,  and  sour-cabbage 
soup,  with  a  lump  of  fat,  or  hog's  lard,  boiled  in  it,  by  way  of  relish.  He 
uses  butcliers'  meat  on  holydays,  and  at  other  times  eggs,  salt  fish,  bacon, 
lard,  and  mushrooms,  which,  at  the  proper  season,  are  extremely  abundant, 
onions,  &c.  His  favorite  dish  is  a  hodge-podge  of  salt  or  fresh  meat, 
groats,  and  rye-flour,  highly  seasoned  with  onions  and  garlic.  Salted 
cucumbers  are  a  constant  dish  at  the  peasant's  table  all  the  year  round. 
These  and  salted  cabbages  form  an  important  article  of  national  commerce. 
They  are  brought  in  large  vats  from  the  southern  provinces,  where  the 
climate  favors  their  production,  to  Moscow,  St.  Petersburg,  and  other 
large  towus,  and  here  they  are  constantly  on  sale  in  the  public  markets ; 
the  preparation,  in  autumn,  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  these  pickled  vegeta- 
bles forming,  in  every  family,  an  important  part  of  domestic  economy. 
This  dependence  of  the  Russian  peasant  on  vegetable  diet  is,  no  doubt,  a 
consequence  of  the  extraordinary  number  of  fasts  and  fast-days,  of  which 
he  is  a  careful  observer,  and  which  are  multiplied  to  such  an  absurd  ex- 
treme, that  it  is  said  there  are  only  from  sixty  to  seventy  days  in  the  year 
on  which  it  is  permitted  to  use  butchers'  meat !  Qvas,  a  fermented  liquor, 
made  by  pouring  boiling  water  on  rye  or  barley  meal,  is  the  common  bev- 
erage of  the  peasant.  But  he  is  also  very  fond  of  mead,  and  still  more  so 
of  brandy  distilled  from  grain,  and  other  spirituous  liquors.  The  consunjp- 
<ion  of  the  latter  is  immense,  amounting  to  about  one  hundred  millions  of 
gallons  a  year,  and  furnishing  annually,  as  before  remarked,  a  large  reve- 
nue to  the  government.  The  use  of  tea,  however,  is  becoming  more  and 
more  extended.  A  substitute  for  it,  called  izbitzen,  consisting  of  herbs, 
honey,  &c.,  boiled  together,  is  also  extensively  used  by  the  peasantry. 

The  peasants  are  exceedingly  superstitious.  A  vessel  of  "  holy  water" 
hangs  from  the  ceiling  of  every  room,  and  a  lamp  lighted  on  particular 
occasions.  Every  house  is  provided  with  a  sacred  corner,  supplied  with 
one  or  more  pictures  of  their  tutelary  saints,  coarsely  daubed  on  woo;', 
frequently  resembling  rather  a  Calmiick  idol  than  a  human  head  ;  but  some 


THE  PEOPLE  —  THE  PEASANTRY — BATHS.  531 

times  tlicy  are  of  a  better  quality,  and  neatly  framed.  To  these  they  pay 
the  highest  marks  of  veneration.  All  the  members  of  the  family,  the  mo- 
ment they  rise  in  the  morning,  and  before  they  retire  to  sleep  in  the  even- 
ing, never  omit  their  adoration  to  the  saints :  they  cross  themselves  during 
several  minutes,  upon  the  sides  and  forehead,  bow  very  low,  and  sometimes 
even  prostrate  themselves  on  the  ground.  Every  person,  also,  on  entering 
the  room,  pays  his  obeisance  to  these  objects  before  addressing  the  family. 

The  Russian  peasantry  have  the  vices  incident  to  their  situation.  With 
a  i^reat  capacity  of  endurance,  and  the  most  extraordinary  talent  for  in- 
struction, they  have  but  little  active  vigor  or  steadiness  of  purpose.  In 
accosting  a  person  of  consequence,  or  from  whom  they  expect  any  favor  or 
advantage,  they  prostrate  themselves,  touch  the  ground  with  their  hands, 
and  kiss  the  fringe  of  his  garments !  Their  insecure  position  makes  them 
anxious  to  enjoy  the  present  moment ;  and  their  masters  being  obliged  to 
provide  for  their  support  when  they  are  old  and  infirm,  they  have  little 
motive  to  providence  or  forethought.  When  they  accumulate  money,  they 
most  frequently  bury  it  in  the  ground  —  a  practice  common  to  all  countries 
where  property  is  comparatively  insecure. 

The  use  of  the  vapor-bath  is  universal  in  Russia,  not  being  reckoned  a 
luxury  but  a  necessary ;  and  public  baths  are  met  with  in  all  parts  of  the 
(country.  They  ai-e  resorted  to  by  the  peasantry,  at  least,  once  a  week. 
In  St.  Petersburg,  the  baths  for  the  lower  orders,  which  are  in  the  suburbs, 
are  very  numerous,  and  the  happiest  account  of  them  is  that  given  by  Kohl, 
the  most  accurate  and  the  best  descriptive  writer  upon  Russian  life.  He 
thus  remarks :  "  On  Saturday  evening  an  unusual  movement  may  be  seen 
among  the  lower  classes  in  the  capital.  Companies  of  poor  soldiers  who 
have  got  a  temporary  furlough,  troops  of  mechanics  and  laborers,  whole 
families  of  men,  women,  and  children,  are  seen  eagerly  traversing  the 
streets,  with  towels  under  their  arms,  and  birch-twigs  in  their  hands,  .  .  . 
They  are  going  to  the  public  baths,  to  forget,  in  the  enjoyment  of  its 
vapors,  the  sufi'erings  of  the  past  week  ;  to  make  supple  the  limbs  stiffened 
with  past  toil,  and  invigorate  them  for  that  which  is  to  come.  Before  the 
door,  the  words  '  Entrance  to  the  baths,'  in  large  letters,  attract  the  eye, 
and  invite  the  body  to  enter.  Within  the  doorway,  so  narrow  that  only 
one  at  a  time  can  work  his  way  in,  sits  the  money-taker,  who  exchanges 
the  ticket  for  the  bath  for  a  few  copecks,  and  has  generally  a  whole  sack- 
ful of  large  copper  coins  by  his  side.  Near  him  are  a  couple  of  women, 
selling  '■  schnaps  and  kalatshif  while  the  people  are  thronging  in  and  out 
as  at  a  theatre.  We  first  enter  an  open  space,  in  which  a  number  of  men 
are  sitting  in  a  state  of  nudity  on  benches,  all  dripping  with  water  and 
perspiration,  and  as  red  as  lobsters,  breathing  deep,  sighing,  puffing,  and 
gossiping,  and  busily  employed  in  drying  and  dressing  themselves.  These 
have  already  bathed,  and  now,  in  a  glow  of  pleasurable  excitement,  are 
puffing  and  blowing  like  tritons  in  tlio  sea.  Even  in  the  winter  I  have 
seen  these  people  drying  and  dressing  in  the  open  air,  or,  at  most,  in  u 


532  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

sort  of  booth  forming  an  outhouse  to  the  baths.  Round  it  are  the  doors 
leading  to  the  bathing-rooms,  large  wooden  apartments,  in  which  a  heat 
of  forty  to  fifty  degrees  of  Reaumur  [one  hundred  and  twenty-two  to  one 
one  hundred  and  forty-five  of  Fahrenheit]  is  maintained.  A  thick  cloud 
of  vapor  conceals  at  first  what  is  going  on  within  ;  for  nothing  is  at  first 
visible  but  the  feeble  glimmer  of  the  lamps  breaking  through  a  thick  atmo- 
sphere, and  the  flame  of  the  heated  ovens.  To  remain  here  clothed  is  evi- 
dently impossible  ;  neither  would  it  be  advisable  for  a  well-dressed  person 
to  risk  an  appearance  here  as  a  mere  spectator.  I  entered,  therefore,  in 
a  state  of  nature,  in  which  we  are  as  much  alike  as  one  egg  is  like  another. 
In  any  other  costume  the  naked  people  would  infallibly  have  ejected  me 
speedily.  Under  this  disguise  I  pursued  my  observations  unmolested,  the 
bath  being  by  no  means  my  object." 

There  are  three  platforms,  one  above  another,  in  these  baths,  and  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheatre,  similar  to  those  in  the  concamerata  sudatio  of  the 
Roman  baths,  as  shown  in  the  paintings  found  in  the  baths  of  Titus.  These 
steps  are  of  different  degrees  of  heat,  and  on  them  the  bathers  lie  gener- 
ally on  their  backs  or  stomachs,  while  the  attendants  are  employed  in 
scourging  them  with  birchen  rods  steeped  in  cold  water ;  and  here  and 
there  may  be  seen  a  papa  holding  his  little  boy  between  his  knees,  dili- 
gently occupied  in  improving  the  circulation  of  his  rear ;  others  stand  near 
the  glowing  stoves,  as  if  to  increase  the  perspiration,  which  already  runs 
at  every  pore ;  and  others,  again,  descending  from  the  upper  platforms, 
have  iced  water  poured  over  them  by  pailfuls. 

In  the  provinces,  the  baths  are  very  indifferently,  not  to  say  badly  con- 
ducted :  there  is  no  hot  linen,  and  the  temperature  of  them  is  very  irregu- 
larly kept  up  by  throwing  cold  water  on  large  stones  heated  in  an  oven. 
At  St.  Petersburg  they  make  use  of  cannon-shot.  Excessive  use  of  the 
bath  injures  the  complexions  of  the  Russian  women ;  and  it  is  said  some 
ladies  become  so  habituated  to  the  leafy  branches  of  the  birch,  that,  by 
way  of  exciting  a  skin  thickened  by  years  of  flagellation,  they  make  their 
attendants  flog  them  with  bunches  of  nettles ! 


RELIGION  —  THE   GREEK   CHURCH. 


633 


CHAPTER   XX, 


RELIGION  —  THE    GREEK    CHURCH. 

X)ST  religions  to  be  found  in  the  ancient 
continent  have  their  adherents  in 
Russia.  A  considerable  portion  of 
the  less  civilized  tribes  continue, 
more  or  less,  addicted  to  their  hea- 
then superstitions  ;  the  Jews  in  all 
parts  of  the  country,  except  the 
centre,  from  which  they  are  spe- 
cially excluded,  have  their  syna- 
gogues, and  freely  perform  their 
religious  rites  ;  Lutheranism  is  pro- 
fessed by  the  great  body  of  Ger- 
mans and  Swedes ;  and  the  Roman 
catholics  form  a  large  majority  of 
the  people  of  Poland.  These,  how- 
ever, are  only  important  deductions 
to  be  made  from  the  almost  univer- 
sal ascendency  of  the  Byzantine  or 
Greek  Church,  which  possesses 
numerous  important  privileges  as 
the  religion  of  the  state,  and  is 
strong  in  the  affections  of  the  great  body  of  the  people,  who  give  a  very 
implicit  if  not  enlightened  assent  to  all  its  dogmas,  and  not  only  willingly 
perform,  but  appear  to  take  wonderful  delight  in  performing,  its  various 
minute  and  too  often  superstitious  and  even  ridiculous  ceremonies.  In  its 
general  toleration  of  all  other  sects,  it  contrasts  favorably  with  the  western 
or  Roman  catholic  church ;  though  it  lays  itself  open  to  the  charge  of  in- 
tolerance toward  its  own  members,  by  refusing  to  allow  them,  under  any 
circumstances,  to  quit  its  communion :  and  when  a  marriage  takes  place 
between  one  of  its  members  and  a  person  belonging  to  another  church,  the 
children  must  all  be  educated  according  to  the  tenets  of  the  established 
or  national  faith. 

The  Greek  church  strongly  resembles  the  Roman  or  Western  catholic 
church  in  doctrine,  but  differs  essentially  from  it  in  government  and  disci- 


/?jif£yn.sc 


Monk  ok  the  Greek  Chubch. 


534  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

pline.  In  the  early  ag-es  of  Cliristianity  they  formed  but  a  single  church , 
but  a  schism  arose  between  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  and  tlie  bishop 
or  pope  of  Rome,  a  schism  which  had  its  ostensible  origin  in  a  few  words' 
difference  of  creed  ;  but  it  really  arose  from  notliing  but  the  ambition  for 
supremacy  of  the  two  catholic  prelates.  The  Roman  bishop  wished  to 
keep  the  clergy  unmarried,  and  proclaimed,  in  his  confession  of  faith,  the 
credo  that  the  Son  proceeds  from  the  Father,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  from 
the  Father  and  the  Son,  and  is  equal  with  them.  The  Greeks  of  the  East 
maintained,  on  the  contrary,  that  tlie  Holy  Scriptures  do  not  forbid  priests 
to  marry  ;  that  communion  should  be  in  two  kinds,  and  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  does  not  proceed  from  the  Son,  but  the  Father  only,  and  is  equal  to 
them.  This  was  the  commencement  of  the  religious  quarrel  which  brought 
about  the  separation  and  division  of  the  Christian  church.  It  was  the 
policy  of  the  monarchs  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation,  if  practicable,  and 
councils  were  called  in  which  the  rival  pretensions  of  the  two  bishops  were 
warmly  and  earnestly  debated  ;  the  diflerence,  instead  of  being  healed,  be- 
came envenomed,  and  the  church  was  separated  into  two  denominations, 
the  Eastern  or  Greek,  and  the  Western  or  Latin  church,  each  claiming  to 
be  the  orthodox  and  catholic  church. 

The  Slavons  embraced  the  Christian  religion  of  the  Greek  rite,  and  the 
bishops  of  Constantinople  accorded  them  permission  to  say  mass  in  the 
Slavonic  language ;  but  the  Roman  bishops  interfered,  and,  by  the  ascen- 
dency of  the  Benedictines,  imposed  the  Latin  rite  and  communion. 

Angry  dissensions  and  bloody  persecutions  arose  from  these  events  ;  but. 
we  will  pass  them  over,  and  turn  to  the  annals  of  the  centuries  immediately 
following.  The  pope  of  Rome,  seeing  several  Slavic  tribes  thus  with- 
drawing themselves  from  under  his  authority — among  them  the  Armenians 
and  others — tempered  and  modified  his  anathemas,  and  allowed  the  Greeks 
of  Poland  to  make  the  double  communion.  Moreover,  he  dropped  the 
catholic  formula  of  the  credo,  permitted  them  to  say  mass  in  their  native 
tongue,  and  finally  conceded  to  all  their  priests,  excepting  the  bishops,  the 
right  of  getting  married.  The  Armenians  likewise  obtained  these  advan- 
tages ;  and  the  concessions  thus  granted  form  another  and  striking  instance 
of  a  schism  approved  of,  or  at  least  countenanced,  by  the  pope. 

The  church  of  Constantinople  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Russian  church, 
principally  by  the  action  of  the  Byzantine  emperors  and  their  daughters, 
who,  by  marrying  the  savage  Ros  (as  the  Russians  were  called  by  the 
Byzantine  historians),  tried  to  soften  their  dangerous  neighbors.  Gene- 
rally, it  was  through  the  women  that  Christianity  was  introduced,  and 
spread  among  the  northern  races.  Being  a  daughter  of  Byzantium,  the 
Russian  church  very  naturally  held  under  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
and  was  at  that  early  period  wholly  independent  of  any  action  or  inter- 
ference of  the  civil  power  of  Russia  or  of  the  power  of  the  Grand  Dukes. 
After  the  fall  of  Constantinople  into  Turkish  hands,  one  of  the  patriarchs 
tied  to  Moscow,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  thus  a  patriarchate  was 


fiELIGION THE   GREEK    CHURCH. 


535 


Philabete,  Metropolitan  m    .•^t.  Petersbuegh. 

csftablished  there.  From  tliis  epoch,  the  Russian  church,  sheltered  by  t!u^ 
national  independence,  has  looked  on  herself  as  being  at  the  head  of  the 
eastern  religious  family.  The  patriarchs  of  Moscow  long  continued  to 
preserve  the  independence  of  the  church  from  the  encroachments  of  tlie. 
civil  power,  not,  however,  without  serious  collisions  with  some  of  the 
czars,  and  especially  with  Ivan  the  Terrible  {Grozno'i'),  who  even  im- 
prisoned and  nearly  put  to  death  a  patriarch. 

After  the  death  of  a  patriarch,  Peter  the  Great  entirely  abolished  the 
whole  institution,  allowing  no  new  election  to  be  made  ;  and  thus  assumed 


536  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

a  part  of  the  power  for  himself  and  his  successors.  He  instituted  a  board, 
under  the  name  of  the  sacred  or  holy  synod,  formed  of  metropolitans,  arcli- 
bishops,  bishops,  and  some  lower  members  of  the  hierarchy,  and  appointed 
this  synod  to  attend  to  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  every  kind.  The  decisions 
of  this  body,  in  spiritual  matters,  are  understood  to  be  wholly  independent 
of  the  influence  of  the  emperor.  As  to  the  administration,  the  power  of 
the  sovereign  is  supreme.  In  the  synod,  it  is  represented  by  the  procurer, 
or  imperial  attorney,  directing  the  deliberations  and  the  administrative 
labors  of  the  synod.  The  emperor  nominates  the  hierarchy,  and  the  synod 
gives  them  consecration.  Peter  the  Great,  and  finally  Catherine  II.,  took 
away  from  the  clergy  and  the  monasteries  all  their  property,  which  was 
very  large.     The  whole  hierarchy  is  now  supported  by  the  government. 

The  religious  spirit  of  the  Greek  church  is  perhaps  more  formal  and  less 
devout  than  that  of  sincere  and  believing  Romanism  or  protestantism,  and 
that  pliilanthropic  piety  which  is  illustrated  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  for 
example,  has  no  counterpart  among  the  Oriental  catholics.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  during  the  primitive  ages,  the  church  developed  itself  principally 
through  the  Greek  mind,  and  on  the  basis  of  the  Greek  philosophy  there 
prevails  in  it  a  tendency  to  subtile  speculation  and  investigation.  In  the 
bosom  of  Greek  Catholicism  the  so-called  heresies  of  early  times,  such  as 
Pelagianism  and  Arianism,  had  their  origin.  The  sect  of  Iconoclasts 
existed  in  Constantinople  until  the  fall  of  the  Byzantinian  empire,  and  still 
has  followers  in  Greece  and  Russia.  Under  the  Turkish  dominion  the 
spirit  of  sectarian  disunion  has  been  checked  in  the  East.  In  Russia  vari- 
ous sects  have  sprung  up,  mainly  since  the  fourteenth  century.  As  the 
free  reading  of  the  Bible  by  the  laity  forms  one  of  the  fundamental  usages 
of  the  Eastern  church,  dissensions  have  naturally  taken  place.  Thus  origi- 
nated the  denomination  of  Roskolniks,  who  admit  no  higher  rank  in  tlie 
clergy  tlian  that  of  parish  priest ;  the  Duchobortsy,  who  do  not  believe  in 
the  trinity,  and  i^eject  baptism ;  otliers,  again,  who  do  not  recognise  any 
clergy  at  all,  and  have  no  churches ;  and  others  who  emasculate  them- 
selves after  the  birth  of  the  first  or  second  child.  The  most  numerous 
sect  is  that  of  the  Starowiertsy,  who  do  not  admit  the  slightest  change  in 
the  external  forms  of  worship,  in  the  ornaments  of  the  churches,  in  the 
manner  of  sounding  the  church  bells,  and  in  other  particulars  equally 
minute. 

It  can  not  be  said,  however,  that  skepticism  in  any  decided  form  has  yet 
penetrated  into  the  Eastern  church.  Nor  has  this  church  ever  sought  to 
encroach  on  the  civil  power,  or  to  step  out  of  its  proper  sphere  in  the 
decision  of  social  or  political  questions.  Religiously,  its  creed  is  not 
exclusive ;  it  holds  that  whoever  is  baptized  in  the  name  of  Christ  will  be 
saved.  Justice  requires  us  to  add  that  stationary  and  lifeless  as  the  East- 
ern church  may  be  called,  it  has  never  in  all  its  history  used  its  power  and 
thrown  its  influence  against  civilization  and  its  discoveries.  The  Greek 
church  may  safely  boast  that  it  would  never  have  excommunicated  Gal- 


RELIGION  —  THE   GREEK   CHURCH.  537 

ileo,  nor  protested  against  the  theory  of  Copernicus,  nor  condemned  vac- 
cination, or  the  culture  of  the  potato.  If  much  may  be  said  against  it  in  a 
religious  point  of  view,  it  is  only  proper  to  adduce  here  what  is  so  decidedly 
to  its  credit. 

Tiie  external  manifestations  of  the  whole  Eastern  church  can  be  summed 
up  in  two  principal  characteristics :  an  unbounded  suspicion  and  even  ha- 
tred of  all  that  is  Roman  or  Latin,  and  an  indestructible  feeling  of  nation- 
ality. When  Pius  IX.  became  pope,  he  issued  an  encyclical  letter  appeal- 
ing to  the  Eastern  Christians  to  unite  with  Rome.  This  offer  raised  the 
wrath  of  the  Greeks  and  Slavons,  and  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople, 
Antioch,  and  Jerusalem,  violently  responded.  In  the  numerous  Slavic 
family  this  jealousy  of  Romanism  extends  toward  the  Poles,  the  Tschechs, 
and  the  lUyrians,  all  of  whom  are  looked  on  with  mistrust,  as  being  of  the 
Western  church.  Latinism  is  considered  by  the  great  mass  of  the  Slavons 
as  a  growth  strange  to  the  domestic  soil  and  of  mischievous  and  pestilen- 
tial influence.  This  national  feeling  in  the  Greek  church  has  for  centuries 
influenced  the  Greeks,  and  the  Slavons  south  of  the  Danube,  under  the 
Turkish  dominion ;  for  centuries  it  has  preserved  the  independence  of 
Russia,  and  contributed  to  raise  her  to  her  present  state. 

The  Eastern  church  difiers  from  the  Roman  in  making  the  Holy  Spirit 
proceed  from  the  Father  alone,  and  in  denying  purgatory,  for  which  it  does 
not  find  a  satisfactory  authority  in  the  bible.  It  admits  tlie  same  number 
of  sacraments  as  do  the  Roman,  but  holds  that  baptism  should  be  performed 
by  immersing  the  whole  body  three  times  in  water.  Confirmation  is  ad- 
ministered after  the  ceremony  of  baptism  by  any  priest,  and  not,  as  with 
the  Romans,  exclusively  by  the  bishops.  Transubstantiation  is  recognised 
in  the  administration  of  the  communion  as  well  as  in  the  sacrifice  of  the 
mass,  without,  however,  making  the  host  an  object  of  special  worship.  The 
communion  consists  in  partaking  of  both  bread  and  wine,  the  first  leavened, 
the  second  mixed  with  water.  Confession  is  obligatory  ;  but  it  may  be 
general,  or  special,  or  auricular,  as  the  penitent  chooses.  Extreme  unc- 
tion is  bestowed  not  only  on  tlie  dying,  but  when  desired,  on  persons  who 
are  ill  to  any  extent.  Predestination  is  not  admitted,  nor  the  transfer  of 
superabundant  merits  from  one  sinner  to  another,  nor  special  indulgences 
for  the  dead  or  living.  Though  this  church  raises  the  Virgin  above  angels, 
seraphim,  and  cherubim,  it  does  not  accord  to  her  the  same  prominent 
influence  in  heaven  as  do  the  Romans ;  though,  in  common  with  them,  it 
recognises  the  worship  of  saints,  relics,  and  holy  places.  It  abounds  in 
holy  days,  and  observes  and  prescribes  more  fasts  than  the  Roman  church. 

The  liturgy  and  ceremonies  claim  to  be  strictly  conformed  to  those  used 
in  the  earliest  times  of  Christianity.  The  mass  consists  in  the  offering  or 
sacrifice,  the  reading  of  the  gospel,  the  epistles,  the  recital  of  the  Lord's 
prayer,  the  Nicene  creed,  and  other  prayers  aloud  with  the  congregation, 
as  was  practised  by  Chrysostom  and  other  primitive  fathers.  Preaching  is 
considered  as  a  secondary  matter.     No  instrumental  music  whatever,  but 


538 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 


Bishop Costumes  of  the  Gkkek  Chukch Priest. 

only  choral  singing,  is  used  in  the  churches,  and  no  stools,  chairs,  or 
benches,  are  allowed.  Paintings  are  admitted,  but  no  sculptures  of  stone, 
metal,  or  wood.  The  professed  aim  is  to  adhere  exclusively  to  the  author- 
ity of  the  gospels,  and  to  the  traditions  transmitted  by  the  apostles  to  their 
successors.  Thus  the  authority  of  the  fathers  of  the  church  is  recognised 
so  far  as  it  is  confirmed  by  the  GEctmienic  councils. 

The  Russian  clergy  are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  "white"  or  secular 
clergy,  and  the  "  black"  or  cloistered  clergy.  The  appellations  are  derived 
from  their  respective  dresses,  the  one  being  clothed  from  head  to  foot  in 
black,  the  other  performing  divine  service  in  white  robes  adorned  witli 
gold.*  Of  the  cloistered  clergy,  or  monks,  the  Eastern  church  has  only 
one  order,  instituted  by  St.  Basil,  one  of  the  primitive  fathers  of  the  Q^^cu- 

"  AlthoMgli  the  name  of  the  white  clergy  is,  as  is  remarked  in  the  text,  derived  f'loni  the  color 
i)f  their  offioiiil  robes,  tlial  of  the  other  class  is  taken  from  their  monastic  or  ordinary  costume. 
While  officiating-  as  ministers  of  religion,  their  vestments,  in  both  form  and  color,  are  regulated  by 
the  character  of  the  service  in  which  they  are  erjgaged.  The  costumes  of  several  of  the  dignitaries 
ot  the  Greek  church  (including  that  of  a  bishop,  who  must  be  one  of  the  monastic  order)  in  their 
official  character  may  be  seen  in  the  engravings  given  above,  and  which,  we  may  as  well  say 
here,  en  passant,  are  from  designs  taken  from  life  by  Paul  Durand,  and  may  therefore  be  relied  on 
us   correct.     That  of  the   metropolitan  of  St.  Petersburg,  on   page  535,  was  also   drawn  from  life, 


RELIOION  —  THE   GREEK    CHURCH, 


539 


Deacon Costumes  of  the  Gbkek  Chuuch Sub-Deacon. 

menic  church.  From  among  the  white  clergy,  who  must  be  married,  the 
curates  are  taken,  as  are  the  other  ranks  of  the  hierarchy  below  the  rank 
of  bishop.  All  bishops  must  be  unmarried,  and  monks.  The  members  of 
the  white  clergy  must  be  married,  or  at  least  engaged,  before  receiving  the 
final  consecration  ;  but  they  can  not  marry  twice,  and  on  becoming  widow- 
ers are  obliged  to  enter  a  monastery.  Thus  a  priest  takes  most  devoted 
care  of  his  wife  to  the  utmost  of  his  means  and  power.  It  is  therefore  pro- 
verbial among  the  people,  to  be  as  happy  as  a  popadia,  or  the  wife  of  a 
pope,  which  is  the  title  of  a  priest,  and  is  derived  from  the  word  papa. 

The  white  or  married  clergy  form,  in  reality,  a  distinct  caste ;  the  male 
children  following,  generally,  the  condition  of  the  father.     This  is,  how 
ever,  the  result  of  usage  rather  than  of  law.     Nay,  they  even  intermarry 

by  Giiaurl.  The  white  clergy,  also,  though  oflRciating  in  white,  generally  wear  brown  or  some  darker 
color  as  their  ordinary  habit.  Kohl  remarks  that  many  as  are  the  risnilzi  (wardrobes)  of  the  Rus- 
sian churches  that  have  been  seen  by  travellers,  to  whom,  moreover,  the  popes  have  often  been 
goodnatured  enough  to  serve  as  clothes-horses,  it  would  yet  be  difficult  by  any  expenditure  of  words 
to  give  even  a  feeble  picture  of  a  priest  in  pontificalibis.  Such  things  must  be  left  to  the  painler. 
It  is  enough  to  say  that  the  enormous  mass  of  gold  at.d  silk  stuffs  of  various  kinds  which  the  Rum- 
sian  clergy,  like  the  catholic,  liave,  in  the  course  of  centuries,  laid  their  hands  on,  is  such,  that  the 
toilet  of  the  vainest  worldling  is  moderate  and  r.odest  in  comparison. 


540  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

among  themselves.  Thus  the  clergy  form  a  class  somewhere  between  the 
nobility,  the  bourgeoisie,  and  the  people — less  than  the  first,  and  superior 
to  the  two  others.  As  a  class,  the  clergy  can  not  enter  the  nobility  on  an 
equal  footing ;  and  that  very  few  marriages  between  them  take  place  is, 
perhaps,  principally  on  account  of  the  poverty  of  the  priests.  For  the 
children  of  the  clergy  to  enter  the  body  and  share  the  occupations  of  the 
burghers  would  be  looked  on  as  a  loss  of  caste.  Few,  therefore,  of  this 
class  enter  the  public  service,  civil  or  military ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  no 
nobleman  ever  takes  "  orders,"  with  exception  of  now  and  then  an  old 
military  veteran  retiring  to  monastic  life. 

The  code  of  law,  the  Swod  Zakonoff,  gives  the  following  definitions  of 
the  position  of  the  clergy  :  The  monasteries  and  convents  are  divided  into 
three  classes,  and  the  dignity  and  precedency  of  their  respective  abbots 
and  abbesses  accords  with  this  arrangement.  The  higher  clerical  hierar- 
chy, formed  from  the  monks,  consists  of  the  metropolitan,  the  archbishop, 
the  bishop,  the  igumen  or  abbe,  etc.  The  titles  of  the  white  hierarchy  are  : 
protopresbyter,  superdeans,  deans,  presbyters,  protodeacons,  deacons,  sub- 
deacons,  and  common  priest. 

Any  one  who  takes  monastic  orders  must  receive  the  permission  of  the 
>ynod.  The  men  must  be  thirty  years  of  age  —  women,  forty.  If  the  can- 
didates belong  to  the  taxed  class  —  that  is,  if  they  are  burghers,  peasants, 
Or  serfs  —  they  must  produce  a  permission  from  their  special  superior. 
Married  persons,  or  those  not  divorced,  can  not  take  orders  unless  both 
parties  do  it,  and  when  there  are  no  children  under  age.  One  can  leave 
the  order  by  permission  of  the  superiors,  and  return  to  the  social  class  to 
which  he  belonged  before.  For  seven  years,  however,  he  can  not  live  in 
the  country  where  he  was  a  monk,  nor  in  either  of  the  two  capitals.  Monks 
are  exempted  from  military  service,  from  the  capitation  tax,  and  from  cor- 
poreal punishment.     They  can  not  own  villages  of  serfs,  or  carry  on  trade. 

The  order  of  the  white  clergy  can  be  entered  by  any  one,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  serfs.  The  wives  and  children  of  the  clergy  enjoy  the  privileges 
of  this  class,  though  they  may  personally  belong  to  a  lower  order.  Thus 
the  children  of  priests,  with  few  exceptions,  are  not  obliged  to  look  for 
another  social  position.     They  are  exempt  from  military  service. 

A  priest  can  abandon  his  vocation  and  return  to  worldly  life  by  the  per- 
mission of  the  synod.  (A  Roman  catholic  priest  never  can.)  Such  a  one 
returns  to  the  social  class  to  which  he  previously  belonged,  but  he  can  not 
enter  the  public  service  until  ten  years  after  his  renunciation. 

In  all  religious  and  disciplinary  affairs  the  clergy  are  subject  to  and 
judged  by  their  own  hierarchy.  In  civil  matters  the  case  comes  before  the 
civil  court,  assisted  by  a  deputy  clergyman.  Deacons  and  common  priests 
are  not  liable  to  corporeal  punishment.  Clergymen  can  not  own  estates 
or  serfs  except  when  they  are  born  nobles,  or  are  decorated  with  a  distinc- 
tion bestowing  nobility.  They  can  own  houses  in  cities,  and  farms  in 
villages,  but  they  can  not  carry  on  trade.     If  the  children  of  clergymen 


RELIGION PROTESTANT   CHURCHES,  541 

onter  the  military  or  civil  service,  they  enjoy  the  privileges  conferred  on 
the  children  of  personal  nobles. 

The  Roman  catholic  and  the  Greco-Armenian  clergy  enjoy  the  same 
legal  privileges  as  the  orthodox.  Each  possesses  its  own  special  hierar- 
chy, whose  decisions  must  be  confirmed  by  the  sovereign.  The  protestaut 
clergy,  which  consists,  principally,  of  Lutherans  and  Calvinists,  have  a 
hierarchy  according  to  their  own  special  organization.  Those  wishing  to 
be  ordained  are  obliged  to  go  through  a  whole  course  of  protestant  theo- 
logical studies,  in  one  of  the  Russian  universities,  and  then  to  pass  an 
examination  before  their  own  superiors.  No  one  can  be  a  preacher  under 
twenty-five  years  of  age.  Exceptions  are  allowed  by  the  special  permis- 
sion of  the  minister  of  the  interior.  It  is  under  the  control  of  this  admin- 
istrative department  that  all  the  denominations,  not  orthodox  or  Greco- 
Russian,  are  placed.  Individuals  subject  to  the  capitation  tax  must  be 
furnished  with  an  exemption  from  it  before  their  ordination.  Foreigners 
must  have  the  permission  of  the  ministry  to  preach,  or  to  be  settled  over 
parishes. 

The  affairs  of  the  Lutheran  church  are  administered  by  consistories,  all 
of  whose  members  take  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  sovereign.  Though  a 
protestant  clergyman  be  not  noble  born,  yet,  as  long  as  he  remains  in  this 
vocation,  he  enjoys  the  rights  of  personal  nobility,  and  thus  is  exempted 
from  the  capitation  tax.  Houses  in  cities,  owned  and  inhabited  by  them, 
are  free  from  military  quartering  and  from  taxes.  The  protestant  clergy 
have  the  right  to  organize  a  fund  for  their  widows  and  orphans,  with  the 
permission  of  the  respective  consistories  and  of  the  minister.  They  can 
not  carry  on  ti-ade,  or  be  artisans  or  mechanics.  They  can  not  be  attor- 
neys in  lawsuits  not  their  own,  or  those  of  their  wives  or  children  ;  neither 
can  they  be  guardians  of  orphans  without  a  special  permission  of  the  con- 
sistory. In  matters  concerning  their  clerical  condition,  they  are  subject  to 
the  discipline  of  the  hierarchy ;  in  all  others  they  are  under  the  action  of 
the  general  laws.  When,  in  a  criminal  affair,  an  arrest  of  a  clergyman  is 
to  be  made,  the  consistory  is  to  be  instantly  made  acquainted  with  it. 
They  can  not  be  subjected  to  corporeal  punishment.  The  widows  and 
children  of  the  protestant  clergy  enjoy  all  the  privileges  of  personal  nobles, 
with  the  exception  of  those  born  after  the  father  has  renounced  the  order. 
Widows  and  children  enjoy  for  one  year  the  income  of  the  departed  clergy- 
man. One  abandoning  the  order,  and  not  being  either  a  hereditary  or 
personal  noble,  is  obliged  to  select  a  new  mode  of  life,  and  become  in 
scribed  in  a  corporation  according  to  his  choice.  A  clergyman  can  be 
dismissed  and  degraded  by  a  criminal  verdict,  as  well  as  for  the  transgres- 
sion of  his  duties,  by  the  judgment  of  his  special  hierarchy.  A  clergyman, 
condemned  to  death,  or  to  an  infamous  punishment — as  for  example  to  the 
pletriia  (a  kind  of  whip  which  now  generally  replaces  the  knout},  or  to  the 
mines,  or  to  be  branded  —  even  if  afterward  he  should  be  pardoned,  can 
not  recover  his  clerical  standing,  or  the  privileges  connected  with  it. 


542  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

TliG  clergy  of  the  Greek  or  "Russian  cluirch  are  educated  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal schools,  kept  by  monks,  and  in  monasteries,  to  which  schools  children 
of  all  other  classes  have  likewise  access.  The  regular  theological  instruc- 
tion is  given  there  in  separate  classes.  Children  of  priests  can  frequent 
other  public  schools  —  the  gymnasia  and  universities,  and  generally,  next 
to  the  class  of  the  nobles,  thev  have  the  easiest  access  to  the  means  of 
instruction  and  education.  The  number  of  dioceses  of  the  orthodox  church 
amounts  to  nearly  seventy,  and  that  is  also  about  the  number  of  archbish- 
ops, bishops,  and  suffragans. 

The  incomes  of  the  Russian  clergy  are  exceedingly  small ;  the  convents, 
with  few  exceptions,  are  very  poor  since  Peter  and  Catherine  II.  de- 
prived them  of  their  lands  and  their  serfs,  and  reduced  all  monks  and 
nuns  to  small  pensions  of  the  state.  A  metropolitan  receives,  as  such,  four 
thousand  paper  roubles  (about  eight  hundred  dollars);  an  archbishop  has 
three  thousand,  and  a  liishop  something  less.  In  this  proportion  the  in- 
comes decrease,  till  in  the  lowest  ranks,  their  incomes  often  do  not  exceed 
the  wages  of  a  maidservant  with  us.  The  poor  nuns,  when  they  offer  their 
little  works  to  travellers,  often  complain  of  their  poverty  with  melancholy 
faces ;  they  receive  only  twenty-five  roubles  yearly  (about  five  dollars), 
and  what  more  they  want  they  must  work  for  or  beg. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  either  nun  or  metropolitan  could  exist  on 
such  incomes  as  these.  All  must,  therefore,  be  in  the  receipt  of  some  extra 
revenue.  The  three  metropolitans  have  each  one  of  the  greater  lavras,  or 
monasteries  of  the  first  rank.  These  convents  serve  them  as  residences, 
and  the  incomes  annexed  in  lieu  of  benefices.  When  the  metropolitans 
officiate  at  funerals,  baptisms,  &c.,  among  the  nobility,  very  considerable 
j)resents  are  made  them,  amounting  often  to  five  hundred  or  a  thousand 
roubles.  Taken  at  the  utmost,  however,  the  income  of  a  metropolitan 
never  can  amount  to  more  than  thirty  or  thirty-five  thousand  roubles  a 
year. 

The  bishops,  all  additional  sources  of  revenue  included,  have  seldom 
more  than  twelve  thousand  roubles  a  year.  Each  bishop  has  a  monastir 
(convent  of  the  second  class),  whose  income  belongs  to  him,  and  it  must 
also  be  observed  that  all  the  superior  clergy  have  residences  found  them , 
in  their  convents  or  within  the  city,  and  are  maintained  and  furnished  with 
everything  necessary,  from  servants  and  horses,  down  to  dogs,  cats,  spoons, 
and  plates,  at  the  cost  of  the  crown.  The  greater  number  are  also  provided 
with  a  country  residence,  with  arable  land,  domestic  animals,  and  furniture. 

The  lower  classes  of  priests  have,  it  is  true,  none  of  these  things ;  but 
neither  do  they  starve.  Every  Russian,  even  the  most  miserly,  seems  to 
take  a  pleasure  in  filling  them  with  good  things.  Kohl  mentions  a  very 
i-ich,  but  very  avaricious  nobleman,  who  begrudged  himself  everything,  but 
who,  when  a  priest  came  to  dine  with  him,  produced  all  his  best  wines  : 
a  pope  rarely  came  quite  sober  out  of  his  house,  and  the  holy  man's  car- 
riage would  be  packed  with  all  sorts  ^^{  dainties  in  addition. 


REIJ(5I0N — THE    CLERGY. 


543 


Hussi'N  Nun. 


The  poor  nuns  seem  to  be  in  the 
worst  condition,  because  tliey  come 
so  little  in  contact  with  the  world, 
which  might  else  bestow  'somewhat 
more  on  them.  They  must  literally 
live  by  the  labor  of  their  hands  ;  they 
may  sometimes  even  be  seen  sowing 
and  digging  in  the  few  poor  fields 
which  a  convent  here  and  there  pos- 
sesses. They  sometimes  repair  their 
own  walls,  and  there  is  a  church  in 
Nijnei-Novgorod,  said  to  have  been 
built  by  the  hands  of  nuns,  probably 
under  the  direction  of.  an  architect, 
from  the  ground  to  the  summit  of  the 
tower.  They  usually  knit  and  weave 
stockings,  silk  and  woollen  girdles, 
purses,  and  other  articles  of  clothing, 
and  embroider  priestly  robes  and 
draperies  for  wealthier  churches  and 
convents. 

Poor  as  the  Russian  clergy  appear  to  be  with  res])cct  to  revenue  (sumc 
English  bisliops  having,  perhaps,  alone,  as  much  as  half  the  dukhovenstvo 
or  hierarchy  of  Russia),  they  are  rich  enough  in  titles,  wliich  are  sometimes 
a  yard  or  two  long.  If  a  person  enter  the  apartment  of  a  metropolitan, 
and  address  him,  the  title  runs  thus:  '■'■Vuissokopreosfswashtshennaishi 
Vfadiko,'^  or  if  he  write  to  him :  ''  Yewo  VuissokopreosswcshtshenstiH) 
Milostivdishu  Gossudariu  i  ArchipastuiruJ^  The  principal  word  may  be 
translated:  "His  most  high  holiness."  The  whole  address  is  something 
like :  "  His  most  high  holiness  the  most  dear  and  gracious  lord,  the  lord 
arch-pastor." 

All  these  titles  are  most  rigidly  observed  in  addressing  a  letter ;  in 
addressing  them  personally,  a  little  less  strictness  is  permitted.  Yet  these 
very  persons,  who  so  load  tliem  with  verbal  honor,  are  not  thereby  deterred 
from  sometimes  laying  aside  all  respect  for  the  most  liigh  holinessos  in  a 
very  unceremonious  manner.  So  long  as  he  is  engaged  in  the  performance 
of  his  functions  the  priest  is  treated  with  extreme  reverence.  Not  only 
the  laity  kiss  the  hand  of  the  chief  priests  after  the  service,  but  tlie  inferior 
priests  do  the  same  when  they  receive  the  chalice,  bible,  or  anything  else 
from  them  ;  and  without  the  church,  when  the  priests  make  state  visits,  the 
ladies  kiss  the  hand  of  the  meanest  of  them,  on  which  account  many  care- 
fully cherish  a  pretty  hand,  and  decorate  and  perfume  it  when  they  pay 
these  visits.  These  two  occasions  excepted,  the  priests  enjoy  no  great 
personal  influence  or  consideration.  A  priest's  advice  is  seldom  a,sked  in 
family  matters;  even  the  domestic  chaplains  in  great  houses  are  there  in 


.044  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

perform  divine  service  only,  and  never  penetrate  into  the  interior  of  fam- 
ilies, as  tlie  Romish  clergy  do.  The  Russian  peasant,  in  cases  of  difficulty, 
rather  turns  to  his  saints'  pictures,  and  invokes  the  sacrament  rather  than 
the  priest  who  comes  with  it.  It  is  remarkable,  also,  how  little  the  people 
in  the  streets  or  houses  of  public  entertainment  seem  held  in  check  by  the 
presence  of  a  priest.  Rarely  is  one  seen  appeasing  a  dispute,  or  exerting 
any  moral  authority  to  restore  order ;  he  passes  on  like  any  other  indiffer- 
ent person.  Moral  influence,  indeed,  they  have  little  or  none  ;  only  with 
the  saints  in  their  hands  are  they  feared  or  respected  —  only  as  directors 
of  religious  ceremonies  —  not  as  interpreters  of  the  living  word  of  God. 

How  much  more  the  Russian  people  are  devoted  to  their  pictures  than 
their  priests  was  proved  in  the  most  striking  manner  in  the  reign  of  Cathe- 
rine by  an  occun-ence  in  Moscow.  During  the  prevalence  of  an  epidemic 
sickness,  the  government  had  caused  a  picture  of  the  "  Varvarian  Mother 
of  God,"  one  of  the  most  revered  in  the  city,  to  be  removed  and  put  aside 
in  a  church,  to  withdraw  it  from  the  frantic  kisses  of  the  people,  who  in 
thus  supplicating  for  help  only  spread  disease  further.  The  aflair  caused 
a  riot.  The  people  broke  into  tlie  church,  and  compelled  the  priests  to 
restore  the  picture  to  its  place.  The  government  thereupon  applied  to  the 
metropolitan,  who  took  it  on  himself  again  to  remove  the  Varvarian  Mother; 
which  so  irritated  the  people  that  they  fell  upon  the  metropolitan  in  the 
public  streets,  killed,  and  tore  him  in  pieces.  The  priests  naturally  reap 
as  they  have  sown.  As  they  preach  no  lessons  of  reason  or  morality,  they 
have  no  moral  lever  to  put  in  motion  ;  and  as  they  only  inspire  reverence 
in  their  magnificent  pontificalibus,  little  or  none  by  their  example  and  per- 
sonal qualities,  the  hem  of  their  gold-embroidered  yepitrakhiJs  are  con- 
stantly kissed,  while  their  brown,  every-day  tunics,  we  are  assured,  often 
meet  with  hard  knocks.  The  government  uses  them  no  better.  The  tem- 
poral power  sometimes  makes  considerable  inroads  on  the  spiritual  without 
calling  the  priests  to  counsel ;  and  priests,  like  other  public  officers,  are 
liable  to  hard  reprimands  and  severe  punishments.  They  may  be  sent  to 
Siberia,  or  degraded  to  serve  as  common  soldiers.  The  milder  punish- 
ments are  suspension  from  the  exercise  of  their  office,  and  degradation  to 
the  lowest  offices  in  the  church,  or  to  the  condition  of  ordinary  monks.  It 
is  a  well-known  fact,  that  those  who,  on  leaving  seminaries,  directly  take 
orders  as  secular  priests,  though  they  obtain  livings  more  quickly,  never 
rise  to  the  higher  dignities  of  bishop  or  archbishop.  They  serve  either  as 
deacon  and  sub-deacon  ;  or  if,  after  leaving  the  seminary,  they  enter  some 
other  spiritual  academy,  they  may  become  popes  immediately.  They  have 
a  right  to  marry  like  other  men,  but  as  they  may  only  marry  once,  after 
the  death  of  his  wife  a  priest  usually  retires  to  a  convent. 

Those  only  who  submit  to  the  severities  of  a  conventual  life,  and,  re- 
nouncing the  happiness  of  marriage  altogether,  live  only  as  half  men,  arc 
esteemed  worthy  of  the  highest  spiritual  dignities.  They  reach  them  by 
the  several  steps  of  novice,  monach  (monk"^,  hieromonach  (chief  monk), 


RELIGION  —  THE   CLEEGY.  545 

orrhiinandrUe  (^abbot),  and  so  on.  A  nun  is  called  monakhina,  an  abbess 
ii/mnena,  denominations  all  taken  from  the  Greek.  The  higher  clergy  also 
take  masters'  and  doctors'  degrees  at  the  academies. 

Tiie  ranks  of  the  clergy  are  recruited  partly  from  themselves,  partly 
from  the  lower  classes  of  the  people.  The  number  of  pupils  obtained  in 
their  own  families  is  not  inconsiderable,  for  in  Russia,  also,  the  marriages 
of  priests  are  usually  very  fruitful.  The  journal  of  the  ministry  for  the 
interior  gives  on  an  average  five  children  for  every  priest's  marriage ;  this 
is  for  St.  Petersburg.  In  the  interior  of  the  empire  tlie  average  may  be 
higher.  The  sons  of  priests  generally  follow  the  profession  of  their  father  ; 
they  are  called  popovichi.  The  extra  demand  is  supplied  by  the  free 
[leasants  and  the  burghers.  The  children  of  the  nobles  seldom  or  never 
enter  the  church  as  in  catholic  countries.  "  During  an  abode  of  several 
years  in  Russia,"  says  Kohl,  "  I  heard  of  but  one  employe  who  entered  a 
convent  in  consequence  of  domestic  misfortune ;  and  of  two  officers  who 
took  the  same  step,  from  what  motives  I  know  not.  I  once  found  a  Ger- 
man protestant  in  a  Russian  convent,  whose  talents  and  education  had  at 
his  outset  in  life  promised  him  a  very  advantageous  career." 

So  much  for  the  outward  condition  and  position  of  the  Russian  clergy. 
For  the  inward  it  must  be  owned,  when  we  consider  the.  whole  system  and 
its  fruits  during  the  course  of  centuries,  and  when  we  compare  their  deeds 
with  those  of  the  priesthood  in  other  countries,  they  are  a  A-^ery  insignificant 
body.  They  have  done  nothing  super-excellent  for  the  arts  or  for  science, 
nor  produced  men  who  in  any  respect  have  done  humanity  great  service. 
They  lived,  eat,  drank,  married,  christened,  buried,  absolved,  and  died ; 
and  on  the  whole  they  have  not  done  much  else.  There  are,  it  is  true, 
notabilities  among  the  Russian  clergy,  but  they  are  such  only  in  Russia. 

Some  things,  however,  are  to  be  said  in  praise  of  the  Russian  priesthood. 
They  are  not  less  than  other  Russians  distinguished  for  their  toleration 
in  matters  of  religion.  It  is  true  the  matter  does  not  lie  very  near  their 
hearts  ;  because  they  have  few  thoughts  or  ideas  connected  with  it,  which 
have  become  firm  convictions,  and  are  maintained  as  such  ;  they  are,  there- 
fore, peaceful,  not  so  much  out  of  dislike  to  quarrelling  as  from  a  want  of 
/cal  and  energy.  It  is  a  merit  in  them,  nevertheless.  Nowhere  does  this 
tolerant  spirit  appear  in  a  more  favorable  light  than  on  the  frontiers  of 
the  Russian  and  Polish  provinces.  Here  there  are  in  many  places  only 
Greek  and  Roman  catholic  priests,  and  no  protestant  pastor.  Should  it 
happen  that  a  foreign  protestant  is  in  want  of  spiritual  assistance  in  sick- 
ness, or  should  the  body  of  a  protestant  require  burial,  it  is  almost  inva- 
riably the  catholic  who,  in  an  inhuman  and  unchristian  manner,  refuses  his 
spiritual  aid,  while  the  Russian  gives  his  without  hesitation.  In  such  cases 
foreigners  always  apply  to  the  Russian  rather  than  to  the  catholic  priests. 
Seldom  is  an  unkind  word  heard  from  Russian  jiriests  when  speaking  of  a 
person  of  a  different  faith ;  and  those  who  understand  German,  will  even 
go  frequently  to  the  Lutheran  churches  to  licar  tlic  prcacliers.     In  the 

35 


546 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 


Baltic  provinces,  when  the  military,  who  hnppen  to  be  stationed  there,  have 
no  Russian  church  within  reach,  the  Russian  priests  never  hesitate  to  per- 
form divine  service  in  a  protestant  church,  and  in  the  interior  it  has  haj^v- 
pened  that  they  have  lent  their  own  churches  to  protestants.  In  Austria, 
protestant  churches  are  only  called  prayer-houses.  In  Russia  the  priests 
treat  them  as  on  an  equal  footing  with  their  own.  Neither  do  they  hesi- 
tate to  bury  their  dead  in  the  same  churchyards  with  the  protestants. 
The  cultivated  part  of  the  priesthood  are  much  more  inclined  to  the  prot- 
estant than  to  the  catholic  party ;  more  to  rationalism  than  mysticism. 
Their  libraries  prove  it.  Niemeyer's  works,  his  bible,  the  Stunden  der 
Afidacht,  ^?chleiermacher's  writings,  and  Neander's  Church  History,  are 
frequently  met  with.  The  works  of  the  other  party  are,  on  the  contrary, 
very  rare.  Wlien  some  recent  occurrences  in  the  Baltic  provinces  and  in 
Poland  are  called  to  mind,  it  may  be  thought  that  the  Russian  priesthood 
are  somewhat  less  tolerant  now  than  formerly ;  and,  in  fact,  it  is  only 
natural  that,  with  the  proud  exaltation  of  political  power,  the  chui-cli 
should  also  begin  to  lift  up  her  head.  As  the  government  seeks  to  advance 
the  political  creed,  the  church  may  endeavor  by  more  urgent  zeal  and 
greater  energy  to  spread  "  the  one  and  only  true  faith  ;"  but  if  the  church 
does  take  her  share  in  tlie  conquests,  and  appears  to  progress  in  those 
provinces,  it  does  so  certainly  far  less  from  its  own  impulse  than  in  conse- 
quence of  commands  emanating  from  a  higher  quarter. 


Russians  at  I'KAYEa. 


FESTIVALS  AND   FASTS  —  BUTTEE-WEEK.  547 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

FESTIVALS    AND    PASTS. 

THE  festival  particularly  distinguished  in  the  Russian  Greek  church  — 
so  much  so,  indeed,  both  in  reference  to  the  time  it  lasts,  and  the  pomp 
of  its  celebration,  that  all  other  holydays  sink  to  nothing  before  it — 
is  that  of  Easter.  As  spring  commonly  sends  many  fine  days  as  forerunners 
to  announce  its  approach,  so  the  Easter  festival — "the  festival,"  as  the 
Russians  term  it — is  preceded  by  a  whole  series  of  smaller  festivities,  and 
succeeded  again  by  a  kind  of  epilogue ;  and  these  holydays,  taken  all  to- 
gether, stretch  over  no  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  year — over  two 
months.  If  we  reflect  that  a  Russian  spends  a  sixth  part  of  his  life  in 
keeping  Easter,  and  that  all  the  joys,  sorrows,  privations,  business,  work, 
and  play,  of  the  whole  Russian  people,  during  so  considerable  a  portion  of 
time,  are  determined  by  the  festive  occasion,  it  must  be  worth  while  to  take 
a  nearer  view  of  a  festival  of  so  important  a  character,  and  so  wide  an 
influence ;  and  in  doing  so  the  range  of  our  lorgnette  will  be  confined 
mostly  to  St.  Petersburg. 

The  Easter  festival  itself  begins  in  the  middle  of  the  night  of  the  Satur- 
day in  Passion-week,  and  its  joys  are  loud  and  incessant  through  the  eight 
following  days.  This  centre  of  festivity  is  preceded  by  a  seven  weeks'  fast 
as  a  preparation  for  the  feast,  and  before  the  seven  weeks'  fast  comes  an 
eight  days'  feast  as  a  preparation  for  the  fast.  All  these  spring  merry- 
makings may  be  thus  divided  into  three  consecutive  celebrations. 

Firstly,  eight  days  drinking  and  carousing,  called  by  the  Russians  Mass- 
Idnitza  (butter-week).  Secondly,  seven  weeks'  fast,  called,  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  other  fasts,  Velikoi  posd  (the  great  fast).  And,  thirdly,  Easter 
itself,  and  its  attendant  train. 

In  the  great  world  of  St.  Petersburg,  the  approach  of  the  great  fast  is 
announced  by  the  balls  and  other  carnival  revels  coming  fast  and  furious, 
even  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  February.  For  the  mass  of  the  people, 
the  sports  and  pastimes  with  which  they  take  leave  of  roast  meat  and  other 
pleasures  are  all  pressed  into  one  week — the  "  butter-week,"  as  it  is  called 
—which  falls  generally  in  the  middle,  or  toward  the  end  of  February. 

The  butter-week  contains  the  quintessence  of  all  Russian  festivity,  and, 
except  the  Easter-week,  there  is  no  week  in  the  whole  year  which  offers 
to  a  St.  Petersburger  such  an  abundance  of  earthly  enjoyments  as  this. 


548  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

Firstly,  as  its. name  implies,  the  week  is  one  of  butter;  butter  is  eaten 
instead  of  oil,  wliich  must  be  substituted  during  the  fast-days.  The  Mass- 
Idnitza  may  be  literally  said  to  be  redolent  of  butter.  The  favorite  dish 
of  this  season  is  composed  of  bUnni — a  kind  of  pancake  baked  in  butter — 
served  up  with  a  sauce  of  melted  butter,  and  eaten  with  caviare.  The 
blmni  belong  peculiarly  to  the  butter-week,  and  are  baked  at  no  other 
time  of  the  year  ;  but  at  this  season  they  are  served  up  punctually  at  every 
breakfast. 

After  a  butter-week  breakfast  of  blinni,  nothing  is  more  agreeable  than 
a  walk  to  the  "  katsheli,''^  or  swings,  the  usual  amusement  enjoyed  between 
breakfast  and  dinner  during  the  butter-week.  It  is  the  only  one  in  which 
all  classes  of  society  partake  in  common,  from  the  head  of  all,  the  enthroned 
summit  of  their  Babylonian  tower,  down  to  the  lowest  and  dirtiest  of  its 
base. 

The  Russians  delight  as  much  in  all  motion  where  the  limbs  are  at  rest, 
and  the  body  changes  place  by  means  of  a  machine,  as  they  eschew  all 
corporeal  exercise,  which  keeps  the  muscles  in  play.  Hence  their  pleasure 
in  the  Russian  mountains,  as  they  are  called ;  in  swings,  sledge-driving, 
see-sawing  on  elastic  planks,  whirling  through  the  air  on  roundabouts,  &c. 
These  are  amusements  in  which  a  Russian's  delight  is  part  of  his  very 
nature,  and  they  ai'C  enjoyed  alike  by  prince  and  peasant.  The  fibres  of 
the  muscular  system  of  the  Russian  are  sluggish  and  unelastic ;  gymnastic 
exercises  are  nowhere  more  neglected.  Their  blood  is  voluptuous,  their 
nervous  system  excitable ;  hence  this  swinging  and  gliding,  this  flying 
and  floating  without  any  efi"ort  on  their  own  part,  is  peculiarly  to  their 
taste. 

Their  inventions  of  this  kind  are  innumerable ;  but  the  chief  and  crown 
of  all  Russian  pleasures  for  the  people  is  that  expressed  by  the  favorite 
word  kat shell  (swing),  which  includes  all  similar  pastimes. 

For  the  erection  of  the  katsheli  of  the  butter-week  they  choose  a  large 
and  particularly  long  piece  of  ground,  which  is  never  wanting  in  the  ex- 
tensive Russian  towns.  In  St.  Petersburg,  the  icy  floor  of  the  Neva  was 
formerly  in  use ;  but  since  the  accident  of  some  years  ago,  when  the  ice 
gave  way  under  the  pressure  and  swallowed  up  a  multitude  of  the  swing- 
ers, the  Admiralty-square  has  been  the  chosen  spot. 

Long  trains  of  sledges,  laden  with  beams  and  planks,  are  seen  moving 
for  days  before  in  that  direction,  and  soon,  under  the  strokes  of  the  ready 
Russian  hatchet,  theatres  and  other  wooden  buildings,  which  recall  the 
palaces  of  St.  Petersburg  a  hundred  and  forty  years  ago,  are  reared  amid 
the  splendid  edifices  of  the  Admiralty,  the  war-office,  the  senate  and  synod 
houses,  &c.  These  booths  are  erected  in  long  rows  :  among  them  are 
theatres  capable  of  holding  some  thousands ;  and  these  ephemeral  build- 
ings, aping  the  magnificence  of  stone  buildings,  are  decorated  with  galle- 
ries, pillars,  balconies,  &c.  At  these  theatres  may  be  seen  hundreds  busily 
at  work,  and  swarming  like  so  many  ants,  with  their  hammers,  saws,  and 


FESTIVALS   AND    FASTS' — ICE-MOUNTAINS.  649 

liatchets — affording  no  uninteresting  spectacle  in  themselves,  even  before 
the  stage  has  been  prepared  for  the  show. 

The  most  striking  of  these  preparations  are  the  ice-mountains,  which 
form  the  subject  of  the  frontispiece  to  this  volume,  and  the  method  of 
their  construction.  A  narrow  scaffold  is  raised  to  the  height  of  thirty  or 
more  feet,  on  the  top  of  which  is  a  gallery,  ascended  on  one  side  by  wooden 
steps ;  on  the  other  is  the  great  descent,  very  steep  at  first,  and  gradually 
declining  till  it  becomes  level  with  the  ground.  It  is  formed  of  huge 
square  blocks  of  ice  laid  upon  planks.  Under  a  few  strokes  of  the  hatchet 
the  beautiful  crystal  masses  assume  a  regular  form,  and  over  the  whole 
water  is  thrown,  from  time  to  time,  which  cements,  or  rather  ices  the 
blocks  together.  Where  it  is  level  with  the  ground,  dams  of  snow  are 
formed  on  either  side,  and  the  gulley  between  filled  with  water,  which, 
freezing  smooth  as  glass,  lengthens  the  slide.  Two  such  ice-mountains 
stand  always  opposite  one  another,  so  that  their  paths,  only  separated  by 
the  snow-dams,  run  parallel  to  each  other. 

The  invention  of  these  ice-mountains  has  been  ci'edited  to  the  English. 
They  may  have  improved  the  mechanical  part,  but  the  amusement  itself  is 
an  ancient  and  a  national  one,  and  is  practised  all  over  Russia.  In  the 
courtyards  of  most  of  the  great  houses  in  St.  Petersburg  there  are  sucli 
ice-mountains  erected  for  the  amusement  of  the  children ;  and  even  in  the 
halls  of  some  of  the  wealthier  Russians,  elegant  ^'^  rutschbergs^^  are  to  be 
found,  with  this  difference,  that  the  slide  is  made,  not  of  ice,  but  of  polished 
mahogany,  or  of  some  other  smooth  wood,  down  which  the  little  sledges 
glide  with  great  rapidity.  These  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  summer  use 
when  ice-hills  can  not  be  formed.  There  is  a  mahogany  rutschberg  even  in 
the  imperial  palace.  In  every  town  and  village  these  slippery  declivities 
are  crowded  with  youths  and  maidens  rushing  down  with  the  swiftness  of 
arrows.  The  sledges  are  made  of  ice,  dexterously  shaped  into  ships.  In 
the  hollow  they  lay  straw  to  sit  upon,  and  in  front  a  hole  is  bored  for  a 
rope.  In  the  climate  of  Russia  these  sledges  are  lasting  enough.  Kohl 
remarks :  "  I  saw  one  morning,  in  St.  Petersburg,  a  striking  instance  of 
how  much  these  ice-mountains  form  a  national  amusement,  I  was  by 
chance  very  early  in  a  distant  quarter  of  the  city,  and  observed,  mounted 
on  the  roof  of  a  small  building,  a  number  of  people,  servants,  women,  and 
children,  whose  slippers  and  floating  hair  betrayed  that  they  had  not  long 
left  their  beds.  They  seemed  busy  about  something,  and  I  concluded  there 
must  be  a  chimney  on  fire,  or  something  of  that  kind.  No  such  thing ; 
they  had  formed  a  snow-mountain  from  the  roof  to  the  ground,  and  in  a 
few  minutes  down  went  the  whole  company,  shouting  for  joy,  on  a  straw 
mat,  which  did  duty  joro  tempore  for  a  sledge." 

When  all  the  booths,  mountains,  and  swings,  in  the  Admiralty-square 
are  firmly  fixed  (that  is,  for  the  temperature  of  St.  Petersburg,  the  greater 
part  of  the  pillars  having  no  other  foundation  than  a  hole  in  the  earth  filled 
with  snow  and  water,  which  holds  them  as  firm  as  a  rock,  unless  the  St. 


550  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

Petersburg  February  belies  its  nature),  the  fun  begins  on  the  first  Sunday 
of  the  butter-week,  and  then  the  gliding  and  sliding,  swinging  and  singing, 
whirling  and  twirling,  tea-drinking  and  nut-cracking,  that  make  up  the 
Massldnitza  go  merrily  on  for  the  eight  stated  days.  In  a  few  days  the 
snowy  floor  of  the  Admiralty-square  is  regularly  paved  with  nut-shells,  and 
looks  as  if  a  whole  army  of  nut-crackers  had  encamped  there.  Nuts, 
sweetmeats,  and  honey-cakes,  are  the  only  eatables  to  be  had.  Eating- 
houses,  wine  and  brandy-shops,  are  not  allowed  on  the  elegant  square  of 
the  Admiralty,  as  they  might  give  rise  to  indecorous  scenes.  A  honey 
cake  may  be  eaten  with  grace,  and  so  may  a  bonbon  presented  by  a  lover 
to  his  mistress :  even  a  nut  may  be  tolerated  if  nibbled  at  squirrel-fashion, 
and  not  demolished  by  an  uncivil  crash  and  a  grimace.  Cakes  and  tea 
may  be  nipped  and  sipped  in  public,  but  hunger  and  thirst  let  every  animal 
satisfy  in  his  own  lair. 

The  Russian  street-merchants  offer  everything  to  everybody.  Either 
very  elegant  people  must  buy  very  inelegant  wares,  or  the  sellers  must  be 
so  persuaded  of  their  excellence,  or  so  bewitched  by  the  vision  of  a  few 
possible  copecks,  that  they  do  not  perceive  how  little  chance  they  have  of 
finding  customers  in  such  a  class. 

In  the  front  of  the  booths  and  theatres,  swarming  with  the  tea-drinking, 
nut-cracking  pedestrians,  there  is  always  a  broad  space  reserved  for  the 
equipages  of  the  grandees,  who  make  their  appearance  about  noon,  to  see 
the  fair.  A  universal  driving  in  carriages  takes  place  regularly  in  the 
butter-week  at  the  katsheli,  the  Easter-week,  and  on  the  first  of  May, 
throughout  Russia.  On  their  estates,  the  wealthy  Russians  and  their 
guests  enjoy  these  gvJanies  in  the  evening ;  everytliing  tliat  can  be  called 
horse  or  vehicle  is  put  in  requisition  ;  droskies,  kaleshes,  chaises,  landaus, 
hunting  and  provision-carts,  are  mounted  by  the  whole  domestic  population, 
and  away  they  go  coaching  it  through  the  country.  The  enormous  number 
of  equipages  in  a  Russian  city,  where,  from  a  tailor  of  any  eminence  up- 
ward, everybody  keeps  one,  renders  these  gulanies  very  amusing.  The 
luxury  in  this  respect  is  greater,  in  fact,  in  some  provincial  cities  than  in 
the  two  capitals ;  as  in  the  former  there  is  no  prohibition  of  four  or  six 
horses  for  certain  ranks,  and  every  one  is  at  liberty  to  make  his  team  as 
long  as  he  likes,  or  as  he  can. 

The  merchants  are  known  by  their  brightly-furbished  kaleshes,  drawn 
by  two  black  horses,  with  their  manes  plaited  into  a  multitude  of  little 
tails.  The  foreign  ambassadors  generally  adopt  the  Russian  style  in  the 
number  and  caparison  of  their  horses.  The  carriages  go  so  slowly  that 
their  contents  may  be  contemplated  at  leisure ;  fair  young  maidens,  with 
their  pretty  French  governesses  ;  countesses  and  princesses,  enveloped  in 
their  sables  and  silver  fox-furs,  reclining  at  their  ease,  and  surveying  the 
crowd  through  their  eye-glasses  ;  boys  in  the  national  costume,  with  their 
tutors ;  here  a  corpulent  merchant  with  his  long  beard,  and  his  equally 
jolly  spouse ;  there  a  bishop  or  metropolitan,  meditating  on  the  vanities 


FESTIVALS    AND    FASTS THE    BURNING   THEATRE.  651 

of  tlie  world ;  then  a  foreign  embassador  ;  then  a  nuncio  from  the  pope, 
reflecting  on  the  increasing  power  of  the  northern  heresy.  Further  on, 
twenty  court-kaleshes,  each  with  six  horses,  and  filled  with  young  girls  — 
these  are  the  damsels  from  the  Smolnoi  convent.  English  merchants, 
German  artists,  French  doctors,  Swedish  professors,  Turks,  Persians,  Tar- 
tars, even  Cliinese,  and  last  of  all  an  emperor  and  his  whole  court. 

We  must  do  the  St.  Petersburg  police  the  justice  to  say  that  the  streets 
are  rarely  disturbed  by  any  scenes  of  brutal  intemperance.  The  very  quiet 
nature  of  Russia  intoxication  may  perhaps  partly  account  for  this.  A  Rus- 
sian coachman  is  often  as  full  as  a  bottle  in  a  bin,  and  yet  shows  no  signs 
of  any  deficiency,  till  he  fairly  tumbles  off  his  box. 

Amusing  as  it  is  said  to  be  to  occupy  a  convenient  place  at  this  spectacle 
of  the  katsheli — where  the  Admiralty-square  is  the  stage,  buildings  like 
tiie  winter-palace,  the  senate-house,  and  the  war-office,  serve  as  side-scenes, 
and  wliere  the  whole  population  of  St.  Petersburg  appear  as  actors — still 
it  is  difficult  to  forget  tliat  the  festive  scene  has  witnessed  two  most  tragi- 
(^al  occurrences  ;  the  one  was  the  giving  way  of  the  ice  on  the  Neva,  when 
so  many  found  a  watery  grave  in  the  midst  of  their  thoughtless  merriment ; 
the  other,  and  more  recent,  was  the  burning  of  the  wooden  theatre.  Few 
narratives  excite  more  horror  than  those  connected  with  the  fire  just  allu- 
ded to.  Thousands  may  die  battling  for  freedom ;  we  honor  them,  but 
their  death  fills  us  not  with  dread  ;  they  win  a  glorious  name,  and  die  with 
honor.  Thousands  meet  their  end  upon  the  sick-bed  ;  we  weep  for  them, 
but  it  is  the  course  of  nature  that  they  should  die.  But  that  thousands, 
by  mere  accident,  in  the  midst  of  sports,  in  the  most  thoughtless  revelry, 
should  bid  adieu  to  this  fair  world,  to  all  their  plans  and  hopes,  stifled  in 
a  miserable  wooden  booth  like  so  many  rats  and  mice  —  this  is  fearful,  and 
reminds  us  too  awfully  of  the  feeble  tenure  by  which  we  hold  existence. 

The  wooden  theatres  at  the  katsheli  are  some  of  them  verv  large.  One 
in  particular  generally  surpasses  all  the  others  in  this  respect,  and  is 
capable  of  holding  five  thousand  persons.  In  this  it  was  that  the  fire  took 
place,  when  the  scene  was  to  represent  some  firework  or  illumination.  At 
first  those  behind  the  scenes,  hoping  to  extinguish  the  flames,  said  nothing 
about  it ;  as  they  increased,  the  audience  applauded  loudly,  supposing  it 
to  be  the  promised  spectacle.  Suddenly  the  bajozzo  rushed  forward,  with 
a  look  of  horror,  shouting  aloud,  "We  are  on  fire!  —  save  yourselves,  you 
who  can !"  The  audience  answered  by  loud  laughter,  at  the  admirably- 
feigned  fear,  as  they  supposed  it  to  be.  Thereupon,  as  it  was  impossible 
for  him  to  make  himself  heard,  the  director  ordered  the  curtain  to  be  raised, 
and  a  mass  of  flame  and  smoke  became  visible.  Screams  of  horror  burst 
from  the  thousands  of  throats  whence  loud  laughter  had  issued  just  before. 
Each  grasped  convulsively  those  dearest  to  them,  and  rushed  to  the  doors. 
These  were  but  few,  the  size  of  the  place  considered,  and  a  fearful  length 
of  time  elapsed  before  the  foremost  gave  way  to  those  behind.  The  flames 
i.i  the  meantime  gained  rapidly  upon  the  pine  planks  around  them,  leap- 


552  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

iiig  from  slip  to  slip,  and  already  showing  tlieir  fiery  tongues  amono-  tlic 
dense  mass  of  spectators.  Most  unfortunately  it  happened  tliat  one  of  the 
large  folding-doors  opened  inward.  By  the  pressure  of  the  throng  it  was 
flung  to,  and  could  not  be  moved  one  way  or  the  other.  On  the  outside, 
the  attempts  to  rescue  the  poor  victims  were  at  first  feeble,  for  who  in  the 
midst  of  gayety  dreams  of  such  a  fearful  chastisement  ?  Those  within,  in 
the  meantime,  compressed  the  anguish  of  years  into  a  few  minutes  as  they 
stood  breast  to  breast  shrieking  in  vain  their  frantic  "  Forward  !"  to  those 
in  advance.  The  whole  mass  were  stifling,  the  flames  leaping  threaten- 
ingly over  their  heads  ;  yet  they  were  only  separated  by  a  few  thin  boards 
from  the  free  bright  air,  and  in  a  few  minutes  more  they  might  have  rent 
asunder  their  fragile  tomb  with  their  hands  and  teeth.  Fancy  sickens  at, 
the  contemplation  of  the  suffering  of  those  minutes ;  only  one  risen  fronti 
the  ashes  cotild  truly  paint  occurrences  that  rent  asunder  the  chords  of  life 
when  suddenly  awakened  from  the  slumber  of  thoughtless  enjoyment  to  the 
wildest  pitch  of  terror  and  despair. 

The  police  would  not  at  first  allow  of  any  individual  effort  for  the  rescue 
of  the  sufferers ;  a  merchant  who  had  seized  a  spade  succeeded,  however, 
in  defiance  of  them,  in  dashing  through  a  plank,  and  bringing  nearly  sixty 
lialf-suffocated  creatures  from  this  harlequin's  hell.  The  worthy  man  was 
afterward  rewarded  for  his  act  of  courage  and  humanity  by  an  order,  and, 
as  he  was  poor,  by  a  pension  of  two  thousand  roubles. 

The  terrible  news  soon  spread  through  tlie  town  that  Lepmann's  theatre 
was  on  fire,  and  thousands  struggling  with  the  most  horrible  of  deaths. 
The  anguish  became  universal.  The  consternation  of  the  city,  the  scenes 
of  agony  and  transport  that  followed,  must  have  been  seen  to  be  understood. 
The  emperor,  who  had  left  the  winter-palace  opposite  at  the  first  news  of 
the  fire,  was  met  by  shrieking  and  despairing  women  calling  on  him  to  save 
their  husbands,  sons,  and  brothers  ;  he  could  only  answer,  "  My  children, 
I  will  save  all  I  can." 

When  the  fire  was  got  under,  and  life  and  flame  within  were  extin- 
guished together,  the  dreadful  task  began  of  digging  out  the  bodies.  The 
sight  was  beyond  all  conception  terril)le  when  the  fallen  beams  were  re- 
moved, disclosing  the  heaps  of  charred  and  stifled  bodies,  which  were 
dragged  out  with  hooks,  like  loaves  out  of  an  oven.  Some  were  burnt  to 
a  cinder,  others  only  roasted ;  of  many  the  hair  of  their  heads  was  only 
singed,  while  on  others  it  was  burnt  off;  their  eyes  were  destroyed,  their 
faces  black  and  calcined,  yet  some  still  were  decked  with  the  gayly-colored 
luuidkerchiefs  and  holyday-clothes,  which  the  thickness  of  the  pressure  had 
saved  from  injury !  These  were  far  more  terrible  to  look  on  than  those 
entirely  burnt.  In  one  part  of  the  building  that  remained  standing,  a 
crowd  of  dead  were  discovered  in  an  erect  posture,  like  an  army  of  shad- 
ows from  tlie  lower  world.  One  woman  was  found  with  her  head  leaning 
over  the  front  of  the  gallery,  her  face  hidden  in  her  handkerchief. 

The  number  of  those  who  perished  was  officially  announced  at  thivc 


FESTIVALS    AND    FASTS BALLS    AND    FETES.  553 

hundred,  but  that  is  [>robal)ly  far  below  the  mark".  "  I  was  told  by  one 
person,"  says  Kohl,  "  that  he  liiinsclf  had  counted  fifty  wagons,  each  laden 
with  ten  or  fifteen  corpses  ;  and  others,  who  had  every  means  of  obtaining 
correct  information,  made  an  estimate,  whose  amount  I  am  unwilling  to 
repeat  here,  lest  it  should  be  thought  improbable."  vSome  were  brought 
to  life  again ;  many  died  afterward  in  the  liospitals  from  the  injuries  re 
ccived.  One  little  boy  was  found  sitting,  quite  unhurt,  under  a  bench, 
where  he  had  crept  when  the  falling  fragments  began  to  shower  down  fire 
and  flame  upon  the  heads  of  the  doomed  multitude.  The  beams  and  dead 
bodies  had  so  fallen  over  him  as  to  form  a  protecting  roof  against  the 
flame  and  smoke,  and  there  the  child  remained  till  he  was  dragged  out. 
On  the  following  day  public  prayers  were  offered  up  for  the  souls  of  the 
sufferers,  on  the  place  that  had  witnessed  the  scene  of  their  last  agony. 

The  upper  classes  take  part,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the  common  amuse- 
ments of  the  katslteli,  but  it  is  only  for  a  few  hours  at  noon  ;  they  resort 
then  to  other  diversions,  and  revel  after  their  own  fashion.  To  speak  first 
of  the  theatres.  Many  as  there  are  in  St.  Petersburg,  they  are  all  in  full 
play  during  the  butter-week ;  while  it  lasts-  there  is  no  rest  for  the  poor 
actors.  Toward  the  close  of  the  week  they  play  twice  a  day,  morning  and 
evening,  French,  German,  Russian,  and  Italian.  In  the  great  theatre  (the 
Bolshoi  theatre,  a  view  of  whicli  is  given  on  page  579)  the  great  masked 
ball  takes  place  in  the  butter-week,  and  this  may  also  be  reckoned  among 
the  popular  diversions,  since  every  well-dressed  person  is  at  liberty  to  go, 
whatever  be  his  rank,  the  emperor  himself  holding  it  his  duty  to  appear 
there. 

When  a  Russian  noble  wishes  to  give  eclat  to  his  fete,  his  first  step  is 
to  secure  the  presence  of  the  emperor  and  empress  as  his  guests.  Every 
noble  is  at  liberty  to  invite  the  emperor,  who  makes  much  less  difficulty  of 
visiting  his  subjects  than  would  be  exacted  by  the  etiquette  of  most  other 
courts.  The  fete-giver  puts  on  his  dress  of  ceremony  and  drives  to  court, 
where  he  signifies  to  the  grand-master  of  the  ceremonies  that  he  wishes  to 
give  a  ball,  if  it  be  the  pleasure  of  the  emperor  and  empress  to  honor  it  by 
their  presence ;  and  at  the  same  time  presents  the  list  of  the  company  in- 
vited, which  is  generally  returned  unaltered.  Now  and  then  a  name  is 
struck  out,  or  the  desire  intimated  that  no  foreigners  be  present,  the  empe- 
ror desiring  for  that  night  to  be  alone  with  his  subjects. 

A  chief  article  of  luxury  on  such  an  occasion  is  the  display  of  a  numerous 

retinue.     At  one  given  by  Count  B ,  a  hundred  servants  in  livery  were 

stationed  on  the  stairs  alone.  The  servants  of  the  house  of  course  are  not 
enough,  and  ten  roubles  an  evening  are  paid  on  such  occasions  for  a  good- 
looking  figure  for  the  part.  The  liveries,  of  course,  must  be  all  new  for 
the  occasion ;  and  at  the  count's  fete  fifty  wore  violet-colored  velvet  trim- 
med with  silver,  and  fifty  purple  velvet  with  gold,  the  colors  of  the  lord 
and  lady  of  the  house.  On  every  stair  stood  alternately  an  orange  or 
I'lmon-tree,  and  a  velvet-clad  domestic,  from  the  house-door  to  that  of  tlie 


554 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 


Hiiloon.  The  empress  dowager  is  a  great  lover  of  flowers,  consequently 
every  ball  in  St.  Petersburg  presents  a  profusion  of  them.  One  room  is 
generally  arranged  as  a  winter-garden,  and  rose-bushes  and  arbors  of  roses 
of  every  shade  form  inviting  nooks  for  refreshment. 

Abundant  as  the  diversions  are  during  the  Russian  carnival,  they  double 
and  triple  during  the  last  days  of  the  butter-week.  Fast  and  furious 
waxes  the  revelry  during  the  three  or  four  days  preceding  the  great  fast 
The  schools  break  up,  the  public  offices  are  closed,  the  great  theatres  give 
lepresentations  morning  and  evening,  and  the  twelve  hajazzos  on  the  kat- 
shell  announce  some  novelty  every  five  minutes ;  the  rich  give  dejeuner.'^ 
dansants,  which  last  till  five  or  six  in  the  evening,  take  a  few  hours'  rest, 
and  then  make  a  new  and  brilliant  toilette  for  a  second  ball  at  night. 


A  Russian  Cakousal  during  Easteb. 

Among  the  common  people,  in  the  meantime,  tlie  drunkenness  of  tlie 
evening  concludes  the  intoxication  of  the  morning;  the  public,  wherever  it 
is  to  be  seen,  seems  in  the  best  possible  humor,  and  applauds  everything  and 
everybody.  The  emperor  and  all  his  court  drive  about  in  their  brilliant 
equipages  ;  down  rush  the  sledges  from  the  ice-mountains  till  the  ice  glows 
again ;  the  swings  are  at  full  flight ;  the  bells  of  the  wooden  houses  in  the 
roundabouts  tingle  without  ceasing ;  the  hajazzos  announce  from  hour  to 
hour  how  long  the  Massldnitza  has  to  last:  nimbly  rolls  his  lesson  off  the 
tongue  of  him  who  shows  the  lions  and  the  boa-constrictor,  that  he  may 
despatch  one  set  of  customers  to  get  as  many  more  as  possible.  All  the 
pulses  of  life  beat  prestissimo  ;  all  seem  eager  to  drain  the  last  drop  in  the 
cup  of  joy,  until  the  hour  of  midnight  strikes  and  proclaims  the  beginning 
of  the  fast.     Every  dancing  couple  is  brought  to  a  sudden  lialt,  and  every 


FESTIVALS   AND   FASTS  —  THE   GREAT   FAST.  555 

one  departs  homeward  to  sweeten  the  tediousness  of  the  fast  with  the 
remembrance  of  the  enchanting  joys  of  the  last  days  of  the  carnival. 

The  butter-week,  as  before  remarked,  is  followed  by  the  great  fast,  the 
severity  of  which  banishes  not  only  flesh  and  fowl,  but  milk,  eggs,  butter, 
and  even  sugar,  on  account  of  the  small  mixture  of  animal  substance  used 
in  the  refining.  Soups  made  of  kivas  and  mushrooms,  fish,  and  cakes 
flavored  with  oil,  tea  and  cofibe  with  almond-milk,  mushrooms  again,  with 
cucumbers  in  vinegar — those  are  the  dainties  that  succeed  the  fat  blinnis, 
rich  pasties,  cakes,  and  rotis  of  the  butter-week.  Neither  is  wine  or  any 
spirituous  liquors  permitted,  whereby  a  cook  might  give  some  spirit  to  his 
mushroomed,  fishy,  oily,  fasting-sauces,  or  the  tea-drinker  to  his  watery 
beverage.  The  people  of  the  lower  classes  exclude  even  fish  in  the  first 
and  last  weeks  of  the  fast,  as  they  do  on  the  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  in 
the  remaining  five.  These  two  days,  which  must  always  take  precedence 
of  the  others,  are  distinguished  in  the  last  week  by  total  abstinence.  The 
very  strictly  pious  extend  this  additional  severity  of  observance  to  the 
whole  seven  weeks,  with  a  three  days'  total  abstinence  in  the  week  before 
Easter.  Even  the  upper  classes  observe  the  fasts  much  more  strictly  than 
they  do  in  catholic  countries.  The  first  and  last  weeks,  with  the  Wednes- 
days and  Fridays  of  the  remainder,  are  generally  religiously  observed. 
The  greatest  number  of  infractions  of  the  fast  bear  reference  to  the  brandy- 
bottle,  the  very  point  in  which  abstinence  would  be  most  beneficial ;  some 
maintain  that  the  Russians  drink  as  much  of  it  during  the  fasts  as  at  any 
other  time.  It  is  not,  however,  called  brandy,  but  it  is  enjoyed  under  the 
disguise  of  all  manner  of  euphemisms. 

It  is  remarkable  enough  how  carefully  a  Russian  watches  that  nothing 
of  an  animal  substance  pass  his  lips  when  he  has  really  made  up  his  mind 
to  fast  in  earnest.  A  young  girl  will  throw  away  a  whole  cup  of  tea 
directly,  if  she  smell  that  her  French  governess  has  put  cream  into  it  in- 
stead of  almond-milk.  Occasionally  mothers  take  it  on  themselves  to  give 
their  little  ones  a  dispensation  on  the  ground  of  indisposition. 

After  a  fast-day  breakfast,  a  walk  on  the  Admiralty-place,  to  which  peo- 
ple instinctively  resort,  is  a  most  dismal  affair.  It  is  all  scattered  over 
with  ruins  of  temporary  houses  and  booths,  the  ground  paved  with  nut- 
shells and  orange-peel.  The  wooden  horses  of  the  roundabout  stand  idle, 
the  gayly-decorated  ships  and  swings  lie  shattered  and  heaped  together 
like  wood  for  burning,  the  smooth  mirrors  of  the  ice-mountains  are  broken 
up  with  iron  bars ;  and  the  poor  merry-andrew,  the  bajazzo,  what  has 
become  of  him?  —  he  that,  for  days  together,  seemed  inexhaustible  in  fun 
and  jest  ?  It  is  melancholy  to  see  how  rational  he  looks  as  he  pants  and 
perspires  under  the  burden  of  planks,  the  sad  remains  of  his  fool's-palace. 
The  thousand  voices  that  stunned  us  but  the  day  before  are  silent,  or  only 
employed  in  reckoning  their  gains  or  settling  with  their  merchants.  All 
are  stretching,  yawning,  and  shuddering  at  the  joylessness  of  the  long 
seven  weeks  before  them. 


556  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

The  greater  part  of  the  public  amusements,  especially  balls  and  plays, 
are  strictly  prohibited.  Assemblies  and  soirees,  without  dancing  or  mask- 
ing, take  the  place  of  the  tumultuous  ball ;  and  as  cow's-milk  is  changed 
into  almond-milk,  butter  into  oil,  and  flesh  into  fish,  so  plays  become  pub- 
lic declamations  and  improvisations,  operas  change  into  concerts  ;  and  the 
theatre,  which  must  not  act  plays,  is  open  for  tableaux  vivants.  The 
seven  fasting  weeks  to  the  gay  world  are  one  long  night,  in  which  only  the 
modest  stars  and  moon  faintly  gleam,  till  all  at  once,  like  Apollo  with  his 
steeds  of  light,  the  bright  sun  of  Easter  breaks  forth  in  full  splendor.  In 
the  butter-week  the  dresses  of  the  belles  at  a  St.  Petersburg  party  are 
glittering  with  a  profusion  of  jewels.  For  the  fasts,  the  brilliant  diamond 
is  too  glaring ;  the  single  row  of  pearls  in  the  hair,  here  and  there  the 
modest  turquoise  peeping  forth  like  a  violet  or  forget-me-not,  and  coral 
ornaments  for  the  arms  and  throat,  are  alone  seen  at  the  reunions,  where 
conversation  and  song  have  displaced  the  waltz  and  polonaise.* 

The  fasting-weeks  are  the  golden  harvests  of  the  musical  artists ;  every 
evening  some  new  singer  or  violinist  is  announced,  with  recommendations 
from  Vienna  or  Paris;  and  sometimes  one  will  undertake  alone  to  amuse 
the  St.  Petersburg  public,  which  would  before  have  tasked  the  art  of  a 
hundred  high  priests  of  Thalia.  The  best  of  the  fast-time  amusements  are 
the  tableaux  vivants,  which  are  given  with  great  taste  and  magnificence. 

The  monotony  of  the  fasts  is  now  and  then  broken  by  the  feast  of  some 
saint,  which  may  fall  in  this  time.  Happy  the  saint  thus  celebrated;  he 
may  reckon  upon  numerous  adorers ;  and  happy  the  child  Avhose  birthday 
occurs  at  this  time.  He  may  be  sure  it  will  be  kept  till  his  eightieth  year 
with  great  joy  and  festivity  ;  first  by  his  parents,  then  by  his  brothers  and 
sisters,  by  blood  and  marriage,  and  afterward  by  his  children  and  grand- 
children. Family  festivals  are  deemed  innocent  things,  quite  suitable  to 
the  seriousness  of  a  fast,  and  therefore  people  try  to  make  them  as  splendid 
as  possible. 

Palm  Sunday  is  another  very  agreeable  interruption  of  the  great  fast. 
The  children's  festival  is  celebrated  on  Palm  Sunday.  The  scene  of  this 
pretty  fair  is  under  the  arcades  of  the  great  Gosiinnoi  Dvor,  and  in  the 
adjoining  streets.  Huge  bundles  of  twigs  are  brought  into  the  city  by  the 
peasants,  some  very  small,  while  others  are  great  branches,  almost  as  big 
as  young  trees,  to  suit  the  various  amounts  of  piety ;  for  while  the  severe 
orthodox  father  buys  a  whole  tree,  which  he  gets  blessed  in  the  church, 
and  afterward  suspends  under  the  pictures  of  his  saints,  his  elegant  son 
contents  himself  with  a  delicate  little  twig,  which  he  cracks  like  any 

*  In  no  country  are  so  many  clmmonds  and  other  precious  stones  displayed  as  in  Russia.  Not 
only  every  Russian  lady  of  rank  has  her  jewel-caslvct,  in  which,  beside  those  ready  set,  she  lias  a 
quantity  of  loose  diamonds  and  pearls,  to  be  arranged  according  to  fancy  at  different  times  and 
places,  but  even  the  little  girls  have  their  caskets,  containing  dozens  of  rings,  ear-rings,  bracelet?, 
&;c.,  with  which  they  are  constantly  decorated.  How  necessary  they  esteem  them  may  bo  ]earnc<i 
fiom  the  f;ict  tliat  a  newly-married  couple,  whose  whole  capital  was  six  thousand  roubles,  expended 
three  thousand  for  jewels  and  ornaments,  and   the  other  tliree  for  In  ds,  tables,  and  other  furniturn 


FESTIVALS   AND   FASTS  —  PALM  SATURDAY.  55T 

ordinary  whip.  To  these  natural  foundations  arc  appended  the  palm.s 
which  art  has  constructed  to  aid  the  poverty  of  a  northern  April.  The 
bare  twig  is  furnished  with  an  abundance  of  leaves  and  flowers,  some  copied 
from  nature,  and  some  the  production  of  a  lively  fancy.  Some  are  made 
like  tlie  branches  of  fruit-trees,  and  hung  with  all  the  fruits  of  the  east 
imitated  in  wax,  with  waxen  birds  and  waxen  angels  fastened  to  the  boughs 
with  sky-blue  ribands,  A  great  number  of  natural  flowers  are  also  brought 
from  the  numerous  hot-houses  of  St.  Petersburg :  centifolia,  moss-roses, 
violets,  hyacinths,  and  orange-flowers,  for  the  elder  sisters,  who  are  not 
content  to  leave  the  fair  with  none  but  artificial  flowers.  As  flowers  alone 
would  not  be  acceptable  to  children,  sweetmeats  and  playthings  are  also 
to  be  had  in  abundance.  Tlie  Russians  have  a  peculiar  talent  for  making 
figures  and  toys  out  of  the  most  worthless  materials  in  the  world ;  straw, 
shavings,  ice,  dough,  they  turn  all  to  account. 

The  stalls  for  the  sale,  or  rather  the  exchange,  of  saints'  pictures,  im- 
ages, etc.  (for  the  Russian  must  not  sell  the  picture  of  a  saint,  though  he 
may  exchange  it,  which  he  does  sometimes  for  money),  are  also  provided 
with  a  multitude  of  amulets,  crosses,  &c.,  of  all  possible  sizes,  forms,  and 
materials ;  and  if  a  person  is  not  inclined  to  load  himself  with  a  heavier 
cross,  he  at  least  takes  one  of  gingerbread,  which  he  has  the  advantage  of 
being  able  to  eat  when  he  is  tired  of  carrying  it.  The  dealers  in  plaster- 
of-Paris  figures  throng  here  in  greater  numbers  than  in  their  Italian  father- 
land. 

As  this  is  a  regular  national  festival,  the  emperor  holds  it  his  duty  to 
honor  it  with  his  presence,  and  brings  all  his  sons  and  daughters  with  him. 
On  a  bright  clear  day,  such  as  even  a  St.  Petersburg  April  sometimes 
aftords.  Kohl  remarks  that  a  walk  here  among  all  these  significant  and 
insignificant  people  affords  one  of  the  most  amusing  spectacles  of  the 
season ;  it  is,  as  it  were,  the  morn  of  the  night  of  the  great  fast. 

On  Verbnoi  Subbota  (Palm  Saturday)  a  great  procession  takes  place,  in 
imitation  of  Christ's  entry  into  Jerusalem,  and  all  stream  into  the  churches, 
carrying  branches,  and  singing.  The  priests  sprinkle  branch  and  branch- 
bearers  with  holy  water,  and  add  a  blessing  into  the  bargain ;  the  greater 
number  tlien  carry  away  their  palms.  Whole  groups  are  to  be  met  with 
carrying  them  about  till  late  in  the  evening — father,  mother,  and  children, 
with  the  servants  walking  behind  them ;  even  the  infant  in  the  nurse's 
arms  has  a  palm-twig,  sprinkled  and  blessed,  thrust  into  its  tiny  fist.  As 
for  the  boys,  the  best  use  they  can  make  of  their  twigs  is  to  flog  each  other 
with  them,  whicli  they  do  handsomely.  Some  of  the  more  pious  leave  their 
branches  till  Sunday  in  the  church,  and  many  suspend  them  over  their  beds, 
ascribing  all  sorts  of  healing  influences  to  the  leafless  twigs.  The  children 
also  cherish  theirs  carefully,  but  for  another  purpose.  It  is  the  custom 
throughout  Russia  to  punish  those  who  sleep  too  late  on  Palm  Sunday  to 
attend  early  mass,  by  flogging  them  with  the  palm-branches.  Girls  and 
boys  are  all  so  eager  to  administer  this  discipline,  that  they  lie  awake 


558  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

lialf  the  night  thinking  of  it ;  and  as  soon  as  the  day  breaks,  they  are  run- 
ning about  in  bands  in  search  of  and  punishing  the  sleepers.  This  custom 
prevails  throughout  Russia,  and  the  imperial  children  exercise  the  privilege 
as  eagerly  as  those  of  lower  rank. 

The  Easter-eggs  play  a  very  important  part  at  this  time  of  the  year. 
St.  Petersburg,  lying  in  a  plain  little  peopled  either  by  man  or  barn-door 
fowls,  must  procure  her  eggs  from  a  great  distance.  Moscow  in  particular 
supplies  large  quantities.  On  a  very  moderate  calculation,  there  can  not 
be  less  than  ten  millions  used  at  Easter  in  this  capital ;  for,  as  it  is  always 
customary  at  Easter,  on  greeting  an  acquaintance,  to  press  an  egg  into  his 
hand,  many  an  individual  may  consume  his  hundreds. 

Nothing  is  said  to  be  more  amusing  than  to  visit  the  markets  and  stalls 
where  the  painted  eggs  are  sold.  Some  are  painted  in  a  variety  of  pat- 
terns ;  some  have  verses  inscribed  on  them  ;  but  the  more  usual  inscription 
is  the  general  Easter-greeting,  ^^Christohs  vosskress"  (Christ  is  risen),  or 
"  Eat  and  think  of  me,"  &c.  The  wealthier  do  not,  of  course,  content 
themselves  with  veritable  eggs,  dyed  with  Brazil-wood,  but  profit  by  the 
custom,  to  show  their  taste  and  gallantry.  Scarcely  any  material  is  to  be 
named  that  is  not  made  into  Easter-eggs.  "At  the  imperial  glass-cutting 
manufactory,"  says  Kohl,  "  we  saw  two  halls  filled  with  workmen  employed 
on  nothing  else  but  in  cutting  flowers  and  figures  on  eggs  of  crystal.  Part 
of  them  were  for  the  emperor  and  empress  to  give  away  as  presents  to  the 
courtiers."  As  the  latter  receive  many  of  these  things,  they,  of  course, 
give  them  away  again  to  their  friends  and  favorites,  who,  the  next  Easter, 
bestow  them  in  their  turn  elsewhere ;  so  that  these  eggs  often  travel  to 
amazing  distances.  It  is  said  that  one,  which  came  from  the  imperial  pal- 
ace, passed  through  numberless  hands  of  high  and  low,  till  its  last  posses- 
sor, having  let  it  fall  on  a  stone,  pitched  the  fragments  into  the  Black  sea. 

The  wax-fruit  makers  and  confectioners  produce  some  pretty  pieces  of 
workmanship,  in  elegant  boxes  filled  with  eggs  of  all  sizes  in  regular  order, 
fi'om  the  mighty  ostrich-egg  down  to  the  nightingale's,  and  all  in  wax  and 
sugar.  Some  are  bonbonnieres,  and  very  costly  presents  are  also  offered 
in  egg-shells  ;  some  are  transparent,  and  in  place  of  the  yolk,  contain  little 
fairy  bouquets,  and  some  have  a  magnifying-glass  neatly  fitted  in,  and  dis 
play  houses  and  trees  formed  in  wax,  pictures  of  saints,  and  tiny  angels 
couched  on  roses.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  such  commodities 
at  Easter  from  St.  Petersburg,  which  returns  in  imitative  sugar  the  raw 
produce  of  the  hen-house  received  from  the  provinces. 

On  Holy  Thursday  the  occurrences  of  the  day  are  read  out  of  the  four 
Evangelists  after  mass.  The  priest  stands  in  the  middle  of  the  church  at  a 
desk,  on  which  burn  three  candles.  The  churches  are  in  general  thronged, 
and  as  every  member  of  the  congregation  holds  a  taper  in  the  hand,  they 
make  an  uncommonly  cheerful  appearance.  The  poor  take  a  pride  in  hav- 
ing these  tapers  as  thick  as  they  can  get  tliem,  and  may  often  be  seen  with 
beautifully-gilded  tapers  which  have  cost  them  a  couple  of  roubles  each. 


FESTIVALS   AND   FASTS — EASTER-EVE. 


6^:0 


They  are  burnt  throughout  the  Thursday  evening,  extinguished  on  Good 
Friday,  and  kindled  again  at  midnight  on  Easter-eve.  The  streets  of  the 
towns  and  villages  that  are  in  general  unlighted,  are  then  gay  with  wan- 
dering illuminations  as  the  taper-bearers  go  from  one  church  to  another ; 


Intebiob  of  a  Russian  Chukch  —  The  Assumption  at  Moscow. 

and  that  the  tapers  may  not  be  extinguished,  which  is  looked  upon  as  an 
ill  omen,  they  are  carried  in  paper  lanterns. 

On  Good  Friday  there  is  no  further  ceremonial  than  the  erection  of  a 
kin^  of  tabernacle  in  the  churches  ;  in  general,  a  mere  box  laid  upon  tres- 


560  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

scls  and  covered  with  a  cloth  ;  on  the  upper  side  of  the  cloth,  tlic  body  of 
the  Redeemer  is  represented  in  painting,  embroidery,  or  half-relief.  This 
tabernacle  stands  there  till  Easter-eve,  with  only  so  many  lights  as  are 
necessary  to  show  the  objects.  The  doors  of  the  churches  stand  constantly 
open,  and  the  people  go  in  and  out  to  kiss  the  simulated  wounds. 

In  the  last  days  of  the  fast  expectation  is  strained  to  the  highest  pitch. 
On  the  Saturday  before  Easter-day  the  thermometer  of  religious  inspiration 
falls  below  zero.  The  lights,  the  singing,  the  bells,  all  the  pomp  of  divine 
service  is  consigned  to  repose.  The  devout  are  thoroughly  exhausted  with 
abundant  kneeling  and  listening  to  the  long  readings.  Many  have  had 
nothing  whatever  to  eat  for  the  last  three  days,  and  are  really  half-starved. 
The  churches  are  as  dark  as  the  grave ;  no  priest  shows  himself  on  the 
Saturday  evening  till  midnight.  It  is  customary  for  one  of  the  congrega- 
tion to  take  on  himself  the  office  of  reading  from  the  gospel.  A  desk,  on 
which  lies  an  open  bible,  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  church  ;  one  of  the 
lower  classes,  who  can  just  spell  out  Slavonian,  will  advance,  light  his 
taper,  and  read  till  some  one  else  advances  to  release  him.  Except  the 
beautiful  church-singing,  no  custom  of  the  Russian  church  seems  so  really 
touching  and  edifying  as  this  public  reading. 

Toward  midnight  the  throng  increases.  In  St.  Petersburg  the  court 
appears  in  the  imperial  chapel  in  full  dress  ;  and  in  the  provinces  the  gov- 
ernor, with  all  his  adjutants  and  officers  in  their  splendid  uniforms,  attend 
the  cathedral.  The  priests  begin  a  mass,  which  is  but  languidly  performed 
or  listened  to,  till  all  at  once,  at  the  hour  of  midnight,  the  whole  scene 
changes.  The  golden  door  of  the  ^^ ikonostast"  flies  open,  and  the  song 
bursts  forth,  '•'■  Christohs  vosskress I  Christohs  vosskress  ihs  mortvui!" 
("  Christ  is  risen,  Christ  is  risen  from  the  dead !")  At  the  same  moment 
the  illumination  of  the  church  is  completed,  not  only  the  lamps  and  great 
chandelier,  but  the  countless  tapers  in  the  hands  of  the  congregation,  which 
have  been  held  hitherto  unlighted.  While  the  chief  body  of  the  priests, 
still  singing  "  Christohs  vosskress,''  remove  the  pall  with  the  corse,  two 
others,  in  their  richest  dress,  pass  through  the  church  with  censers  in  their 
hands,  repeating  the  joyful  words,  and  stopping  before  the  shrine  of  every 
saint  to  swing  the  censer  and  make  their  genuflections,  and  before  every 
group  of  devotees  to  bestow  their  blessing.  The  congregation  shake  hands, 
and  kiss  all  with  whom  they  have  the  most  distant  acquaintance.  The 
singing  of  the  priests  meanwhile  continues.  They  also  embrace  each 
other ;  the  bishop,  metropolitan,  or  whatever  priest  of  the  highest  rank 
may  be  present,  now  places  himself  before  the  ikonostast,  and  bestows  on 
every  member  of  the  congregation  who  approaches  him  his  blessing  and  a 
kiss,  with  the  words  "  Christohs  vosskress.''  The  churches  are  illuminated 
without  as  well  as  within,  and  all  the  liells  in  the  city  ring  out  at  once. 
In  St.  Petersburg,  many  of  the  streets  and  public  buildings  are  illuminated  ; 
rocket  after  rocket  rushes  along  the  sky,  and  the  cannon  boom  at  intervals, 
amid  all  the  countless  bells  and  voices  echoing  each  other  from  all  sido^. 


FESTIVALS    AXD    FASTS — EASTICR. 


561 


Kasthk-Kisses. 


Amid  all  this  tumult,  a  procession,  headed  by  the  priests,  all  bearing- 
tapers  and  torclies,  passes  round  the  church  ;  and  then  the  last  ceremony, 
the  blessing  of  the  food,  takes  place  about  three  o'clock  in  the  morning. 
The  rich,  who  have  the  means  of  consecration  at  hand,  do  not  find  it  neces- 
sary to  carry  their  food  to  church,  and  moreover,  tliey  are  sometimes  quite 
content  with  the  species  of  consecration  a  good  cook  bestows ;  but  the 
poor  can  not  enjoy  their  Easter-breakfast  till  it  has  been  blessed  by  the 
priest;  —  perhaps  they  have  a  foreboding  how  ill  it  is  likely  to  sit  upon 
the  stomach  weakened  by  long  fasting. 

The  spectacle  in  the  church  is  most  extraordinary.  They  range  all  the 
dishes  in  long  rows  through  the  whole  church,  leaving  space  enough  be- 
tween the  rows  for  the  priests  to  pass,  till  the  increasing  numbers  compel 
them  to  form  the  lines  without  the  church,  and  even  a  good  way  round. 
The  huge,  oddly-shaped  loaves,  called  kiditshe,  the  towers  of  white  cheese, 
into  which  colored  leaves  of  spice  are  interwoven  —  the  former  decorated 
with  flowers,  the  latter  bearing  a  burning  wax-taper  on  its  summit — the 
heaps  of  red-colored  eggs,  lumps  of  sugar,  pots  of  honey,  plates  of  pre- 
served fruit — all  these  painted,  illuminated,  many-colored,  strange-looking 
eatables,  and  collected  in  such  quantities,  must  have  a  very  singular  effect. 

As  the  priest  advances,  sprinkling  to  the  right  and  left,  and  pronouncing 

36 


5G2  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 

the  blessing,  while  his  attendant  keeps  up  a  constant  chant,  the  people 
press  closer  and  closer,  crossing  themselves,  and  keeping  a  sharp  watch 
that  their  flowers  and  food  get  their  due  share  of  the  purifying  Avatcrs. 

The  Russian  Easter  banquets  must  certainly  be  the  most  peculiar  things 
of  the  kind  that  can  be  seen,  both  from  the  time  at  which  they  are  taken 
(the  sun  often  rising  on  the  dessert),  and  from  the  appearance  and  demeanor 
of  the  guests.  Whole  colleges  and  corporations  come  in  gala-dresses  to 
pay  their  court.  Thus  the  professors  of  a  university  pay  their  respects  to 
the  curator,  the  judges,  secretaries,  and  other  officers  of  the  law-courts, 
to  their  president,  &c.  All  is  bowing,  congratulating,  and  kissing.  Tlie 
cooks  and  confectioners  give  themselves  a  world  of  trouble  to  prepare  their 
dishes  with  some  reference  to  the  time.  Lambs  made  of  butter  are  often 
paraded  in  the  middle  of  the  table,  the  fleece  admirably  imitated  in  the 
butter  also ;  lambs  of  sugar,  decorated  with  flags,  crosses,  &c.  Many 
dishes  appear  in  the  form  of  an  egg,  which  seems  to  be  held  almost  as 
sacred.  Some  years  ago,  a  court-lady  gave  an  Easter-breakfast  to  the 
imperial  family,  at  which  every  dish  at  table  was  served  up  in  eggs.  The 
soups  sent  up  their  savory  steam  from  gigantic  ostrich-eggs,  furnished,  as 
well  as  the  other  eggs  for  holding  hot  food,  b}^  the  porcelain  manufactory. 
Here  eggs  produced  chickens  full  grown  and  ready  roasted,  and  there  a 
monstrous  birth  developed  a  sucking-pig ;  while  pasties,  puddings,  creams, 
game,  fruit,  and  jellies,  blushed  through  egg-shells  of  fine  glass.  Lastly, 
by  way  of  dessert,  eggs  of  gold  paper  were  offered,  containing  almonds, 
raisins,  and  sweetmeats  of  all  sorts. 

To  be  thoroughly  national,  two  dishes  are  indispensable  at  an  Easter- 
breakfast — paskha  and  kiditsh.  PaskJui  is  made  of  curds  beaten  hard, 
and  served  in  a  pyramidal  form  ;  the  kulitsh  is  a  thick,  round,  cylindrically- 
sliaped  white  loaf,  sometimes  made  with  a  multitude  of  little  kulitsh i 
i:^ ticking  upon  it,  like  young  oysters  on  the  back  of  an  old  one,  with  plums, 
consecrated  palm-twigs,  &c.,  which  latter  always  project  a  little  from  the 
crust.     Both  must  be  decorated  with  flowers  and  wax-lights. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  the  Easter  festivities  is  the 
Easter-kiss,  already  incidentally  alluded  to,  and  amusingly  illustrated  by 
the  engraving  on  the  preceding  page.  We  will  endeavor  to  give  some 
idea  of  the  extent  of  this  singular  custom.  Li  the  first  place,  all  members 
of  a  family,  without  exception,  kiss  each  other  :  if  the  family  consist  only 
of  ten  individuals,  there  are  at  once  ninety  kisses.  Then  all  acquaintance 
meeting  for  the  first  time  at  Easter,  and  even  where  the  acquaintance  is 
but  slight,  would  think  it  a  breach  of  politeness  not  to  kiss  and  embrace 
each  other  with  the  greatest  cordiality.  If  we  suppose  now  that  every 
person  in  St.  Petersburg  has,  upon  a  very  moderate  average,  a  hundred 
acquaintances  more  or  less  intimate,  that  calculation  will  give  for  St. 
Petersburg  alone,  with  its  half-million  inhabitants,  a  sum  total  of  fifty  mil- 
lion Easter  embraces.  Let  us  consider  only  on  how  large  a  scale  many 
individuals  must  carry  on  the  business      Li  the  army  every  general  of  a 


FESTIVALS    AND    FASTS  —  EASTER-KISSES. 


563 


corps  of  sixty  thousand  men  must  embrace  all  the  officers,  every  colonel, 
those  of  his  regiment,  and  a  select  number  of  soldiers  into  the  bargain. 
Tiie  captain  salutes  all  the  soldiers  of  his  company,  who  are  mustered  for 


The  Empebob  giving  the  Cadets  the  Easter-Kiss. 


the  purpose.  The  same  in  the  civil  department;  the  chief  embraces  all 
his  subordinates,  who  wait  on  him  in  their  gala-dresses.  Considerino-  how 
numerous  are  the  divisions  and  subdivisions  in  a  Russian  bureau,  the'cliicf 
must  have  no  little  occasion  for  lip-salve  on  the  following  day ;  for  theso 


564  ■  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

official  caresses  are  by  no  means  mere  matters  of  pretence,  as  they  arc 
sometimes  on  the  stage,  but  real  downright  smacks,  such  as  might  be  ex- 
changed by  lovers.  A  subordinate  officer  has  enough  to  do,  who  has  often 
a  dozen  grades  above  him ;  but  as  to  the  poor  dignitaries,  they  must  be 
fairly  out  of  breath.  Herein,  of  course,  as  in  all  other  cases,  the  largest 
share  of  business  falls  to  the  emperor's  lot.  Let  us  consider  his  numerous 
family,  his  enormous  retinue,  the  countless  numbers  who  come  to  salute 
him  on  Easter  morning,  those  of  the  nobles  whom  he  is  more  intimate  with, 
and  may  meet  by  accident ;  and  even  then  he  has  not  done.  On  parade 
the  whole  body  of  officers,  the  cadets,  and  some  of  the  privates  picked  out 
for  the  occasion,  are  honored  with  an  imperial  embrace,  which  is  not 
refused  even  to  the  meanest  sentinel  of  his  palace  as  he  passes  him  on 
Easter  Sunday. 

As  all  these  caresses  are  given  and  received  with  the  greatest  cheerful- 
ness, and  amid  smiles  and  handshakings,  as  if  they  saw  each  other  for  the 
first  time  after  a  long  separation,  or  after  some  heavy  and  long-endured 
misfortune,  it  may  be  easily  imagined  how  many  gay  and  amusing  scenes 
are  passing  in  the  streets  and  liouses.  "  Christohs  vosskress,  Yefim  Ste- 
phanovich  "  ("  Christ  is  risen,  Eupliem  Stephen's  son"),  bawls  one  bearded 
fellow  to  another.  '•'■Voyst  venno  vosskress?''''  ("Ts  he  really  risen  ?") 
Then  they  seize  each  other's  hands,  embrace  heartily,  and  finish  witii 
"  Padjjom  v^kabak  braV^  ("  Let  us  go  to  the  public-house,  brother")  ;  and 
to  the  public-house  they  go,  where  the  brandy  runs  as  freely  as  clear  watei' 
in  Mahomet's  paradise.  It  is  an  exaggeration,  however,  to  assert,  as  some 
travellers  have  done,  that,  under  the  sliield  of  "  Christohs  vosskress,^''  any 
stranger  is  at  liberty  to  salute  any  unknown  fair  one.  It  is  true  that  even 
in  the  higher  circles  some  elderly  gentlemen  will  take  advantage  of  the 
season,  and  give  occasion  for  some  badinage  among  the  young  ladies, 
though  it  is  never  taken  amiss.  The  coachman  and  other  male-servants 
kiss  the  children  of  their  masters  without  ceremony,  but  only  the  hands  of 
tlie  grown-up  daughters  ;  the  domestics  on  these  occasions  fill  their  pockets 
with  painted  eggs,  one  of  which  is  presented  to  every  one  they  salute,  or 
from  whom  a  trifling  douceur  may  be  expected  in  return. 

During  the  whole  of  the  Easter-week  the  churches  stand  constantly  open, 
and  even  the  golden  doors  of  the  sanctuary,  which  remain  closed  through- 
out the  year,  excepting  at  certain  moments  during  divine  service,  now 
admit  the  gaze  of  all.  The  more  pious,  generally,  hear  a  long  mass  every 
morning  before  they  hasten  to  their  amusements.  The  holydays  are  closed 
by  a  "  final  mass,"  at  the  end  of  which  "  tlie  division  of  bread"  takes  place. 
Large  loaves  are  baked,  the  outei'  crust  of  which  is  colored  red,  and 
stamped  with  the  words  "  Christohs  vosskress  ihs  mortvui,^^  in  gold  letters. 
These  loaves  are  cut  into  small  pieces  ;  the  priests  fill  some  baskets  witli 
them,  carry  them  to  the  railing  round  the  altar,  and  tlirow  down  the  bits 
of  bread  among  the  people,  who  stretch  out  their  hands  with  eagerness. 
The  pieces  are  anxiously  examined  to  see  who  has  got  the  letters.     Those 


FESTIVALS   AND    FASTS RECOLLECTION    MONDAY.  565 

who  obtain  the  characters  forming  the  first  word  of  the  inscription  hold  it 
for  a  particular  piece  of  good-fortune ;  but  the  holders  of  the  last  word, 
'■'mortvui^''  (death),  on  the  other  hand,  are  much  grieved,  and  esteem  it  a 
very  bad  omen.  With  this  ceremony,  as  before  said,  the  Easter-holydays, 
l)roperly  speaking,  end.  Everything,  however,  has  a  conclusion,  then  an 
end,  and  then  a  real  and  complete  cessation.  So  there  comes  halting  be- 
hind the  Russian  Easter  yet  another  liolyday,  wliich  may  be  said  finally  to 
close  the  doors  of  these  festivals.  It  is  the  Monday  after  Easter,  called 
by  the  Russians  '■^  Pominatelnui  ponyede.lnik^^  ("Recollection  Monday"). 
This  Monday  is,  no  doubt,  brought  in  connection  with  Easter,  partly  be- 
cause it  follows  so  immediately,  and  partly  because  the  resurrection  of 
Christ  has  a  natural  connection  with  the  hoped-for  resurrection  of  those 
dear  to  us.  To  say  the  truth,  Recollection  Monday  is  a  kind  of  monster 
of  a  holyday,  for  in  the  manner  of  its  celebration  religious  gravity  is  so 
much  revolted,  and  yet  the  feeling  and  fancy  flattered  by  so  much  that  is 
kindly,  that  we  know  not  well  whether  we  should  condemn  it  for  its  inde- 
corum, or  cherish  it  for  its  child-like  simplicity.  In  the  morning  the 
people  flock  to  the  cemeteries,  and  after  attending  service  in  the  chapels 
belonging  to  them,  in  memory  of  and  honor  to  their  departed  friends,  take 
a  meal  over  their  graves  ! 

At  a  very  early  hour  the  never-wearied  holyday-folks  may  be  seen  setting 
forth,  with  bag  and  baggage,  on  foot  and  in  vehicles.  The  food  is  carried 
in  the  first  place  into  the  chapels,  and  laid  upon  the  table  in  the  middle. 
There  is  generally  a  large  round  loaf  in  the  midst  of  a  dish ;  and  round 
about  it  the  red-painted  Easter-eggs,  salt,  gingerbread,  oranges,  and  lemons. 
In  the  midst  of  the  loaf  a  lighted  taper  is  always  stuck,  without  which  a 
Russian,  no  more  than  a  Gheber,  can  observe  a  religious  solemnity,  the 
clear  flickering  flame  being  to  him  always  a  symbol  of  the  spiritual.  Every 
one  has  his  loaf  of  a  diflerent  form  from  the  rest ;  one  has  added  a  dish  of 
rice  and  plums,  another  a  pot  of  honey,  and  a  third  some  other  dish,  ac- 
cording to  his  means.  On  every  loaf  a  little  book  is  laid,  called  "  books 
of  remembrance,"  in  which  the  names  of  the  departed  are  usually  inscribed. 

After  the  usual  mass,  the  priests  approach  the  strangely-loaded  tables 
and  sing  prayers  for  the  dead,  swinging  the  censers  all  the  while.  They 
turn  over  the  leaves  of  the  before-mentioned  books,  and  introduce  the 
names  tiiere  found  in  the  prayer.  When  this  general  prayer  and  conse- 
cration is  over,  the  people  disperse  about  the  churchyard  ;  each  party  seek 
the  graves  of  their  friends,  particularly  of  those  lately  lost,  and  weep  over 
them.  The  greater  number  mourn  in  silence  ;  but  some,  whose  sorrow  is 
yet  new,  cast  themselves  in  despair  upon  the  earth,  and  give  it  vent  aloud. 

"  On  one  occasion,"  says  Kohl,  "  I  noticed  particularly  one  old  woman, 
whose  voice  of  lamentation  resounded  over  the  whole  burying-ground.  I 
went  up  to  her  and  asked  for  whom  she  mourned.  She  raised  herself  and 
answered  for  a  young  married  daughter.  Then  she  threw  herself  down 
again  with  her  face  to  the  grass,  and  cried  into  the  grave  as  if  her  child 


566  ILLUSTEATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

could  hear:  'Ah,  1113'  dearest  daughter,  why  hast  thou  forsaken  me?  Ah, 
thou  loveliest !  tliou  young  one !  why  hast  thou  left  thy  old  mother  with 
her  seventy  years  ?  Goulds t  thou  not  wait  till  she  had  gone  before  thee  ? 
Ah,  my  daughter,  is  it  not  against  nature  that  the  child  should  leave  her 
mother  un'tended  ?  And  thy  little  son,  thy  Fedor,  he  too  is  left.  Alas  I 
alas  !  my  daughter,  son  and  mother  are  left  alone  !'  Thus  she  mourned  till 
the  priests  came  to  her  grave.  I  can  not  express  how  deeply  the  lamen- 
tation of  this  poor  old  woman  affected  me,  as  she  chanted  her  sorrow  in  a 
kind  of  church-melody ;  now  and  tlien  ceasing  entirely,  and  burying  her 
gray  careworn  head  in  the  grass." 

The  jjriests  in  the  meantime  parade  the  churchyard  with  burning  tapers 
and  crucifixes,  and  perform  a  special  service  over  every  grave  where  it  is 
desired,  the  "books  of  remembrance"  being  handed  to  them  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  priests  are  generally  followed  by  troops  of  unfortunate  persons, 
cripples  and  beggars,  who  expect  to  receive  part  of  the  food  in  alms. 
Some  of  the  mourners  give  the  wliole  of  what  they  bring,  and  make  thus 
a  worthy  offering  to  the  departed.  The  majority,  however,  spread  their 
napkins  over  the  graves,  arrange  their  food  upon  them,  not  forgetting  the 
wine  and  brandy-bottles,  and  set  to  work  with  as  good  au  appetite  as  if 
the  day  had  been  preceded  by  seven  years'  of  Egyptian  famine  instead  of 
a  Russian  Easter.  The  priests,  of  course,  come  in  for  a  share,  and  taste 
something  at  every  grave.  Kohl  remarks  that  he  approached  one  com- 
pany, consisting  of  some  official  persons,  among  whom  there  was  one  dec- 
orated with  a  couple  of  orders.  These  people  had  covered  a  long  grave 
Avith  a  large  tablecloth,  and  had  loaded  it  abundantly  from  a  store  in  their 
carriage,  which  was  drawn  up  close  by,  and  out  of  wliich  tliey  were  con- 
tinually fetcliing  fresh  supplies !  Two  priests  wore  among  the  revellers  in 
this  group,  and  were  challenged  more  frequently  than  any  others  of  the 
party.  Not  before  night  are  the  dead  left  in  peace  in  their  last  resting- 
place,  and  many,  unfortunately  very  many,  leave  in  a  condition  which  may 
be  said  to  have  turned  the  day  of  remembrance  into  one  of  complete  for- 
gctfulness. 

The  great  excesses  committed  at  this  season  are  particularly  misplaced, 
when  the  digestive  system  has  been  so  much  lowered  in  tone,  and  cau.se 
much  sickness  among  the  lower  class  of  Russians  ;  so  that,  for  many,  their 
holydays  are  attended  by  very  evil  consequences.  The  hospitals  are  never 
so  full  as  after  Easter ;  and,  according  to  the  statement  recently  made  to 
a  traveller  by  a  Russian  physician,  statistical  M^^iters,  in  giving  the  bills  of 
mortality  for  the  several  months,  might  safely  quote  the  Easter  holydays 
as  in  some  measure  accounting  for  the  great  number  of  deaths  in  the  montii 
of  April. 


LITERATURE   AND   EDUCATION. 


567 


CHAPTER   XXII. 


LITERATURE    AND    EDUCATION, 


ITH  the  exception  of  tlie 
writings  of  the  monks, 
we  have  no  trace  of  Lit- 
erature of  any  kind  du- 
ring the  darker  period  of 
Russian  liistory.  Nestor,  Ba- 
sil, and  Sylvester — all  priests 
—  wrote  the  annals  of  their 
times  ;  Kyril,  too,  and  many 
other  holy  men  excelled  in 
theological  disquisitions,  some 
of  which  are  still  extant ;  but 
almost  every  record  of  that 
early  period  was  destroyed 
by  the  Mongol-Tartars  of  the 
Middle-Horde,  who,  for  up- 
ward of  two  hundred  years, 
kept  the  Muscovite  princes  in 
a  state  of  subjection.  It  was 
not  till  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  Russia  was  once  more  free  ; 
but  her  people  had  been  too  long  restrained  from  any  attempt  at  enlight- 
enment, by  their  savage  oppressors,  to  be  able  to  compete  with  their  more 
western  rivals  in  the  race  for  improvement :  those  fatal  years  had  given 
them  too  long  a  start,  and  the  Muscovites  abandoned  the  idea  of  emulating 
this  onward  progress  in  despair.  It  was  not  until  the  accession  of  Peter 
the  Great  to  the  throne  that  any  positive  change  took  place  ;  and  during 
this  period  the  jnore  educated  Russians  were  influenced  by  the  Polish  and 
German  literature  and  languages,  which  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact, 
that  Ivan  the  Terrible,  when  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Kazan  against  the 
Tartars,  obtained  the  assistance  of  certain  military  engineers  from  Ger- 
many, and  who  in  many  instances  remained  in  the  Muscovite  service.  Tho, 
influence  which  those  foreigners  exercised  was  soon  after  visible  through- 
out all  grades  of  Russian  society ;  and  from  that  time  the  moral  action  oi" 
the  example  of  western  Europe  upon  the  vast  territories  of  the  czarg  lius 
been  ever  increasing  and  progressive. 


Hyacintu  Bitchourin,  Oriental  T^inguist. 


5f58  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OP   RUSSIA. 

It  ^vas  in  the  reign  of  Ivan,  too,  that  the  first  printing-office  was  estab- 
lished at  Moscow ;  and  in  1565  he  founded  a  school  of  theology.  The 
Machiavellic  czar,  Boris  Godunoff,  though  his  reign  was  short,  also  inter- 
ested himself  in  the  education  of  the  young  Muscovite  nobility  of  his  time. 
The  czar  Michael,  the  first  of  the  present  house  of  Romanoff,  and  Alexis 
and  Feodor  III.,  the  father  and  brother  of  Peter  the  Great,  prepared  the 
way  ably  for  the  rapid  and  gigantic  strides  of  that  master-mind  among 
reformers. 

Peter  the  Great  was  essentially  practical  and  a  utilitarian.  To  teach 
his  people  tlie  habit  of  looking  for  information  into  books,  he  caused  a 
number  of  the  best  works  to  be  at  once  translated  into  Puss,  from  the  dif- 
ferent languages  of  Europe.  He  was  vigorously  assisted  in  his  laudable 
endeavors  by  Theophan  Prokovitch,  the  Archiepiscon  (archbishop)  of  Nov- 
gorod, who  from  his  virtues  and  talents  was  called  the  Muscovite  Chrysos- 
tom,  and  who  alone  wrote  no  less  than  sixty  works. 

In  1724  Peter  founded  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  St.  Petersburg.  His 
views  were  furthered  by  many  gifted  and  excellent  men ;  and  last,  but  not 
least,  by  Gluck,  the  Livonian  clergyman,  who  had  been  made  a  prisoner 
during  the  war  of  Peter  with  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  and  who  had  brought 
up  that  interesting  and  humble  girl  in  his  modest  household,  who  was 
afterward  destined  to  become  the  empress  Catherine  I.  of  all  the  Russias. 

During  this  period  of  Russian  history  and  the  reign  of  Peter  I,,  from 
1682-1725,  Prince  Kantemir  was  perhaps  the  most  brilliant  literary  light 
that  Russia  possessed  :  he  was  a  great  classic  and  linguist ;  he  wrote  upon 
very  many  subjects,  and  his  satires  are  still  greatly  admired ;  he  died  in 
1745.  As  lyric  poets,  two  Cossacks  particularly  distinguished  themselves, 
Kirscha  Daniloff  a,nd  Klemovki :  the  national  songs  of  the  former  writer, 
about  tlie  heroic  Vladimir  and  his  gallant  Boyai-ds,  are  still  admired  and 
prized  in  Russia. 

About  1724,  a  Russian  and  a  poet  turned  his  attention  to  the  nature  of 
his  native  language,  and  its  adaptability  for  poetry,  and  he  strenuously 
suggested  the  adoption  of  classical  metre,  founded  upon  measure  and 
quantity  ;  but  his  efforts  and  almost  his  works  were  soon  lost  sight  of,  not- 
withstanding the  warm  co-operation  of  the  empress  Catherine,  who  even 
went  so  far  as  to  impose  as  a  punishment  for  any  little  fault  of  etiquette 
among  her  courtiers,  that  they  should  learn  by  heart  a  certain  number  of 
the  verses  of  her  protege  —  their  quantity,  of  course,  being  commensurate 
with  the  little  offence  committed. 

The  empress  Catherine  I.,  Anna,  and  Elizabeth,  were  certainly  munifi- 
cent patronesses  of  the  belles  lettres.  It  was  in  the  year  1755,  and  during 
ihe  reign  of  Elizabeth,  that  the  university  of  Moscow  was  founded,  among 
many  other  educational  institutions,  subject,  of  course,  to  a  governmental 
censorship.  The  free  erection  of  printing-presses  all  over  the  country  was 
granted  by  a  ukase  in  the  year  1783,  during  the  reign  of  Catherine  11. 
The  bulk  of  the  people,  had,  of  course,  but  little  improved  by  these  efforts 


LITERATURE   AND   EDUCATION.  -  ,569 

at  mental  progress ;  and  yet  it  was  in  the  family  of  a  humble  fisherman  in 
.  the  north  of  the  empire,  from  the  neighborhood  of  Archangel,  that  Michael 
Lomonosoff  was  born,  about  the  year  1711  or  1712.  Notwithstanding 
every  difficulty,  he  made  himself  a  linguist,  a  scientific  authority,  and  a 
philosopher ;  he  for  some  time  pursued  his  learned  labors  and  researches 
at  Freiburg,  in  Germany.  Beside  being  the  author  of  the  Russian  Gram- 
mar, he  was  the  first  to  draw  a  distinct  line  of  demarcation  between  the 
ancient  Slavonic  and  the  modern  Russ  —  at  least,  as  spoken  in  his  day. 
He  wrote  a  history  of  his  country,  and  a  long  and  sustained  national  epic 
poem,  entitled  the  "  Petroide,"  which,  as  may  be  conceived,  was  a  lofty 
panegyric  upon  the  talents  and  virtues  of  his  imperial  master.  He  wrote 
principally  upon  mineralogy  and  chemistry  ;  he  was  also  the  author  of  sev- 
eral respectable  tragedies,  and  of  many  miscellaneous  works.  LomonosoflF, 
perhaps,  can  not  so  much  be  designated  a  great  and  original  genius,  as  a 
man  of  the  most  enlightened  capacity,  and  energetic  talent.  He  is,  how- 
ever, undoubtedly  the  father  of  Russian  Letters  —  and  was  the  first  "  litte- 
rateur^^ of  European  celebrity  that  the  country  had  produced.  After 
having  been  employed  by  the  government  with  distinction  for  the  greater 
portion  of  his  life,  he  died  in  1765,  universally  regretted  throughout  the 
empire. 

The  reign  of  Catherine  II.,  from  1762-1796,  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
epochs  of  Russian  history ;  and  the  period  between  the  death  of  Lomono- 
soflf  and  the  close  of  the  century  in  which  he  lived,  was  particularly  marked 
by  the  number  of  gifted  and  eminent  men,  whose  unceasing  energies  tended 
to  strengthen  and  nourish  the  tottering  childhood  of  Muscovite  literature 
as  it  then  stood.  The  "Iliad"  and  "  J3neid"  were  ably  translated  by 
Kostrofi"  and  Petrofl";  an  excellent  version  of  Pope  and  Locke  was  pre- 
sented to  his  countrymen  by  Popovski ;  and  Ariosto  and  some  portions  of 
the  "  Inferno  "  of  Dante  were  submitted  to  the  empress  by  Bulgakofl'. 

A  contemporary  with  Lomonosoff  was  Cheraskoft',  who  has  been  called 
the  Russian  Homer.  Sumarokoflf  for  a  considerable  time  was  his  rival  in 
public  opinion.  Both  these  poets  were  remarkable  for  their  extreme  fer- 
tility ;  and  the  number  of  tragedies,  comedies,  poems,  and  odes,  which  they 
produced  so  rapidly  was  the  theme  of  never-ending  astonishment  and  spec- 
ulation. But  Gabriel  Derjahvin,  who  was  born  about  the  year  1743,  was 
incontestably  the  greatest  Russian  poet  of  the  period.  His  ode  to  God 
has  not  only  been  translated  into  most  European  languages,  but  even  into 
the  Japanese,  according  to  the  Russian  traveller  Golownin,  who  saw  it 
hanging  in  a  place  of  honor  in  the  temple  of  Jeddo  ;  and  it  is  a  known  fact 
that  it  is  versified  in  the  language  of  the  Celestial  Empire,  where  it  is  hung 
up  in  tlie  palace  of  the  emperor,  printed  on  white  satin  and  in  letters  of 
gold.  Hippolyt  Bogdanovich,  a  charming  writer  upon  light  and  general 
subjects,  and  Chemnitzer,  the  fabulist,  also  flourished  at  this  period.  At 
the  same  era  several  eminent  Russians  occupied  themselves  with  the  for- 
mation of  the  national  theatre,  for  which  it  was  discovered  that  the  Mus- 


570  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF    RUSSIA. 

covite  genius  possessed  a  strong  and  decided  natural  aptitude.  Kuiasliuin, 
Ma'ikoif,  Nikoleff,  Klushin,  and  Daniel  von  Wisin  —  the  jtrotege  of  prince 
Potemkin — were  the  authors  of  several  chefs  d'aeuvres  of  dramatic  com 
position  which  have  descended  to  our  own  day,  and  which  afford  as  much 
pleasure  even  now  to  the  Russian  who  witnesses  them  as  upon  the  first 
occasion  of  their  representation.  The  first  Russian  theatre  was  opened  in 
Yaroslav  in  1746,  and  the  nucleus  of  a  national  stage  was  founded  at  Mos- 
cow in  1759 ;  and  in  St.  Petersburg  the  artistes  were  permitted  to  estab- 
lish themselves  by  letters  patent  as  early  as  1754. 

It  will  be  observed  that  from  tlie  very  earliest  period  the  Russians  have 
ever  sought  to  annalize  their  national  history  with  an  undoviating  devotion  ; 
and  this  can  only  be  attributed  to  the  feeling  of  patriotism  that  is,  and  has 
ever  been,  so  widely  diffused  throughout  the  empire.  Hence,  from  the 
most  remote  times,  when  the  little  learning  that  had  found  its  dubious  way 
to  the  hyperborean  wilds  of  Russia  was  celled  and  isolated  in  the  convents 
of  the  priesthood,  as  early  even  as  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century, 
the  work  had  begun  with  the  local  histories  of  Nestor,  which  were  con- 
tinued after  his  death  by  the  priests :  even  during  those  fearful  two  cen- 
turies and  a  half  when  the  Russians  were  writliiug  under  the  liorrors  of 
Tartar  dominion. 

Unhappily  these  relics  of  the  past  are  but  of  slight  value  out  of  Russia, 
and  of  little  interest  even  to  a  Russian,  as  they  treat  only  of  the  different 
phases  of  violence  and  anarchy,  caused  by  the  continual  wars  peculiar  to 
all  people  in  those  dark  times,  and  to  the  international  feuds  of  the  turbu- 
lent and  powerful  Boyards,  which  so  particularly  convulsed  Russia,  till  the 
advent  of  the  terrible  Ivan  Vassiliovich  to  the  throne  of  the  czars. 

But  the  period  of  which  we  are  writing — the  close  of  the  foregoing 
century  —  was  rich,  too,  in  the  appearance  of  historians  of  difterent  de- 
scriptions. Among  the  ranks  of  her  men  of  letters,  Golikoif,  Rietchkofi", 
and  Jemin,  gave  to  the  world  several  volumes,  the  contents  of  which  were 
dedicated  to  particular  portions  and  phases  of  the  history  of  the  country. 
Tcshulkoff  wrote  upon  the  rise  and  progress  of  commerce  in  his  native 
land ;  while  Boltin,  himself  an  historian  of  considerable  merit,  had  the 
lionor  of  reviewing  the  fifteen  volumes  of  Russian  history  written  by  the 
accomplished  Prince  Tchetcherbatoff.  Nor  must  Miiller  be  fi)rgotten : 
though  his  name  be  German,  he  himself  was  a  Russian,  and  the  whole  of  his 
existence  had  been  dedicated  to  tlie  furtherance  and  development  of  that 
Russian  literature,  of  which  he  had  himself,  as  it  were  witnessed  the  very 
birth.  He  published  the  first  Russian  periodical  in  1755,  the  columns  of 
which  were  principally  occupied  by  historical  subjects  of  interest  to  the 
Russias. 

The  year  1724  witnessed  the  foundation  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of 
Sciences  ;  and  in  1783  that  of  the  Imperial  Russian  Academy ;  and  in  less 
than  five  years  afterward,  the  last-named  institution  published  the  first 
(true)  standard  grammar  of  the  language,  together  witli  an  etymological 


LITERATURE   AND    EDUCATION.  571 

dictionary  of  considerable  pretension,  and  upon  an  arrangement  of  a  novel 
nature.  These  important  steps  in  philological  advancement  were  particu 
larly  induced  by  the  munificent  patronage  and  general  encouragement 
allbrded  them  by  tlie  empress  Catherine  II.  There  was  also  a  host  of  bibli- 
cal and  theological  writers  at  the  close  of  the  last  century ;  and  it  were 
needless  to  name  them  all,  except  to  state  that  Konnisk,  an  archiepiscon 
of  Western  Russia,  and  Platon  Leovshin,  the  metropolitan  of  Moscow,  were 
the  most  eminent  of  all  these  authors  in  dogmatic  and  speculative  religion. 
Of  the  latter  distinguished  theologian,  it  may  be  as  well  to  mention,  that 
one  of  his  most  important  works,  entitled  "  The  Summary  of  Christian 
Divinity,"  has  been  translated  by  Doctor  Pinkerton,  in  his  "  Present  State 
of  tlie  Greek  Church  in  Russia." 

From  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  and  during  the  reigii 
of  the  emperors  Alexander  and  Nicholas  I.  —  from  1801  to  the  present 
moment — the  progress  of  Russian  letters  has  been  accelerated  with  a 
rapidity  and  success  tliat  are  really  marvellous.  In  the  year  1820  alone, 
nearly  three  thousand  five  hundred  works  were  produced,  about  a  thousand 
of  which  had  been  translated  from  the  French,  English,  and  German 
tongues.  This  fecundity  in  literary  productions  may,  in  a  great  measure, 
Ije  attributed  to  the  liberal  encouragement  of  the  emperors,  and  the 
t!iorout>li  reformation  whicli  thev  had  set  on  foot  in  all  tlie  scientific  insti- 
tutions  of  the  country.  The  various  existing  academies  were  reorganized 
aud  extended,  while  four  new  universities  were  added  to  the  empire.  In 
1823,  a  college  was  founded  in  the  new  capital,  for  the  study  and  culture 
of  the  oriental  languages  ;  and  a  few  years  later  Odessa  boasted  of  a  simi- 
lar school.  The  most  marked  success  has  attended  them  all,  which  was, 
no  doubt,  the  result  of  the  interest  which  the  government  experienced  in 
the  olrject  sought  to  be  attained  —  not  the  least  salient  proof  of  which  was 
ihe  express  clause  in  the  treaty  of  peace,  which  was  entered  into  during 
the  reign  of  Alexander,  with  Persia,  in  1813,  at  Gulistan,  wherein  he  stip- 
ulated expressly  for  the  delivery  to  the  Russian  plenipotentiaries  of  five 
hundred  of  the  most  valuable  manuscripts,  the  names  of  wliich  had  been 
drawn  up  by  those  distinguished  authorities  on  Orientalism,  Senkovski  and 
his  colleagues,  and  which  were  known  to  be  in  the  possession  of  the  Per- 
sians. They  were  afterward  deposited  in  the  Imperial  library  at  St. 
Peters))urg,  for  the  use  of  the  students  of  the  oriental  scliools,  which  were 
no  doubt  originally  founded  for  the  training  of  diplomatic  agents  among 
those  people,  but  which  have,  nevertheless,  been  of  the  greatest  utility  to 
the  study  of  the  philology  of  the  East,  not  only  for  the  Russians  themselves, 
but  for  all  Europe.  Among  these  invaluable  relics  of  past  ages,  are  the 
\  Geography  of  Ptolemy,  and  some  translations  in  the  Arabic  of  several  im- 
portant Greek  and  Latin  works,  of  which  the  originals  are  no  longer  extant. 
Nicholas  Karamzin  is,  however,  the  next  literary  luminary  of  whom  we 
have  to  treat.  He  died  in  1826.  His  principal  work  is  his  "  Istoria  Ros- 
siskago  Gosudarstva,"  or  "  History  of  the  Russian  Empire,"  but  which 


572  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

only  extends  to  the  accession  of  the  present  dynasty — the  illustrious  house 
of  Michael  Romanoff,  in  the  year  1613.  It  consists  of  eleven  volumes. 
And  this  most  important  production  has  been  translated  into  the  more 
prominent  languages  of  Europe.  Its  second  edition  was  published  in  1818. 
His  other  voluminous  labors  have  been  collected  and  condensed  into  nine 
large  volumes,  which  were  again  given  to  the  public  in  1820,  in  the  form 
of  a  third  edition.  His  career  of  literary  distinction  was  commenced  by  a 
periodical  work  which  he  published  under  the  title  of  the  "  Moscow  Jour- 
nal." The  second  periodical  which  he  owned  and  edited  was  the  "  Euro- 
pean Messenger." 

Karamzin  is  essentially  a  Russian  writer,  and  no  Muscovite  ever  under- 
stood the  pliancies  and  delicacies  of  his  language  so  well ;  but  the  charm 
of  his  writings  is  so  purely  one  of  idiom,  so  entirely  national,  that  it  is  next 
to  impossible  for  a  foreigner  to  appreciate  him  according  to  his  merits. 
In  his  lyrical  poems,  and  indeed  throughout  his  entire  works,  there  exist 
a  warm  patriotism,  a  national  verve,  a  grace  and  an  indescribable  tender- 
ness, that  must  always  endear  them  to  his  countrymen  ;  while  the  learning 
and  indefatigable  research  displayed  in  his  superb  "  History  of  the  Russian 
Empire"  will  ever  constitute  it  the  standard  work  upon  this  subject  in  the 
repertory  of  Slavonic  literature  :  and  it  is,  perhaps,  from  the  period  of  his 
influence  that  the  renewed  energy  to  be  remarked  in  literary  taste  in  Rus- 
sia may  be  deduced. 

Ivan  Demitriev,  it  is  considered,  exercised  as  much  influence  upon  Rus- 
sian poesy  as  Karamzin  had  effected  upon  the  prose  of  his  language.  He 
was  as  remarkable  for  the  correctness  of  his  style  as  for  the  richness  and 
versatility  of  his  imagination. 

Prince  Viazemski,  Rilejeff  (who  was  executed  for  his  share  in  the  un- 
happy conspiracy  of  1825),  Vostokoff,  the  Slavonic  philologist,  Khvostoff 
Batjushkoff,  Glinka,  and  Baron  Delwig,  whose  works  were  reviewed  in  the 
French  and  English  periodicals,  are  all  esteemed  as  lyrical  poets  of  more 
or  less  importance.  Baron  Rosen  was  also  a  very  successful  translator  of 
Lord  Byron,  whose  works  were  enthusiastically  admired  and  imitated  by 
Kosloff,  who,  notwithstanding  blindness,  lameness,  and  continued  ill-health, 
dedicated  his  life  to  the  literature  of  his  country,  in  which  he  was  emi- 
nently successful.  Nareshnoi  must  not  be  forgotten  in  this  rapid  synopsis 
of  the  literati  who  distinguished  themselves  at  that  particular  period.  He 
is  the  author  of  "  Bursack,"  a  Malo-Russian  tale.  This  work  is  a  kind  of 
Russian  "  Gil  Bias." 

The  first  expedition  of  the  Russians  round  the  world  was  undertaken  in 
the  year  1803  ;  and  the  travels  of  Admirals  Krusenstern,  Wrangel,  Laza- 
reff,  and  Captain  Golownin,  say  much  for  the  enterprise  and  honor  of  Rus- 
sia and  her  sons.  Tlie  voyages  into  China  of  Timovsky  are  already  known 
and  valued  out  of  Russia,  by  means  of  translations.  Bronevski  and  Mura- 
vieff  fully  explored  tlic  Caucasus  and  Taurida — the  result  of  which  i^ 
several  volumes,  replete  with  the  most  valuable  information ;  while  Bii- 


LITERATURE   AND   EDUCATION.  573 

cliourin  has  given  one  of  the  best  accounts  extant  of  Thibet  and  the  country 
of  the  Mongols  and  Tartars.  MartinofiF  excelled  in  his  translation  of  the 
classics  ;  and  the  "  Jerusalem"  of  Tasso,  the  "'  ^neid,"  and  "  Iliad"  were 
successively  and  successfully  rendered  into  Russian  by  Vojekoflf,  Gneditch, 
and  Mertzjakoff.  It  was  then,  too,  that  Ivan  Kriloff  became  so  deservedly 
popular  as  a  fabulist.  There  is  an  air  of  nature,  a  sweetness  about  his 
works,  that  is  not  often  found  elsewhere.  He  was  also  acknowledged  to 
have  been  the  best  speaker  of  his  time  of  the  Russian  language,  and  has 
even  been  styled  the  Russian  "  La  Fontaine."  He  has  also  been  translated 
into  German,  French,  and  Italian. 

We  now  come  to  the  time  when  Alexander  Pushkin,  the  brightest  genius 
of  Russian  poetical  literature,  had  arrived  at  the  zenith  of  his  reputation, 
and  stood,  as  he  has  since  done,  unrivalled  and  alone.  He  was  born  in 
1793,  and  he  died  violently  in  the  flower  of  his  days,  at  the  early  age  of 
thirty-seven,  the  victim  of  domestic  unhappiness  and  of  a  terrible  duel. 
Pushkin  acquired  his  education  at  one  of  the  imperial  institutes.  At  the 
very  outset  of  his  career,  a  production  which  he  thought  proper  to  bring 
before  the  public,  and  which  was  conceived  with  too  much  latitude  of  sen- 
timent, procured  his  removal  from  St.  Petersburg.  He  was,  however, 
employed  by  the  government  officially,  in  the  southern  provinces  of  the 
empire,  to  which  he  was  banished ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  his 
genius  became  tinctured,  and  probably  more  developed,  by  the  wild  scenery 
and  poetical  influence  of  the  semi-civilized  region  in  which  he  sojourned. 
In  the  meanwhile  the  present  august  ruler  of  the  Russias  had  placed  the 
diadem  of  the  czars  upon  his  brow,  and  the  imprudent  poet  was  recalled. 
But  the  advent  of  the  emperor  to  the  throne  had  taken  place  amid  an 
armed  insurrection,  and  his  majesty  felt  that  to  bulwark  the  Russias  from 
foreign  revolutionary  example,  the  most  legitimate  and  politic  steps  would 
be  to  bring  her  back  to  the  full  appreciation  of  her  own  old  Muscovite 
nationality.  The  elevated  and  the  educated  classes  who  had  so  long  been 
iiccustomed  to  look  to  France,  England,  and  Germany,  for  their  senti- 
ments, opinions,  manners,  and  even  for  their  language,  had  almost  forgotten 
that  they  were  Russians,  in  Russia.  Between  those  higher  phases  of  society 
and  the  masses  an  impassable  gulf  then  existed :  a  more  insurmountable 
one,  indeed,  than  ever  had  been  before  or  since,  for  its  peculiarly  antago- 
nistic form  was  the  utter  absence  of  the  remotest  sympathy  between  the 
classes  :  the  higher  ones  appearing,  in  fact,  as  if  they  were  mere  "  sojourn- 
ers in  the  land"  of  the  Muscovite  "people." 

Pushkin  had  ever  been  remarkable  for  the  nationality  of  his  effusions, 
though  he  had  also  evinced  in  them  a  spirit  of  restlessness,  and  a  yearn- 
ing after  a  vague  independence,  which  seems  to  have  even  actuated  him 
personally  in  the  earlier  and  more  stormy  period  of  his  brilliant  career. 
The  literary  efforts  born  of  this  influence  possessed  a  double  character,  for 
they  were  at  the  same  time  national  and  individual,  and  reflected  the  ten- 
dencies of  Russian  genius,  and  the  individuality  of  Pushkin,  and  the  poets 


574  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

who  followed  so  enthusiastically  in  his  steps  ;  the  effervescence  of  wild  and 
uncontrolled  passion,  the  pursuit  of  an  impossible  ideal,  the  worship  of  an 
indefinite  and  unknown  liberalism,  by  turns  opposed  or  gained  the  ascend- 
ency over  the  calm,  measured,  and  hitherto  acknowledged  tone  of  Russian 
literary  feeling.  The  fiery  genius  of  Lermon toff  was  the  first  tliat  identi- 
fied in  his  own  writings  this  dangerous  tendency  of  the  school  of  Pushkin, 
which  found  its  last  representative  in  the  literary  efforts  of  a  young  con- 
temporary poet,  Maikoff,  Toward  the  latter  end  of  his  life,  and  even  at 
the  period  of  his  reappearance  in  the  literary  circles  of  the  metropolis, 
Puslikin,  whose  taste  had  been  refined  by  study  and  experience,  would  fain 
have  led  back  the  national  taste  he  had  misled,  to  the  more  sober  and 
classic  path  from  which  he  had  originally  lured  it  witli  the  perilous  glitter 
of  his  own  surpassing  talent ;  but  it  was  too  late  :  the  fascination  of  liis 
style  had  taken  too  deep  a  root  in  the  hearts  of  the  young  writers  of  the 
day,  who  would  soon  have  transformed  what  iiad  been  the  self-possessed 
and  sober  Russian  muse  into  a  wild  and  licentious  Bacchante.  The  em- 
peror, fearful  of  her  doing  herself  and  others,  perhaps,  an  injury,  confined 
her  as  closely  to  her  home  as  was  possible  —  the  Russian  heart — her  proper 
dwelling-place,  to  the  revival  of  the  old  Russian  nationality.  The  most 
rigorous  measures  were  adopted,  even  to  the  restriction  of  the  absence  of 
the  wanderer  from  his  Russian  fatherland,  to  five  years  at  tlie  furthest,  the 
institution  of  a  severe  censorship,  and  the  interruption  of  the  study  of 
philosophy  throughout  the  empire ;  though  when  safe  from  foreign  propa- 
gandism,  and  within  the  cordon  sanitaire  of  the  protected  interior,  the 
grand  work  of  general  national  progress  continued  with  unabated  vigor. 
Of  the  exalted  opinions  of  these  enthusiasts  the  only  one  tolerated  by  the 
government  was  the  idea  of  Panslavism  —  that  is,  the  incorporation  into 
one  vast  whole  of  all  the  races  of  Slavonic  origin. 

Alexander  Pushkin  was  by  this  time  highly  patronized  by  his  imperial 
Majesty,  Nicholas  I.,  and  had  been  promoted  to  the  honorable  position  of 
imperial  historiographer  for  his  laudable  endeavors  to  repress  the  evil  he  had 
so  powerfully,  and  perhaps  unwittingly,  induced ;  for  his  devotion  to  the 
cause  of  nationality,  at  that  time  so  particularly  encouraged  by  the  govern- 
ment ;  and  for  his  unequalled  genius.  But  the  chastened  style  of  Pushkin 
wanted  in  power  and  originality  wliat  it  gained  in  purity  and  legitimacy. 
He  had  harnessed  his  Pegasus  to  the  car  of  expediency,  and  it  had  lost  the 
use  of  its  wings,  if  not  the  freedom  of  its  action.  It  will  only  be  necessary 
here  to  say  that  some  of  his  works  exist  in  manuscript,  and  are,  for  polit- 
ical reasons,  preserved  in  the  imperial  cabinet.  The  last  work  of  Alex- 
ander Pushkin  was  the  "  Istoria  Bunta,"  or  the  history  of  the  "  Insurrection 
of  Pougatcheff."  The  death  of  Pushkin  was  caused  by  a  duel  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, soon  after  his  marriage,  in  1835,  when  he  fell  a  victim  to  jealousy 
and  the  machinations  of  others. 

Nicholas  Gogol  now  appeared  in  the  literary  firmament,  with  the  power 
and  the  intention  to  direct  the  genius  of  his  country  toward  the  new  goal 


LITERATURE    AND    EDUCATION.  575 

nationality  —  and  to  this  end  he  strove  to  awaken  afresh  the  interest 

that  the  Russians  had  Ijcen  taught  to  feel  in  their  own  character  as  a  peo- 
ple. Gogol  made  it  his  study  to  examine  and  analyze  Russian  life  in  all 
its  phases ;  and  it  was  not  long  ere,  by  his  instrumentality,  a  succession 
of  romances  and  comedies,  based  upon  the  actual  state  of  society,  took 
precedence  of  the  many  works  that  would  have  perpetuated  the  fiery  and 
dangerous  inspirations  of  Pushkin,  and  of  his  school.  This  influence  was 
so  powerful,  and  its  effects  so  successful,  that  when  the  revolution  took 
place  in  1848,  there  was  but  one  tendency  throughout  the  entire  field  of 
Muscovite  literature — namely,  nationality. 

Nicholas  Gogol  is  distinguished  from  the  other  authors  of  his  nation  by 
a  faculty  of  analysis  and  a  creative  power,  rarely  found  united  in  the  same 
individual.  He  is  equally  at  home  when  painting  outward  and  visible 
objects,  with  a  graphic  verve  and  sharpness  of  outline  that  is  positively 
lifelike  and  startling;  or  when  he  applies  his  extraordinary  talent  to  the 
innermost  and  secret  phenomena  of  the  human  heart.  His  style  is  origi- 
nal and  deliglitful ;  his  passages  of  the  most  biting  satire  are  followed  by 
sudden  bursts  of  tenderness,  with  an  impulsiveness  and  nature  altogether 
peculiar  to  the  Slavonic  genius. 

The  melancholy  fate  of  Alexander  Bestushev  should  at  least  entitle  him 
to  a  notice  in  this  list  of  distinguished  men  of  letters.  He  was  a  subaltern 
officer  in  the  guard,  and,  like  his  friend  and  fellow-poet  Rileyez,  was  fatally 
committed  in  the  conspiracy  of  1825.  He  was  tried,  found  guilty,  and 
sent  to  Siberia,  having,  of  course,  been  previously  deprived  of  his  nobility. 
Afterward,  however,  and  through  the  interest  of  the  Miloradovich  family, 
his  sentence  was  commuted  to  service  as  a  common  soldier,  in  that  portion 
of  the  Russian  army  then  actively  employed  in  the  Caucasus.  In  this  dis- 
advantageous position,  by  dint  of  sheer  merit  and  gallantry,  he  again  won 
his  epaulets,  and  soon  after  died  bravely  by  the  bullets  of  the  Caucasian 
mountaineers.  He  was  the  author  of  a  highly-talented  synopsis  of  Russian 
literature,  and  the  editor  of  a  very  popular  periodical,  "  Severnaja  Swesda," 
the  "  Polar  Star."  He  afterward  wrote  under  the  name  of  Marlinski ;  and 
Ids  Cossack  tales,  and  sketches  of  Siberia  and  the  Caucasus,  as  well  as  his 
novels,  are  written  with  a  freshness  and  spirit  that  are  charming.  His 
style  has  been  likened  to  that  of  Spindler,  the  German  novelist,  and  his 
contemporary. 

Historical  romance  is  a  very  favorite  study  among  the  Russian  literati. 
Among  the  workers  in  this  field  of  Russian  literature  may  be  mentioned 
Galitsch,  Laschetnikoff,  Skobelev,  Degouroff,  Prince  Odojevski  Veltman, 
Dahl,  who  gives  his  works  to  the  public  under  the  pseudonym  of  Cossack 
Luganski ;  Grebenka,  celebrated  for  his  humorous  sketches  of  Malo-Rus- 
sia  ;  Gautcharoff,  formidalde  for  the  keenness  of  his  satire ;  Grigorovich, 
the  novelist  of  the  fields  and  the  peasantry ;  and  Boutkoff,  the  lifelike  de- 
lineator of  the  social  state  and  habits  of  the  lower  classes  of  his  country- 
men.    By  the  force  of  talent  and  perscA^e ranee,  Boutkofi"  raised  himself 


576  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

from  the  very  class  which  he  paints  so  ably,  and  to  the  amelioration  and 
advancement  of  whose  moral  position,  to  his  honor  be  it  said,  he  has  dedi- 
cated his  genius.  Tourgenieff  also  should  be  mentioned,  as  having  stepped 
down  from  tlie  elegiac  mood  to  go  with  the  current  of  the  common  ten- 
dency in  favor  of  romance  literature.  The  scenes  of  his  creations  are 
almost  all  laid  in  the  country  and  the  provinces  ;  and  his  best  work  in  that 
g-enre,  "The  Recollections  of  a  Sportsman,"  will  be  found  in  every  Russian 
library. 

In  1841  the  Count  Sololioupe  entered  the  arena  of  letters ;  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  historiettes  written  by  him,  and  published  under  the 
name  of  "Nason  Griadutchi"  ("The  Narcotic"  —  or,  more  literally,  " To 
Cause  Sleep")  had  already  been  enthusiastically  received  in  private;  and 
they  were  equally  applauded,  when  given  to  the  world,  by  the  public  at 
large.  His  next  important  works  are  the  "  Tarantasse,"  "  Ytchera  i  Seg- 
donia,"  or,  "Yesterday  and  To-day,"  and  the  "Sotrudniki"  ("Confede- 
rates"), which  we  believe  to  be  the  latest  of  his  works,  published  as  late 
as  1851.  We  can  not  here  enter  into  a  review  of  the  works  of  this  author, 
but  we  will  merely  add,  that  alike  in  the  "Tarantasse,"  which  is  full  of 
deep  and  manly  thought  upon  the  mighty  resources  and  destinies  of  his 
country,  and  in  the  "Narcotic,"  which  is  the  lightest  of  his  productions — 
indeed  throughout  everything  he  has  written  —  there  is  a  melange  of  keen 
observation,  solid  depth,  and  serious  patriotism,  of  aristocratic  finesse, 
humor,  irony,  and  acute  sensibility. 

The  ladies,  on  the  other  hand,  have  shown  by  their  efforts  their  willing- 
ness and  power  to  further  the  cause  of  Russian  belles-lettres.  The  names 
of  Mesdames  Pauloff,  Panaieff,  Teplef,  Bunin,  the  Princess  Yolhonski,  and 
Helene  Hahn,  who  has  been  compared,  and  not  without  reason,  to  Madame 
Dudevant  (George  Sand),  are  all  celebrated ;  nor  must  the  Countess  Ros- 
topchin  be  forgotten,  who  has  at  once  cultivated  the  bright  fields  of  poetry 
and  romance.  The  works  of  this  lady  are  distinguished  by  the  elevation 
of  sentiment  that  pervades  them,  by  the  easy  and  artistic  style  with  which 
they  are  sustained  throughout,  and  by  the  fine  and  delicate  womanly  feel- 
ing that  gives  them  their  principal  charm.  The  eminent  success  of  this 
gifted  lady  is  clearly  accounted  for,  however,  when  we  recollect  that  she 
is  the  authoress  of  a  most  elegant  little  poem,  the  subject  of  which  is 
"  How  a  Woman  should  Write." 

If  we  turn  to  the  consideration  of  historical  science  in  Russia,  Ave  find 
that  the  archaeological  commission  was  opened  in  1834,  and  the  libraries 
of  France,  England,  Germany,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  other  countries, 
were  visited  at  the  imperial  expense,  and  ransacked  for  data  and  informa- 
tion ;  and  the  first  five  volumes  of  Russian  annals  passed  through  the  press 
in  1844.  This  institution,  in  conjunction  with  the  historical  and  geograph- 
ical societies  of  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg,  met  with  such  success  in  these 
researches,  as  threw  considerable  light  upon  many  portions  of  Russian  his- 
tory, and  added  a  fresh  impetus  to  the  pens  of  the  scientific  and  imagina- 


LITERATURE   A^l)   EDUCATION.  577 

tive  writers  of  the  day.  Professor  Ustraloff  published  in  1839  his  "  His- 
tory of  Russia,"  in  which  the  theory  of  Panslavism  was  developed  in  a 
novel  and  masterly  manner.  Its  leading  object  is  to  represent  the  Russian 
empire  as  the  natural  and  central  head  of  all  the  races  of  Slavonic  origin. 
This  is  a  work  of  considerable  importance,  and  was  translated  into  German 
in  1840,  one  year  only  after  its  publication. 

Nadeshkin,  too,  wrote  a  book  of  decided  interest  to  tlie  Russian  public, 
entitled,  "  Treatise  on  the  Geography  of  the  Old  Russian  World,"  in  which 
it  was  sought  to  trace  the  seats  of  the  ancient  Slavonic  nations,  and  with 
very  much  the  same  tendency  as  the  work  of  Ustraloff. 

Professor  Kupffer,  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences,  made  a  voyage 
through  the  Ural,  and  published  the  results  of  his  observations  in  1833. 
Schurovsky  visited  the  same  regions,  and  wrote  an  historical  and  statisti- 
cal work  in  the  year  1846.  Hyacinth  Bitchourin,  the  priest,  whose  por- 
trait is  given  at  the  head  of  this  chapter,  and  others,  still  continue  their 
useful  researches  among  the  wild  Mongols  and  Thibetians.  The  govern- 
ment has  lately  caused  to  be  written,  the  "  History  of  the  Commerce  with 
Persia  and  Turkey,"  by  the  councillor-of-state,  Von  Hagemeister,  the  same 
who  paid  a  scientific  visit  to  the  great  London  exhibition  of  1851.  And 
Chaudoir,  encouraged  by  the  same  patronage,  wrote  his  celebrated  "  Nu- 
mismatics of  China,  Corea,  and  Japan."  Both  these  works  are  published 
at  the  same  time  in  the  Russian  and  French  languages. 

In  statistics,  Constantino  Arsenieff  stands  pre-eminent ;  his  last  work 
was  published  in  1848.  But  the  works  of  Pallas,  printed  as  early  as  1771, 
of  Krasheninnikoff,  Lepechin,  Richkoff,  Tihihatcheff,  and  others,  are  still 
considered  the  standard  authorities. 

Among  the  most  approved  historical  novelists  may  be  mentioned  Bul- 
garin,  Puschkareff,  Swinin,  Massolski,  Zagoskin,  and  many  more.  It  need 
hardly  be  observed  that  the  history  of  their  own  country  was  the  never- 
failing  source  from  which  they  drew  their  inspiration  and  their  subjects. 
Jevjeni  Grebenka,  and  Kvitka,  have  written  humorous  romances  in  the 
Malo-Russian  dialect,  with  a  view  to  its  cultivation ;  and  the  intention  is 
most  praiseworthy,  if  only  for  the  wealth  of  Slavonic  popular  poetry,  which 
is  scattered  over  the  Ukraine  and  Malo-Russia  in  general ;  indeed,  wher- 
ever tlie  Ruthenian  tribes  have  wandered  for  a  time,  or  settled  definitely. 

The  Russian  drama  has  made  rapid  progress  since  the  beginning  of  this 
century.  The  works  of  Shakspere  and  Schiller  have  of  course  served  as 
models,  and  their  masterpieces  have  long  since  been  successfully  translated 
and  performed  in  Russian.  The  stage  also  now  begins  to  assume  a  more 
decided  and  national  character,  and  of  late  years  many  pieces  and  operas, 
of  which  the  subject  and  music  are  essentially  Russian,  have  been  brought 
out.  In  comedy,  Russia  is  very  fertile  ;  and  among  the  latest  productions 
are  several  wliich  depict  Russian  society  to  the  life.  But  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  empire  has  not  yet  produced  a  great  tragic  author ;  and 
though  her  store  of  theatrical  compositions  is  very  ample,  yet  it  is  not  so 

37 


^T8  ii.ltjstkat'ed  description  of  Russia, 

i^elcct  as  those  slie  possesses  in  history,  poetry,  and  romance.  The  great- 
est possible  facilities,  however,  have  ever  been  and  are  still  afibrded  to  the 
development  of  dramatic  talent  in  every  form.  During  the  reign  of  his 
late  majesty,  Alexander,  and  also  since  under  Nicholas  I.,  the  theatres  and 
the  artistes  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow  have  been  encouraged  by  the 
immediate  imperial  patronage,  and  liberally  salaried  from  the  privy  purse. 
All  dramatic  artists  who  leave  Russia  after  a  stay  of  ten  years,  have  a 
pension  of  four  hundred  dollars  each,  also  out  of  the  emperor's  privy  purse. 

From  the  enjoyment  which  the  Russians  of  all  classes  take  in  every 
species  of  scenic  diversion,  the  theatre  is  particularly  a  popular  amusement. 
During  the  season  at  St.  Petersburg,  which  continues  the  whole  of  the  win- 
ter, residents  may  choose  between  the  Italian,  German,  and  Russian  operas, 
the  Russian  and  French  plays,  or  the  ballet,  for  there  are  always  three  or 
four  foreign  dramatic  corps  in  that  city  at  this  time,  and  the  performances 
take  place  every  evening  at  each  of  the  imperial  theatres  in  rotation. 
There  are,  independent  of  the  one  near  the  Hermitage,  three  large  theatres 
in  the  imperial  capital :  the  Bolshoi,  or  Great  Theatre  (a  view  of  which  is 
given  on  the  opposite  page),  on  the  square  of  that  name  between  the  Moika 
and  Catherina  canals  ;  the  Alexander  Theatre,  in  the  Nevskoi  Prospekt ; 
and  the  French,  in  the  square  near  the  palace  of  the  grand-duke  Michael. 
The  performances  at  the  two  former  are  devoted  to  Russian  and  German 
plays,  and  operas,  tlie  latter  to  French  and  German  dramas.  The  houses 
are  spacious,  very  nearly  semicircular  in  shape,  and  handsomely  decorated; 
and  a  magnificent  box  for  the  imperial  family  occupies  the  centre  of  the 
first  two  tiers.  The  arrangements  for  the  accommodation  of  the  public  is 
exceedingly  good,  every  seat  being  numbered  in  such  a  manner  as  entirely 
to  prevent  confusion.  The  state  box,  however,  is  seldom  used,  the  impe- 
rial family  generally  occupying  one  next  to  the  stage,  contiguous  to  that 
of  the  grand-duke  Michael ;  opposite  is  one  similarly  decorated  for  the 
uiinistre  de  la  cour.  The  entire  pit  is  fitted  with  arm-chairs  (kraslya), 
numbered  on  the  back,  the  numbers  commencing  from  the  orchestra ;  and 
on  obtaining  a  ticket  at  the  kassa,  on  which  the  number  of  the  seat  is  like- 
wise specified,  an  usher  in  the  imperial  livery  at  once  conducts  the  visiter 
to  his  appointed  place,  and,  in  case  it  is  already  occupied,  ejects  the  intru- 
der in  the  most  summary  manner.  The  ordinary  price  for  these  seats  is 
one  silver  rouble,  but  in  the  two  rows  nearest  to  the  stage  they  are  two 
silver  roubles.  On  extraordinary  occasions,  however,  the  public  are  put 
under  extra  contribution;  and  sometimes  prices  have  been  rsiised fivefold, 
an  armchair  in  the  pit  being  six  silver  roubles,  or  somewhat  more  than  four 
dollars ;  the  other  prices  are  raised  in  proportion,  and  even  at  these  ex- 
orbitant rates,  every  seat  is  engaged  for  five  or  six  evenings  in  advance. 

Excepting  the  Chinese,  there  is,  perhaps,  no  language  in  tlie  world 
so  fraught  with  difficulties  as  the  Russian.  In  the  first  place,  the  alphabet 
possesses  nine  more  letters  than  the  Roman  or  our  own,  and  is  made  up 
of  Greek,  Roman,  and  Slavonic  characters.     In  1699,  the  first  Russian 


LITERATURE   AND   EDUCATION.  581 

I)Ook  was  printed  at  Amsterdam,  and  it  was  about  the  year  1704  or  1705 
that  Peter  the  Great  himself  made  many  alterations  in  the  old  Slavonic 
letters,  for  the  purpose  of  assimilating  them  more  nearly  to  the  Latin  ones  ; 
and  the  first  Russian  journal  was  printed  with  this  type  at  St.  Petersburg 
in  1705  —  four  years  after  the  foundation  of  that  city — from  a  font  which 
had  been  cast  for  him  by  artists  brought  from  Holland.  In  the  old  Slavo- 
nic alphabet  there  are  forty-six  letters ;  but  the  modern  Russian  language 
comprises  only  thirty-five.  In  all  matters,  however,  of  a  theological  na- 
ture, the  antique  form  is  even  now  retained,  and  this  constitutes  the  differ- 
ence between  the  ^^  Czerkovnoi'^  and  ^^  Ch'ashdanskoi,^^  or  the  civil  and 
church  alpliabet.  This,  in  a  great  measure,  must  explain  the  difficulties 
which  a  foreigner  would  have  to  contend  with,  in  attempting  to  render 
himself  master  of  the  Russian  language  ;  but  if  it  were  possible  for  him  to 
do  so  perfectly,  he  would  discover  an  extraordinary  copiousness,  a  deli- 
cacy, and  beauty  of  expression,  that  would  indeed  surprise  him.  The 
Russians,  having  been  in  the  earlier  and  darker  portions  of  their  national 
history  subjected  to  Scandinavian,  Mongolian,  Tartar,  and  Polish  influence, 
have  preserved  many  of  the  words  and  idioms  of  the  several  dialects. 
Another  remarkable  feature  in  the  Russian  language  is  the  extraordinary 
facility  of  construction  it  admits  of,  and  rarely  with  danger  of  becoming 
obscure  or  unintelligible :  in  this  it  much  resembles  Greek  and  Latin  ;  but 
its  leading  peculiarity,  and  perhaps  defect,  is  a  paucity  of  conjunctions. 
And  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  this  may  account  for  the  Russian  language 
being  so  singularly  comprehensive  and  distinct,  since  it  can  merely  allow 
of  comparatively  short  sentences  ;  notwithstanding  which,  its  adaptability 
for  the  purposes  of  poetry  are  incontestable  ;  but  whether  it  is  really  capa- 
ble of  entirely  following  and  imitating  the  classic  metres,  is  still  a  vexata 
qucestio  among  Slavonic  philologists. 

In  common  with  all  dialects  of  Slavonic  origin,  the  Russian  is  also  re- 
markable for  its  euphony  and  versatility  ;  and  it  also  embraces  not  only 
the  sounds  of  every  known  language,  but  every  guttural  lisp  and  slur  of 
which  the  human  voice  is  capable. 

The  language  is  also  divided  into  three  leading  dialects.  The  first  is 
the  "  Russian  proper,"  or  the  language  spoken  in  the  two  capitals,  Moscow 
and  St.  Petersburg,  and  throughout  the  northern  and  central  portions  of 
the  empire ;  it  is  the  literary  language  of  all  the  Russias.  Secondly,  in 
the  southern  and  southeastern  provinces  the  ilfa/o-Russian  is  spoken  — 
which  dialect  is  supposed  to  approach  nearer  to  the  "  old  Slavonic"  than 
any  of  the  others :  the  idiom  of  Red  Russia,  in  the  northern  and  eastern 
districts  of  Hungary,  and  to  the  eastward  of  Galicia,  inhabited  by  the 
Russniacks,  is  almost  identical  with  the  Malo-Russian.  Thirdly,  in  Li- 
thuania and  Volhynia,  and  other  portions  of  Western  Russia,  the  people 
speak  the  White-Russian  dialect.  The  geographical  position  of  these 
districts  should  fully  account  for  the  Polish  words  and  idioms  which  are 
here  to  be  found.     This,  the  youngest  of  the  Russian  dialects — although 


5B2  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

tlie  first  translation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  was  made  in  it — is  also  the 
furthest  removed  of  the  three  from  the  old  Slavonic. 

The  pursuit  of  literature,  in  Russia,  as  a  profession,  and  as  the  sole 
object  of  life,  is  considered  as  something  utterly  inadmissible.  All  men, 
whether  belonging  to  the  fourteen  classes  of  nobility  or  not,  must  follow  a 
profession,  or  devote  their  time  to  the  service  of  the  empire,  by  attaching 
themselves  to  the  army,  the  diplomatists,  or  the  governmental  offices.  No 
amount  of  personal  wealth  or  talent  can  absolve  the  individual  from  this 
moral  duty  to  society  and  to  the  state.  Peier  the  Great,  indeed,  enacted 
a  most  positive  law  to  that  effect,  and  though  the  edict  may  have  fallen  by 
the  lapse  of  time  into  disuetude  in  its  judicial  capacity,  its  spirit  still  exists 
in  full  force.  The  '■'■  dolce  far  niente^^  existence  of  utter  idleness  and  ca- 
price, peculiar  to  the  wealthy  and  the  '■^  men  of  pleasure''''  of  Western 
Europe,  is  utterly  unknown  in  Russia ;  and  the  man  who,  in  full  possession 
of  his  health,  strength,  and  faculties,  would  attempt  to  brave  public  opinion 
on  this  point,  would  soon  find  himself  treated  by  society,  in  return,  with 
the  slightest  possible  consideration  ;  and  it  is  only  during  the  hours  snatched 
from  the  study  or  practice  of  a  profession  that  the  pen,  in  a  literary  sense, 
can  be  employed. 

Notwithstanding,  however,  the  disadvantages  under  which  literature  vx 
Russia  labors,  it  is  acquiring  an  importance  which  nothing  now,  it  is  be- 
lieved, can  repress.  This  may  be  believed  when  it  is  stated  that  from 
1833  to  1843  (a  period  of  nearly  ten  years),  according  to  the  official  re- 
turns of  the  minister  of  ^'-Narodnago  Prosvestchenija"  (public  instruction), 
no  less  than  seven  millions  of  volumes  of  Russian  books  were  printed,  and 
nearly  five  millions  of  foreign  works  were  imported.  In  one  particular 
year  of  that  period,  in  1839,  eight  hundred  and  eighty  different  works 
were  printed  and  published  within  the  Russian  dominions  ;  and  an  average 
of  only  seventy  of  this  number  were  translated  from  foreigii  languages. 

Though  Russia  still  ranks  among  the  more  imperfectly  educated  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  the  government  has  long  taken  a  lead  in  the  cause  of 
popular  education,  and  promulgated  a  complete  national  system,  which, 
though  not  yet  carried  into  full  effect,  has  made,  and  continues  to  make, 
effectual  progress.  The  basis  of  this  system  was  laid  by  Peter  the  Great, 
and  promoted  by  Catherine  II.,  but  is  indebted  for  its  fuller  developments 
to  Alexander  and  Nicholas.  It  divides  the  whole  country  into  university 
districts,  in  each  of  which  a  university  fully  equipped  either  has  been,  or 
is  intended  to  be  erected.  Each  district  extends  over  several  governments, 
all  the  public  schools  in  which,  consisting  of  a  regular  gradation  of  gym- 
nasia, district  and  parish  schools,  are  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
university.  Other  important  schools,  not  subject  to  the  same  superintend- 
ence, are  classed  under  the  heads  of  military,  ecclesiastical,  and  special. 
To  give  unity  and  vigor  to  the  whole  system,  a  special  ministry  of  publii; 
instruction  (incidentally  alluded  to  above)  is  appointed,  which  forms  one 
of  the  great  departments  of  the  state. 


LITERATURE   AND   iEDIJCATION.  •  683 

There  arc  now  (to  briefly  sura  up  the  results  of  this  national  system) 
upward  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  young  persons  in  Russia  receiv- 
ing instruction  of  some  kind  from  fifteen  thousand  teachers,  an  average  of 
one  teacher  to  about  seventeen  pupils,  a  very  favorable  proportion  to  the 
student-  Taking  the  entire  population  of  Russia  at  sixty-five  millions, 
one  individual  in  two  hundred  and  sixty  receives  the  benefits  of  instruction. 
This  is  a  small  proportion  compared  with  the  United  States,  where,  accord- 
ing to  the  last  census  report,  four  millions  of  youth,  at  the  rate  of  one  in 
every  five  free  persons,  are  receiving  instruction  from  one  hundred  and 
fifteen  thousand  teachers,  in  nearly  one  hundred  thousand  schools  and  col- 
leges. Nevertlieless,  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  well-educated  yomig 
persons,  dispersed  each  year  in  the  difierent  quarters  of  that  huge  empire, 
can  not  fail  to  leave  their  mark  upon  the  national  character. 

We  know  more  about  the  quantity  than  the  quality  of  these  schools,  as 
Russian  publicists  have  seldom  anything  to  say  on  the  subject ;  but  it  is 
generally  admitted  that  the  military  institutions  are  of  the  highest  ordei'. 
The  agricultural  school  of  the  imperial  domain  is  said  to  be  admirably 
managed,  and  is  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  Nicholas.  Two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  peasants  are  thoroughly  instructed  in  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical cultivation,  and  are  then  sent  to  model-farms  in  various  parts  of  the 
country,  to  set  a  reforming  example  to  the  neighborhood.  The  tuition 
lasts  four  years,  and  is  divided  into  three  periods.  In  the  first  year,  the 
boys  are  taught  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  surveying.  In  the  sec- 
ond, grammar,  mathematics,  and  the  elements  of  agriculture ;  and  during 
the  third  and  fourth,  agriculture,  practically  as  well  as  theoretically,  ami 
mechanics.  Beside  these  branches,  they  are  instructed  in  trades  which 
may  be  useful  to  the  farmer,  such  as  tailoring,  shoemaking,  cabinet-making, 
cooperage,  blacksmith's  and  carpenter's  work,  and  in  the  construction  of 
agricultural  machines.  A  foundry,  a  brickyard,  a  pottery,  a  tanyard,  a 
candle-and-soap  factory,  and  a  windmill,  are  attached  to  the  school.  It  is 
not  required  that  each  student  shall  pursue  all  these  branches.  The  teacli- 
crs  are  to  judge  of  the  aptitude  of  each  pupil,  and  to  direct  him  accord- 
ingly ;  but  every  one,  upon  leaving  the  establishment,  is  expected  to 
possess  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  general  principles  and  practice 
of  agriculture,  and  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  collateral  branches. 

At  the  last  exposition  of  the  agricultural  products  of  Russia,  at  St. 
Petersburg,  the  various  objects  sent  in  by  this  school  excited  great  atten- 
tion. The  leathers,  in  particular,  were  of  so  fine  a  quality  that  they  were 
selected  for  exhibition  in  the  World's  Fair  of  London,  in  1851. 


584  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 

MEANS    OF    TRAVEL. 

THE  roads  of  Russia,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  principal  lines,  are 
universally  represented  by  travellers  as  being  the  most  execrable  in 
Europe.  The  inconvenience  and  evils  resulting  from  this  fact,  how- 
ever, are  much  lessened  during  a  portion  of  the  year,  by  the  frost  render- 
ing the  worst  roads  fit  for  sledge-travelling,  and  during  the  warm  season 
by  the  number  of  navigable  rivers,  and  the  extension  that  has  been  effected 
by  the  construction  of  numerous  canals,  giving  a  continuous  navigation 
from  the  Arctic  ocean  to  the  Black  sea,  and  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Caspian, 
with  an  intersection  of  branch  canals,  by  which  all  the  great  towns  of  the 
interior  have  ready  access  to  their  outports  and  to  each  other.  The  valu- 
able communications  thus  provided  are  about  to  receive  a  vast  accession 
from  the  railway  system,  for  which  the  configuration  of  the  country  afibrds 
unwonted  facilities.  The  period  is  probably  not  far  distant  when  the  Rus- 
sian territory  will  be  traversed  with  a  network  of  iron,  connecting  all  its 
important  points  both  in  the  interior  and  on  the  seaboard,  affording  facili- 
ties, at  all  seasons,  for  the  prompt  transport  of  goods  and  merchandise, 
and  to  the  man  of  business  or  the  tourist  an  agreeable  and  rapid  transit 
across  the  length  and  breadth  of  this  mammoth  empire. 

The  first  railway  that  was  constructed  in  Russia  was  that  leading  from 
St.  Petersburg  to  Czarsko  Selo,  a  distance  of  seventeen  miles.  This  road 
was  opened  in  1837.  At  the  beginning,  it  was  rather  regarded  with  preju- 
dice by  the  mass ;  but  as  it  was  undertaken  with  the  consent  and  counte- 
nance of  the  emperor,  no  one  dared  to  raise  objection.  By  the  time  it 
went  into  active  operation,  and  the  imperial  family  had  passed  and  repassed 
several  times  in  safety,  it  began  to  be  looked  upon  with  more  favor,  and  it 
became  quite  fashionable  to  ride  down  to  Czarsko  Selo  or  to  Paulofsky, 
the  Vauxhall  of  Russia.  Maxwell  relates  the  following  characteristic  in- 
cident, connected  with  the  early  travel  on  this  road :  — 

"  On  one  occasion,  the  confidence  of  the  Russian  public  was  interrupted 
by  a  serious  accident.  The  cars  took  fire,  and  several  people  who  could 
not  or  would  not  break  open  the  doors  of  the  carriage  in  which  they  were 
riding,  were  burned  to  death.  There  is  nothing  that  so  shocks  a  Russian 
community  as  accidents  attended  with  loss  of  life.  When  Carter  the  lion- 
tamer  went  to  St.  Petersburg,  he  was  permitted  to  exhibit  his  animals,  but 


MEANS   OF   TRAVEL  —  RAILWAYS. 


585 


Winter  Tuavklling  —  Sledges. 


not  to  enter  the  cages,  lest  he  would  be  devoured  in  the  presence  of  the 
people.  In  consequence  of  this  accident  upon  the  railroad,  no  one  would 
run  the  risk  of  travelling  by  steam  to  Czarsko ;  and  the  emperor,  in  a 
paroxysm  of  rage,  ordered  the  president  of  the  company  to  appear  before 
him.  This  happened  to  be  no  less  a  person  than  a  descendant  of  the  great 
Catherine,  a  left-handed  cousin  of  his  majesty,  and  by  universal  report  one 
of  his  most  intelligent  and  faithful  subjects.  He  was  fortunately  absent  on 
a  visit  to  his  estates,  in  the  south  of  Russia.  Couriers  were  instantly  de- 
spatched, with  orders  to  the  count  to  repair  immediately  to  St.  Peterslnirg, 
and  report  himself  to  his  liege  lord  and  master.  He  rode  night  and  day, 
and  reached  the  city  in  the  evening.  The  autocrat  was  at  the  theatre. 
Thither  went  the  count,  and  in  the  lobby  adjoining  the  imperial  box  he 
received  the  indignant  rebuke  of  his  angry  sovereign.  Fortunately  the 
tempest  was  partially  allayed  before  his  arrival ;  the  count,  moreover,  was 
a  favorite,  and  well  knew  the  man  he  had  to  deal  with.  He  received  the 
imperial  threats  with  due  submission,  and  was  dismissed  with  orders  to  be 
at  the  railway  station  at  an  early  hour  the  next  morning.  He  was  there 
at  the  appointed  time,  and  so  was  Nicholas.  An  engine  was  ordered  to 
'  fire  up,'  a  car  was  attached  thereto,  and  away  went  the  master  and  the 
subject  for  Czarsko  Selo.  No  accident  occurred.  His  majesty  was  gra- 
cious, the  count  was  most  agreeable.  They  returned  in  safety  ;  and  when 
they  left  the  car,  the  emperor  embraced  the  noble  president  of  the  railroad 
company  avec  effusion  de  cceur.  Public  confidence  was  restored,  stock 
went  up,  and  travel  was  immediately  renewed." 

This  road  was  followed  by  the  great  enterprise  undertaken  by  the  empe- 
ror, in  which  he  took  a  deep  interest,  of  a  first-class  railway  from  St.  Pe- 
tersburg to  Moscow,  four  hundred  miles  in  length.  In  the  prosecution  of 
this  work,  the  late  Major  Whistler,  who  was  one  of  the  efficient  engineers 
of  the  western  railroad  in  Massachusetts,  was  invited  thither  through  the 


586  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

agency  of  Mr.  Bodisco,  the  Russian  minister,  and  was  employed  in  a  very 
responsible  situation  in  the  conduct  of  the  work,  until  his  death,  which  took 
place  a  short  time  before  it  was  finished.  Under  the  agency  of  Major 
Whistler,  a  large  number  of  American  mechanics  were  invited  to  Russia, 
and  employed  in  the  construction  of  locomotives  and  machinery.  This 
work  was  constructed  under  the  direction  of  the  minister  of  public  works, 
Count  Kleir  Michel,  aided  by  Major  Whistler,  and  was  opened  on  the  1st 
of  November,  1851.  It  is  found  to  be  of  immense  benefit  to  the  commerce 
of  the  country,  and  the  business  upon  it  is  daily  increasing.  The  passage 
is  made  from  one  capital  to  the  other  in  twenty-two  hours,  which  previously 
occupied  four  days,  in  diligent  travelling  day  and  night. 

Oliphant,  who  passed  over  this  road  in  1853,  thus  graphically  describes 
the  journey,  and  also  alludes  to  some  of  the  annoyances  incident  to  travel- 
ling in  Russia  even  by  railway :  — 

"  We  proceeded,  bag  and  baggage,  to  the  station  of  the  Moscow  rail- 
way. Only  one  train  starts  daily  ;  and  the  hour  at  which  this  most  import- 
ant event  takes  place  is,  or  ought  to  be,  eleven,  A.  M.  Travellers  are 
commanded  by  the  government  to  be  at  the  station  at  ten  precisely ;  and 
even  then  they  are  liable  to  be  told  that  the  train  is  full — as  it  is  quite  an 
unheard-of  thing  to  put  on  an  extra  carriage  for  any  number  of  passengers. 
Having  arrived,  therefore,  at  ten  minutes  before  ten,  to  be  quite  sure  of 
being  in  time,  our  luggage  was  seized  by  a  soldier,  policeman,  or  railway 
porter  (for  they  all  wear  somewhat  the  same  uniform),  and  carried  in  one 
direction,  while  we  rushed  in  another  to  show  our  passport  for  Moscow,  to 
procure  which  we  had  been  to  three  different  offices  the  day  before.  Here 
the  descriptions  of  our  persons  and  our  reasons  for  travelling,  which  it 
contained,  being  copied  at  full  length,  we  were  hurried  to  another  counter, 
where  we  got  it  stamped ;  whence,  catching  sight  of  our  baggage  en  pas- 
sant, we  sped  on  to  the  ticket-office,  and  then,  returning  to  our  portman- 
teaux, we  went  through  a  few  formalities,  which  ended  in  receiving  a  ticket 
to  add  to  the  number  of  those  with  which  our  pockets  were  now  pretty  well 
filled.  The  anxiety  of  mind  which  such  a  variety  of  documents  causes  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at,  when  the  consequences  which  the  loss  of  any  of 
them  would  entail  are  considered.  Ladies  in  Russia  do  not  think  of  try- 
ing to  carry  their  tickets  in  their  gloves.  We  now  betook  ourselves  to  the 
waiting-room,  which  we  should  have  thought  handsome  had  we  not  been 
detained  in  it  so  long  that  we  got  tired  of  admiring  it.  For  an  hour  did 
the  destined  occupants  of  the  train  sit  patiently  on  the  benches,  every  man 
with  head  uncovered  ;  for  even  a  skull  cap  is  an  abomination  to  a  Russian 
under  a  roof.  Every  man  in  military  garb  seemed  to  have  the  e7itree  to 
the  platform,  while  the  doors  were  rigorously  shut  against  us  unhappy 
civilians.  At  a  quarter  before  eleven,  however,  they  are  opened,  a  general 
rush  follows,  and  we  are  hurried  through  a  barrier,  the  doors  of  which  close 
behind  us.  Soon  the  whole  barrier  becomes  thronged  with  people  waving 
their  adieus  as  ardently  as  if  we  were  booked  for  Australia      A  bell,  a 


MEANS   OP   TRAVEL RAILWAYS.  587 

wliistle,  and  a  sort  of  dull  attempt  at  a  scream,  arc,  as  in  more  civilized 
parts  of  the  world,  the  signals  for  starting  ;  we  leave  the  weeping  eyes  and 
waving  pocket-handkerchiefs  beliind  us,  and,  in  the  course  of  ten  minutes, 
find,  to  our  satisfaction,  that  we  have  increased  our  speed  to  fifteen  miles 
an  hour.  We  have  liardly  done  so  ere  we  arrive  at  a  station.  Everybody 
rushes  out  and  lights  a  cigarette.  We  are  to  stop  here  ten  minutes,  and 
the  people  during  that  time  walk  up  and  down  the  platform,  and  smoke ; 
then  we  huddle  into  our  old  places,  and  have  time  to  look  about  us.  The 
carriages  are  large.  Nobody  seems  to  go  in  the  first-class.  A  second-class 
carriage  accommodates  about  fifty  people.  They  are  built  as  in  Austria 
and  America,  with  a  passage  in  the  centre,  perambulated  by  a  man  in  uni- 
form, who  occasionally  asks  people  for  their  tickets.  He  seems  to  make 
inquiry  the  first  time  to  satisfy  himself  that  you  have  got  one,  and  after- 
ward merely  as  an  amusement,  which  he  apparently  enjoys  the  more  if  he 
fancies  you  are  going  to  sleep.  The  men  are  bearded  and  dirty,  and  relate 
stories  in  a  loud  tone  of  voice,  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole  company,  most 
of  whom  have  evidently  never  been  in  a  railway  before. 

"  At  every  station  the  same  scene  ensues.  The  unsmoked  ends  of  the 
last  station's  cigars  having  been  carefully  preserved,  are  lighted  afresh,  and 
vehemently  smoked  on  the  platform  during  five  or  ten  minutes,  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  stations  are  all  very  spacious,  and  uniformly  constructed, 
with  an  immense  domed  building  for  engines  attached  to  each.  Though 
there  is  only  one  passenger-train  daily,  there  are  three  goods-trains,  always 
well  loaded  with  inland  produce,  tallow,  fur,  tea,  &c.,  or  with  cotton  from 
.'^t.  Petersburg  to  the  interior.  I  should  hardly  think  the  line  could  pos- 
sibly pay ;  but  as  it  is  a  government  concern  nobody  has  any  means  of 
ascertaining  this  fact.  Whether  it  pays  or  not,  the  railway  traveller  in 
Russia  soon  discovers  that  the  requirements  of  trade  are  as  little  regarded 
by  government  as  his  own  personal  convenience  ;  for  the  restrictive  policy 
of  the  empire  must  ever  neutralize,  in  a  great  measure,  the  beneficial 
eficcts  of  rapid  internal  communication,  while  the  difficulties  which  have 
always  been  placed  in  the  way  of  free  mercantile  intercourse  exist  in  full 
force,  though  the  physical  obstacles  by  which  it  has  hitherto  been  encom- 
passed are  overcome.  In  fact,  though  tlie  public  can  not  but  be  benefited 
by  the  formation  of  railroads  through  a  country,  it  is  hardly  for  tlie  public 
l)enefit  that  railroads  are  constructed  here.  Russian  railroads  seem  to  be 
meant  for  Russian  soldiers ;  and  it  is  the  facility  thus  afforded  of  moving 
large  bodies  of  men,  that  invests  this  mode  of  communication  in  Russia 
with  an  importance  wliich  does  not  attach  to  it  in  Great  Britain,  or  perhaps 
any  other  country  in  Europe,  to  an  equal  extent.  When  St.  Petersburg, 
Moscow,  Odessa,  and  Warsaw,  become  connected,  Russia  assumes  an  en- 
tirely new  position  with  regard  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  A  few  days,  instead 
of  many  months,  Avill  then  suffice  to  concentrate  the  armies  of  the  nortli 
and  south  upon  the  Austrian  or  Prussian  frontiers.  Through  this  same 
quarter  of  the  world,  many  hundred  years  ago,  poured  those  barbaric 


588  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

hordes  which  overran  civilized  Europe ;  it  would,  indeed,  be  a  singular 
testimony  to  the  spirit  of  the  age,  if  the  next  invaders  made  their  descent 
by  means  of  railroads." 

The  road  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Moscow  was  hardly  finished  when  the 
emperor  ordered  the  construction  of  another  gigantic  road,  between  St. 
Petersburg  and  Warsaw.  This  road  will  be  six  hundred  and  seventy 
miles  long.  It  will  pass  by  the  cities  of  Louga,  Pskov,  Dunaburg,  Wilna, 
Grodno,  Vileka,  Yiala,  Niemen,  and  Narev.  A  company  has  also  been 
formed  at  Riga  for  building  a  branch  to  this  road,  which  is  to  unite  that 
seaport  with  the  city  of  Dunaburg,  and  thus  connect  Riga  with  the  two 
capitals  of  Russia  and  Poland.  This  branch,  the  track  of  which  was  laid 
out  by  the  engineer  Gouzenback,  will  be  one  hundred  and  forty  miles  in 
length.  It  will  keep  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Duna,  and  will  pass  near 
the  cities  of  Jacobstadt  and  Freidrichstadt.  The  capital  is  fixed  at  nine 
millions  roubles.  Another  line  is  projected  to  unite  Dunaburg,  by  Smo- 
lensk, with  Moscow,  and  establish  a  direct  communication  between  this 
ancient  Russian  capital  and  Warsaw  by  the  route  which  was  pursued  by 
the  advance  and  retreat  of  the  French  army  in  1812,  In  the  south  of  the 
empire,  a  company  is  about  to  undertake  the  construction  of  a  railroad 
between  Kharkov  and  Odessa.  This  road  will  cross  the  Dnieper,  at 
Krementchoug,  above  the  rapids  which  obstruct  the  navigation  of  the 
river.  This  road  will  benefit  the  commerce  in  grain  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  line  from  Dunaburg  to  Riga  is  destined  to  help  forward  that  of  linen 
and  timber.  Finally,  in  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  where  for  some  years  the 
line  from  Warsaw  to  Myslovitz  (in  Prussian  Silesia)  has  been  in  full  ac- 
tivity, two  other  lines  are  thought  of:  one  from  Warsaw  to  Bromberg,  the 
other  from  the  same  capital  to  Posen ;  but  the  arrangements  necessary  to 
be  made  with  the  Prussian  government  for  this  purpose  have  not  reached 
a  satisfactory  conclusion.  The  line  from  Warsaw  to  Myslovitz,  a  little 
more  than  two  hundred  miles  in  length,  puts  the  capital  of  Poland  in  com- 
munication by  railway  with  Vienna  and  Berlin,  and  consequently  with  Paris. 
When  the  line  which  is  to  join  Warsaw  to  St.  Petersburg,  is  completed  and 
opened  for  travel,  the  immense  distance  which  separates  France  and  Rus- 
sia may  be  travelled  over  in  four  or  five  days.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  all  these  projected  lines  have  been  more  or  less  interrupted 
by  the  war  in  which  Russia  has  unfortunately  become  involved  with  the 
western  powers  of  Europe. 

Until  superseded,  however,  by  a  general  railway  system  throughout  the 
empire,  the  wretched  roads  incidentally  alluded  to  at  the  opening  of  the 
chapter  must  continue  to  furnish  a  serious  drawback  to  locomotion  on  Rus- 
sian territory.  A  few  details  in  relation  to  these  roads  and  roadside 
accommodation  will  not  be  out  of  place  here.  The  whole  distance  from 
Odessa  to  Moscow  is  a  mere  track,  marked  by  verst-posts,  about  ten  feet 
high,  and  by  them  the  traveller  is  guided  across  the  open  steppe  ;  but  these 
posts  do  not  determine  the  width  of  the  track  ;  each  carriage  picks  its  own 


MEANS   OP  TRAVFX  —  ROADS.  589 

way,  either  a  huudrcd  yards  or  half  a  mile  to  the  right  or  left,  as  the  horses 
o)-  driver  may  think  fit.  This  track  can  not  be  called  a  road,  in  the  same 
sense  that  it  would  be  in  this  country  ;  it  is  merely  traced  over  the  natural 
soil,  and  there  is  not  a  shovelful  of  material  laid  down,  nor  is  there  any 
fencing  or  draining.  In  tlie  winter,  the  verst-posts  are  the  compass  of  the 
steppe,  and  without  them  it  would  be  impossible  to  travel  after  heavy  falls 
of  snow ;  late  in  the  season  the  track  is  so  uneven  that  persons  are  often 
thrown  with  violence  out  of  their  sledges.*  In  wet  weather  it  is  almost 
impassable,  and,  after  the  thaw  has  set  in,  quite  so,  for  a  few  weeks. 
Traffic  is  then  almost  suspended,  and  the  transport  of  the  mails  becomes  at 
this  period  a  service  of  some  danger,  as  the  wooden  bridges  which  have 
been  taken  up  during  the  winter  are  not  replaced  till  the  weather  is  settled, 
and  the  Yagers  are  sometimes  obliged  to  pass  the  rivers  on  rafts.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  spring  the  ground  is  suddenly  hardened  in  all  its  inequal- 
ities of  ruts,  holes,  and  hillocks,  by  the  slight  frosts  which  follow  the  thaw, 
and  in  the  summer  retains  much  of  the  inequality  it  then  assumed,  particu- 
larly through  forests,  where  the  track  is  narrow,  and  consequently  more  cut 
up.  In  the  continuous  heat  of  summer,  which  withers  all  the  grass  on  the 
steppe,  some  inches  deep  of  the  surface  is  beaten  into  dust,  and  in  windy 
weather  a  veil  over  the  face  is  almost  indispensable.  In  some  districts, 
trees  are  planted  by  the  side  of  the  track,  but  they  are  not  much  more  pic- 
turesque, and  certainly  in  this  season  not  more  verdant,  than  the  verst-posts. 

The  road  to  Archangel  is,  in  many  parts,  boarded  with  planks,  laid  flat 
across  it ;  when  quite  new  it  is  well  enough,  but  wood,  as  a  material  for 
road-making,  is  not  exactly  suitable ;  there  are  still  some  corduroy  roads 
in  the  environs  of  St.  Petersburg.  These  roads  are  constructed  of  small 
trees  and  logs  laid  transversely,  and  bad  as  they  are  they  have  their  value, ' 
for  without  them  it  would  be  impossible  to  get  across  some  parts  of  the 
country. 

There  is  not,  on  the  public  roads,  any  fixed  time  or  place  for  the  travel- 
ler to  take  his  meals,  and  no  specified  hour  for  arriving  at  or  quitting  any 
particular  town.  Some  travellers,  and  we  may  add  most  Eussians  and  all 
sensible  persons,  take  care  to  order  what  is  either  ready  or  quickly  pro- 
cured, and  seldom  keep  the  courier  waiting ;  others,  not  sufficiently  versed 
in  the  cuisine,  order  dinners  of  so  many  dishes,  and  the  consequence  almost 
invariably  is  that  the  stranger  subjects  himself  to  imposition  by  naming 
some  dish  not  mentioned  in  the  carte.  In  addition  to  this,  the  chances  are 
that  the  horses  are  put  to  about  the  time  the  eatables  make  their  appear- 
ance ;  the  courier  inserts  his  swarthy  visage  at  the  door,  and  after  saying 
"  Gotovo''^  (ready),  vanishes,  only  to  reappear  again  with  his  watch  in  his 
hand,  repeating  the  magic  word  gotovo;  a  glass  of  wine,  or  something 
stronger,  offered  to  the  conductor,  may  have  its  effect,  and  if,  as  these  men 
generally  are,  he  is  a  good-natured  fellow,  the  hungry  traveller  will  be 
allowed  to  finish  his  dinner. 

*  This  form  of  accident  is  iptly  illustrated  by  the  engraving  on  page  212. 


590  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

The  posthouses  in  most  parts  of  the  empire  are  mere  huts,  commonly 
constructed  of  mud  or  pine  logs ;  in  the  latter  case  they  swarm  with  cock- 
roaches ;  there  is  no  accommodation  beyond  a  table,  chairs,  and  a  rough 
cane-bottomed  or  wooden  sofa,  and  the  traveller  has  no  right  to  expect 
more  than  to  walk  into  the  room  next  to  that  in  which  the  padaroshnas 
are  entered,  throw  himself  upon  it  in  his  cloak,  and  there  take  his  rest, 
"  if  rest  it  be  which  thus  convulses  slumber,"  for  upon  it  he  is  not  likely  to 
sleep  alone.  The  fair  pilgrim  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  describes  these 
post-stations  on  the  Riga  road  as  "  fine  buildings  outwardly,  but  otherwise 
whitened  sepulchres."  This  charge  will  not  hold  good  against  those  in  the 
steppe,  for  there  is  no  whitewash,  and,  therefore,  no  deception ;  they  are 
what  they  appear  to  be,  mud  or  wooden  structures  of  the  humblest  kind. 
The  following  extract  from  the  same  author  gives  one  a  very  cheerless  idea 
of  what  may  be  expected  even  on  the  more  frequented  and  macadamized 
road  to  the  above-mentioned  city  :  "  At  about  three  o'clock  I  alighted  at 
a  station-house  of  no  very  promising  exterior.  Anton  (the  servant)  peeped 
into  a  room  on  the  right  and  shook  his  head,  into  one  on  the  left  and  re- 
peated the  gesture  ;  each  was  filled  with  smoke  from  a  party  of  noisy  ca- 
rousers.  The  host  coming  forward,  I  asked  (for  here  German  was  a  pass- 
port) for  an  '  ordentliches  zimmer^  a  decent  room,  in  which  I  could  dine. 
When  looking  round  at  his  filthy  floors,  rickety  chairs  and  smoking  guests, 
he  answered,  with  a  shrug,  '  Was  kbnnen  sie  mehr  verlang-en  ?^  ('  What  can 
you  wish  for  more  ?')  I  very  nearly  laughed  in  his  face."  On  the  cross- 
roads, and  in  the  steppe,  eggs  and  milk  are  generally  to  be  obtained,  but 
no  butter,  nor  anything  else  but  the  black  rye-bread ;  the  latter  very  good 
fare  for  a  Russian  or  a  Spartan,  but  if  the  traveller  is  neither  the  one  nor 
the  other,  he  finds  his  gastronomic  tastes  severely  tried.  Russian  families 
almost  invariably  sleep  in  their  travelling-carriages,  which  are  very  pon- 
derous and  roomy  vehicles.  Those  who  can  afford  it  are  accompanied  by 
a  kibitka,  or  telega,  in  which  is  placed  their  bedding  and  other  comforts. 

Posting  is  deemed  at  present  the  preferable  mode  of  travelling  in  Rus- 
sia, it  being  the  most  rapid,^.  independent,  and,  all  things  considered,  the 
most  economical.  To  travel  post,  it  is  necessary  to  be  provided  with  a 
padaroshna,  or  order  for  horses,  in  which  is  inserted  the  name  of  the  place 
which  is  the  destined  termination  of  the  journey,  the  distance  in  versts,  and 
the  number  of  horses  wanted.  This  is  required  to  be  shown  at  each  post- 
station,  as  an  authority  to  the  postmasters  to  furnish  fresh  horses,  and  if 
mislaid  or  lost  the  unfortunate  owner  will  be  obliged  to  continue  his  jour- 
ney with  peasant's  horses,  subject  to  all  his  caprices  as  to  charge,  hour  of 
starting,  and  distance  of  each  day's  journey. 

The  horses  three,  and  sometimes  four  in  number,  are  always  driven 
abreast.  The  yamstchik  or  postboy,  instead  of  riding,  drives  from  the  box 
or  the  foot-board  ;  his  beard  and  habiliments  are  not  tlie  most  cleanly,  and 
his  love  for  vodka  and  gossip  is  intense.  He  knows  only  two  jmces,  a 
walk  and  a  gallop,  and  his  course  across  the  steppe  is  straight  over  every 


MEANS   OF  TRAVEL  —  POSTING.  691 

hillock,  and  into  every  hole  that  lies  in  his  way  ;  the  whip,  a  short  but 
heavy  punisher,  and  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  oaths,  are  not  unfrequently 
ill  request.  The  more  humane  have  recourse  to  kind  words,  and  address 
their  horses  in  endearing  terms,  which  are  sometimes  given  in  rhyme.  A 
mare  the  boy  calls  "  sudaruina,''^  or  good  woman ;  a  tired  horse  he  ad- 
dresses as  "  starite,'"  or  old  fellow.  Collectively,  they  are  called  ^^  g-ohib- 
A'l,"  or  little  doves.  In  tlie  winter,  a  bell  is  attached  to  the  pole  of  the 
carriage,  to  give  notice  of  its  approach,  for  the  sledge  glides  noiselessly 
over  the  snoAV.  A  table  showing  the  distance  from  one  post-station  to 
another,  is  hung  up  in  every  post-house,  also  the  charge  for  each  horse  is 
stated  ;  a  book  is  also  kept  in  which  travellers  may  enter  their  complaints  ; 
should  any  difficulties  arise,  a  request  to  see  this  book  may  have  some  ef- 
fect upon  the  dilatory  and  extortionate  post-master.  The  official  is  bound 
to  furnish  at  least  the  number  of  horses  ordered  in  the  padaroshna ;  but  he 
may  oblige  the  traveller  to  take  more  if  the  roads  require  it,  and  this  he 
does  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  making  him  journey  with  six,  and  in  very 
l)ad  roads,  nine  horses  ;  he  may  also,  and  often  does,  on  the  cross-roads, 
tell  you  there  are  no  horses  left  but  those  which  he  is  bound  to  keep  for 
the  mail  or  a  court-courier ;  a  douceur,  however,  properly  administered  to 
him  or  the  yamstchik,  will  have  a  wonderful  effect  in  producing  the  requi- 
site number  of  quadrupeds :  the  latter  is  occasionally  the  proprietor  of  the 
horses  he  drives.  These  bearded  Jehus  generally  receive  from  thirty-five 
to  fifty  copper  kopeks  for  the  stage,  according  to  its  length.  This  varies 
greatly,  viz.,  from  twelve  to  twenty-eight  versts.  Russians  give  less,  and 
when  travelling  on  the  public  service  seldom  give  anything.  Many  of  the 
postmasters  in  the  south  of  Russia  are  Polish  Jews,  and,  though  not  more 
rapacious  than  their  Christian  brethren  of  the  same  trade,  are  quite  as  bad. 
In  addition  to  these  worthies,  there  is  at  each  postliouse  a  government 
officer,  called  an  ispravnik,  who  is  supposed  to  be  a  check  on  the  post- 
master ;  he  is,  however,  generally  his  bosom-friend,  but  the  palm  of  his 
hand  is  seldom  shut. 

Sometimes  the  traveller  by  post  chances  to  meet  with  a  cabinet-courier, 
or  with  an  officer  travelling  on  service,  to  whose  horses  some  accident  has 
happened,  and  who  forthwith,  and  without  the  slightest  ceremony,  stops 
the  luckless  stranger,  takes  the  horses  from  his  carriage,  harnesses  them 
to  his  own,  and  galloped  off,  perfectly  indifferent  as  to  the  fate  of  the  man 
whom  he  thus  leaves  houseless  and  helpless  upon  the  emperor's  highway. 

The  cabinet-couriers  incidentally  mentioned  above  are  worthy  of  a  pas- 
sing notice.  They  are  confidential  persons,  two  or  more  of  whom  are  con- 
.«tantly  in  attendance  in  a  chamber  of  the  imperial  palace,  to  be  despatched 
as  occasion  may  require.  They  have  their  orders  direct  from  the  emperor, 
and  at  any  hour  of  day  or  night,  they  are  ready  to  receive  instructions  for 
departure,  or  for  delivery  of  their  despatches.  The  Russian  couriers  are 
perhaps  the  most  enduring  and  hardworking  class  of  men  to  be  found  in 
Kurope.     Seated  on  a  board  covered  with  a  thick  leathern  cushion,  in  a 


'')92 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 


Departvke  of  the  Mallk-Post  (or  Mail  Diligence)  fkom  St  Peteesbuhq. 


wooden  vehicle,  without  springs  or  back  to  lean  against,  and  on  a  level 
with  the  traces,  the  courier  travels  at  full  gallop  over  the  most  wretched 
roads,  without  rest  or  repose,  to  Odessa,  to  Chiva,  or  even  to  Port  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul,  twelve  thousand  eight  hundred  versts  from  St.  Peters- 
burg. Add  to  this,  that  the  courier,  so  long  as  he  is  on  Russian  ground, 
is  forbidden,  under  pain  of  dismissal,  to  close  an  eye  in  sleep.  On  such 
tremendous  journeys  as  the  last  referred  to,  nature  becomes  at  last  too 
powerful  for  duty  to  resist  her  call,  and  the  harassed  courier  allows  him- 
self brief  repose.  But  it  has  often  occurred  that  when  the  despatches 
reached  their  place  of  destination,  that  the  bearer  was  unable  to  deliver 
them,  he  lying  a  corpse  in  the  carriage. 

Another  popular  mode  of  travelling  on  the  principal  routes  in  Russia  is 
by  diligences.  Of  these  there  are  several  kinds :  The  government  or 
malle-poste,  the  public  diligence,  and  the  private  or  family  diligence.  The 
malle-poste,  which  accommodates  four  inside  and  three  outside  passengers, 
is  the  fastest  and  most  comfortable.  It  is  very  capacious,  and  in  winter 
warmly  fitted  up  with  a  huge  wolfskin  wrapper  for  the  feet  and  legs.  The 
public  diligences  are  slower,  and  carry  passengers  at  a  less  rate  of  fare. 
The  family-diligence  is  fitted  up  to  accommodate  parties  of  from  eight  to 


MEANS  OF  TRAVEL  —  VEHICLES.  593 

twelve  inside  passengers.  For  family  parties  this  mode  of  travelling  has 
its  advantages,  and  is  a  more  independent  mode  of  journeying  than  by  the 
private  diligence.  Some  of  the  Russian  diligences  are  equal  in  style  and 
comfort  to  any  other  European  public  highway  conveyance.  The  conduc- 
tor's seat  is  in  front ;  he  is  screened  by  a  hood  and  apron  from  the  pelting 
storm,  and  beside  him,  totally  unprotected  except  by  his  sheepskin  schooba, 
sits  the  yamstchik,  Avith  his  low-crowned  hat  and  broad  band  adorned  with 
many  buckles,  and  his  thick  yellow  hair,  cut,  like  that  of  all  the  lower  or- 
ders, in  a  line  from  ear  to  ear.  The  number  of  horses  is  generally  four, 
harnessed  abreast ;  but  to  these  two  leaders  are  frequently  added,  and  on 
the  off  leader  is  perched  an  urchin,  the  very  facsimile  in  miniature  of  the 
bearded  driver,  who  sits  with  imperturbable  gravity  on  the  box.  The  ac- 
count given  of  the  diligences  of  the  "  second  etablissement,"  by  a  traveller 
who  recently  visited  Russia,  is  not  so  encouraging.  He  describes  the  vehicle 
as  having  imagmary  springs,  stony  cushions,  green  baize  lining,  and  inhab- 
ited by  a  thriving  colony  of  bugs,  and  himself  as  having  arrived  at  Novgorod 
Avith  his  teeth  loose,  and  his  limbs  half  dislocated.  Some  diligences  are 
conducted  by  private  proprietors,  totally  unconnected  with  the  government. 

Another  commodious  and  comfortable  country  travelling-carriage,  much 
used  in  the  interior  of  Russia,  is  the  tarantasse,  an  engraving  of  which, 
crossing  the  steppes,  is  given  on  page  215.  The  name  of  this  carriage  is 
used  as  the  title  of  a  work  from  the  pen  of  Count  Solohoupe,  alluded  to  in 
the  chapter  on  literature  and  education. 

Another  form  of  Rus- 
sian travelling-carriage  is 
the  post-telega,  which  is  a 
small  open  wagon  without 
springs,  but  strongly  con- 
structed, so  as  to  with- 
stand the  roads  and  no 
roads  of  the  country.  To  ^ 
journey  in  this  vehicle, 
one  must  be  a  native,  for  the  posttelega. 

the  jolting  is  annihilating, 

and  to  prove  what  the  concussions  must  be,  the  Russian  officers  put  straw 
at  the  bottom  of  it,  and  not  unfrequently  a  bed  upon  that ;  in  these  ma- 
chines they  get  over  the  ground  at  an  amazing  pace.  Gathering  up  his 
six  or  eight  reins,  for  there  are  two  to  each  horse,  and  grasping  his  short 
severe  whip,  the  yamstchik  leaves  the  posthouse  at  a  furious  gallop,  and 
keeping  the  horses  at  this  pace  nearly  the  whole  stage,  not  unfrequently 
returns  to  his  station  with  one  less  tlian  he  set  out  with.  When  the  empe- 
ror's carriage  breaks  down,  which  is  not  an  unusual  occurrence  in  his  rapid 
journeys,  he  is  sometimes  obliged  to  proceed  in  one  of  these  rude  convey- 
ances. The  kibitka  is  an  improvement  on  the  tele(ira,  having  a  hood  and 
apron,  so  that  there  is  more  protection  from  the  weather. 

38 


594 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF    RUSSIA. 


The   Dkosky. 


The  hack- carriage  or  cab  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  other  large  cities  in 
Russia,  is  the  drosky ;  but  it  is  a  most  comfortless  conveyance,  consisting 
merely  of  a  bench  upon  four  wheels,  on  which  the  fare  sits  astride,  as  on  a 

velocipede,  and  immediately  be- 
hind the  driver,  who  is  not  an 
agreeable  person  to  be  in  very 
close  contact  with  ;  at  any  rate, 
to  those  who  are  not  fond  of  tiic 
odors  of  garlic,  their  favorite 
seasoning.  Moreover,  the  wood- 
en pavement  is  at  the  best  indif- 
ferent, and  when  out  of  repair, 
which  is  frequently  the  case, 
most  abominable,  and  even  worse 
than  the  stone  pavement. 

Droskies  for  hire  stand  in  the 
most  principal  streets.  There 
is  no  fixed  price  whatever,  as  to  distance  or  time ;  a  most  extraordinary 
thing  in  a  country  where  the  police  seem  to  busy  themselves  about  every- 
thing. To  do  the  ivoshtshiks  or  drivers  justice,  they  do  not  impose  very 
exorbitantly,  seldom  asking  more  than  twice  as  much  as  they  will  willingly 
take  if  a  bargain  is  made  before  starting  ;  and  never  attempting  to  demand 
more  when  the  ride  is  finished  than  they  have  previously  agreed  for.  Tlie' 
usual  faro  in  St.  Petersburg  from  one  quarter  to  another  is  about  twenty 
cents.  As  the  distances  are  great,  the  most  inveterate  pedestrian  will  soon 
find  these  bearded  Jehus,  the  ivoshtshiks,  his  best  friends,  and  he  will  sel- 
dom have  occasion  to  sing  out  "  davai"  ("  here")  a  second  time  ;  indeed, 
he  need  scarcely  look  at  them  ;  and  if  he  only  pause  for  a  moment,  seeming 
to  muse  upon  the  expediency  of  hiring  one,  half  a  dozen  will  instantly  dan 
to  the  spot  where  he  stands  and  offer  their  services. 

In  Southern  Russia  the  drosky  has  a  back  and  the  driver  sits  on  a  seat 
in  front,  at  a  more  agreeable  distance  from  his  fare.  On  a  good  road, 
and  with  three  horses  attached  to  it,  which  are  always  placed  abreast,  tlie 
pace  is  grand  and  the  motion  very  easy ;  the  wheels  are  small,  and  the 
body,  which  is  hung  on  C-springs,  is  very  low.  This  vehicle  is  driven  with 
one,  two,  or  three  horses ;  in  either  case  one  is  in  the  shafts,  to  which  a 
light  piece  of  wood  is  attached,  forming  an  arch  over  his  head  ;  the  traces 
draw  from  the  nave  of  the  wheel ;  the  bridle  and  other  parts  of  the  harness 
are  ornamented  with  small  bits  of  brass  or  silver.  If  two  horses  are  driven, 
the  second  is  always  placed  on  the  near  side,  his  head  drawn  a  little  down 
and  outward  by  a  rein  attached  to  it  for  the  purpose ;  he  is  trained  to 
canter  and  show  himself  off",  while  the  other  does  nearly  all  the  work  at  a 
rapid  trot.  When  there  are  three  horses,  the  one  on  the  off-side  is  also 
harnessed  with  his  head  downward,  and  capers  in  the  same  way.  A  drosky 
well  turned  out  in  this  manner,  is  by  far  the  prettiest  equipage  of  the  three, 


MEANS   OF   TRAVEL IVOSHTSHIKS.  59.") 

and  when  going  at  speed,  which  is  the  usual  pace,  the  horses  have  the  effect 
of  those  in  an  ancient  car.     Droskies  ply  in  all  the  large  towns. 

In  winter  the  ivoshtshik  uses  the  favorite  national  vehicle  of  a  sledge, 
with  which  he  continues  to  grind  the  pavement  as  long  as  the  least  trace 
of  snow  is  to  be  felt  under  the  spring  mud.  A  covered  carriage  he  never 
uses.  The  cloaks  and  furs  of  his  passengers  must  do  the  service  that  the 
roof  of  the  coach  does  with  us ;  and  when  well  wrapped  up  in  a  series  of 
protecting  folds,  the  warm  nucleus  of  life  that  occupies  the  centre,  patiently 
suffers  the  pelting  of  snow,  rain,  and  mud,  till  the  end  of  his  journey,  where 
the  dirty  rind  is  peeled  off,  and  the  said  kernel  steps  forth  clean  and  un- 
spotted from  his  muddy  covering. 

The  ivoshtshiks  of  St.  Petersburg  appear  to  be  a  race  of  Hamaxobites 
(dwellers  in  wagons),  leading  a  sort  of  nomadic  life  among  the  palaces  of 
the  capital.  They  encamp  by  day  in  the  streets,  and  so  do  many  of  them 
during  the  night,  their  sledge  serving  them  at  once  as  house  and  bed. 
Like  the  Bedouin  Arabs,  they  carry  the  oat-bag  constantly  with  them,  and 
fasten  it,  during  their  interval  of  leisure,  to  the  noses  of  their  steeds.  In 
every  street  arrangements  have  been  made  for  the  convenience  of  the 
ivoshtshiks.  Every  here  and  there  mangers  are  erected  for  their  use  ;  to 
water  their  horses,  there  are  in  all  parts  of  the  town  convenient  descents 
to  the  canals  or  to  the  river ;  and  hay  is  sold  at  a  number  of  shops  in  small 
bundles,  just  sufficient  for  one  or  two  horses.  To  still  the  thirst  and  hun- 
ger of  the  charioteers  themselves,  there  arc  peripatetic  dealers  in  quass, 
tea,  and  bread,  who  are  constantly  wandering  about  the  streets  for  the 
charitable  purpose  of  feeding  the  hungry.  The  animals  are  as  hardy  as 
their  masters.  Neither  care  for  cold  or  rain ;  both  eat  as  opportimity 
serves,  and  are  content  to  take  their  sleep  when  it  comes.  Yet  they  are 
always  cheerful,  the  horses  ever  ready  to  start  off  at  a  smart  trot,  the  dri- 
vers at  all  times  disposed  for  a  song,  a  joke,  or  a  gossip.  When  they  are 
neither  eating,  nor  engaged  in  any  other  serious  occupation,  they  lounge 
about  their  sledges,  singing  some  simple  melody  that  they  have  probably 
brought  with  them  from  their  native  forests.  When  several  of  them  hap- 
pen to  be  together  at  the  corner  of  a  street,  they  are  sure  to  be  engaged  in 
some  game  or  other,  pelting  with  snowballs,  wrestling,  or  bantering  each 
other,  till  the  ^'■Davai  ivoshtshik!''''  of  some  chance  passenger  makes  them 
all  grasp  their  whips  in  a  moment,  and  converts  them  into  eager  competi- 
tors for  the  expected  gain. 

These  men  are,  for  the  most  part,  Russians  from  all  the  different  govern-- 
ments  of  the  empire ;  but  among  them  there  are  also  Finlanders,  Esthoni- 
ans,  Lettes,  Poles,  and  Germans.  They  arrive  at  St.  Petersburg  generally 
as  little  boys  of  ten  or  twelve  years  old,  hire  themselves  as  drivers  to  some 
owner  of  hackney-carriages,  whom  they  continue  to  serve  till  they  have 
saved  enough  to  buy  a  horse  and  vehicle,  when  they  set  up  in  business  on 
their  own  account.  Their  trade,  as  are  all  trades  in  Russia,  is  uncontrolled 
by  corporation  laAvs ;  and  should  fodder  grow  dear,  or  business  slack,  the 


596 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 


ivoshtshik  packs  up  the  few  worldly  goods  he  possesses,  drives  away  to  the 
south,  and  reappears  in  the  streets  of  Novgorod  or  Moscow ;  thus,  in  pur- 
suit of  fortune,  they  emerge  now  in  one  town  and  now  in  another,  till 
enabled  somewhere  to  form  a  profitable  and  permanent  establishment. 

The  constant  plague  of  the  ivoshtshik  is  the  pedestrian,  who  in  Russia 
is  invested  with  immense  privileges.  In  other  countries  a  man  thinks  him- 
self bound  to  take  care  that  he  is  not  run  over :  but  in  Russia,  he  who 
walks  afoot  troubles  himself  but  little  about  the  matter,  and  thinks  the 
coachman  alone  is  bound  to  be  careful.  If  the  horse  or  carriage  merely 
touch  a  foot-passenger,  without  even  throwing  him  down,  the  driver  is 
liable  to  be  flogged  and  fined ;  should  the  pedestrian  be  thrown  down,  a 
flogging,  Siberia,  and  the  confiscation  of  the  whole  equipage,  are  the  mild 
penalties  imposed  by  the  law.  "  Have  a  care,"  cries  the  ivoshtshik. 
"  Have  a  care  thyself,  and  remember  Siberia,"  is  the  probably  reply  of  the 
leisurely  wayfarer.  The  moment  the  cry  is  raised  that  a  man  has  been  run 
over,  a  brace  of  butshniks  rush  out  from  their  watchboxes,  and  the  carriage, 
whoever  it  may  belong  to,  is  carried  away  as  a  police  prize.  The  poor 
coachman  is  immediately  bound,  and  the  flattering  prospect  of  an  emigra- 
tion to  Siberia  is  immediately  held  forth  to  him,  whether  the  accident  have 
arisen  from  his  own  fault  or  not.  Cases  of  great  severity  sometimes  oc- 
cur ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  point  out  any  other  way  of  checking  the  wild  way 
of  driving  in  which  the  nobles  frequently  indulge. 


IVOSHTSIIIKS. 


HISTORIC  SUMMARY  —  THE  SLAVONIANS.  597 


CHAPTER   XXIY. 

HISTORIC    SUMMARY  —  EARLY    ANNALS. 

THE  earliest  annals  of  Russia  only  furnish  occasional  glimpses  of  nu- 
merous barbarous  hordes  roaming  over  its  surface.  These  nomadic 
tribes,  classed  under  the  common  appellation  of  Sarmatians  and 
Scythians,  at  a  very  early  period  began  to  menace  the  Roman  frontiers, 
and  even  before  the  time  of  Cyrus  the  Great  of  Persia  had  invaded  what 
was  then  called  the  civilized  world,  particularly  southern  Asia.  They 
inhabited  the  countries  described  by  Herodotus  between  the  Don  and  the 
Dnieper ;  and  Strabo  and  Tacitus  mention  the  Roxolani,  afterward  called 
Ros,  as  highly  distinguished  among  the  Sarmatian  tribes  dwelling  in  that 
district.  The  Greeks  early  established  colonies  here ;  and  in  the  second 
century  the  Goths  came  from  the  Baltic,  and,  locating  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  Don,  extended  themselves  to  the  Danube. 

In  the  fifth  century,  the  country  in  the  neighborhood  of  these  rivers  was 
overrun  by  numerous  migratory  hordes  of  Alans,  Huns,  Avarians,  and  Bul- 
garians, who  were  followed  by  the  Slavi,  or  Slavonians,  a  Sarmatian  peo- 
ple, who  took  a  more  northerly  direction  than  theit*  predecessors  had  done. 
In  the  next  century,  the  Khozari,  pressed  upon  by  the  Avarians,  entered 
the  country  between  the  Volga  and  the  Don,  conquered  the  Crimea,  and 
thug  placed  themselves  in  connection  with  the  Byzantine  empire.  These 
and  numerous  other  tribes  directed  the  course  of  their  migrations  toward 
the  west,  forced  the  Huns  into  Pannonia,  and  occupied  the  country  be- 
tween the  Don  and  the  Alanta ;  while  the  Tchoudes,  or  Ishudi,  a  tribe  of 
the  Finnic  race,  inhabited  the  northern  parts  of  Russia.  All  these  tribes 
maintained  themselves  by  pasture  and  the  chase,  and  exhibited  the  usual 
l)arbarism  of  wandering  nomades. 

The  Slavonians,  coming  from  the  northern  Danube,  and  spreading  them- 
selves along  the  Dnieper,  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  early  acquired, 
from  a  commerce  with  their  southern  neighbors,  habits  of  civilized  life,  and 
embraced  the  Christian  religion.  They  founded  in  the  country  afterward 
called  Russia  the  two  cities  of  Novgorod  and  Kiev,  which  early  attained 
a  commercial  importance.  Their  wealth,  however,  soon  excited  the  avid- 
ity of  the  Khozari,  with  whom  they  were  compelled  to  maintain  a  perpetual 
struggle.  But  Novgorod  found  another  and  more  formidable  enemy  in  the 
Varagians,  a  race  of  bold  pirates  who  infested  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic, 


598  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

and  who  had  previously  subdued  tlie  Courlanders,  Livonians,  and  Estho- 
nians.  It  is  not  improbable  that  these  Varagians  formed  a  pai't  of  those 
Scandinavian  nations,  who,  under  the  name  of  Danes  and  Saxons,  succes- 
sively made  themselves  masters  of  England.  To  these  bold  invaders  the 
name  of  Russi,  Russes,  or  Russians,  is  thought  by  the  most  eminent  authors 
to  owe  its  origin.  Be  that,  however,  as  it  may,  it  appears  certain  that  in 
these  dark  ages  the  country  was  divided  among  a  great  number  of  petty 
princes,  who  made  war  upon  each  other  witli  great  ferocity  and  cruelty,  so 
that  the  people  were  reduced  to  the  utmost  misery ;  and  the  Slavonians, 
seeing  that  the  warlike  rovers  threatened  their  rising  state  with  devasta- 
tion, were  prompted  by  the  necessity  of  self-preservation  to  offer  the  gov- 
ernment of  their  country  to  them.  In  consequence  of  this,  a  celebrated 
Varagian  chief,  named  Rurik,  arrived,  in  862,  with  a  body  of  his  country- 
men, in  the  neighborhood  of  the  lake  Ladoga,  and  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  present  empire  of  Russia,  by  uniting  his  people  with  those  who  already 
occupied  the  soil. 

Rurik  has  the  credit  of  being  zealous  for  the  strict  administration  of 
justice,  and  enforcing  its  exercise  on  all  the  boyars  or  nobles  who  pos- 
sessed territories  under  him.  He  died  in  879,  leaving  an  only  son,  Igor, 
who,  being  a  minor,  Oleg,  a  kinsman  of  the  deceased  monarch,  took  on 
himself  the  administration  of  affairs.  The  new  monarch  appears  very 
early  to  have  projected  the  extension  of  his  territories,  by  annexing  to 
them  the  settlement  which  the  Slavi  had  formed  about  Kiev,  against  which 
he  soon  undertook  a  formidable  expedition.  He  collected  a  numerous 
army,  and,  taking  with  him  the  young  prince  Igor,  opened  the  campaign 
with  the  capture  of  Lubitch,  and  of  Smolensk,  the  capital  of  the  Krivit- 
sches.  Having  reduced-  several  other  towns,  he  advanced  toward  the  rival 
city  of  Kiev,  the  possession  of  which  formed  the  chief  object  of  his  ambi- 
tion. As  he  did  not  think  it  advisable  to  hazard  an  open  attack,  he  had 
recourse  to  artifice  ;  and,  leaving  behind  him  the  greater  part  of  his  troops, 
he  concealed  the  remainder  in  the  barks  that  had  brought  them  down  the 
Dnieper  from  Smolensk.  Oleg  himself,  disguising  his  name  and  quality, 
passed  for  a  merchant  sent  by  the  regent  and  his  ward  Igor  on  business 
of  importance  to  Constantinople ;  and  he  despatclied  officers  to  Oskhold 
and  Dir,  the  two  chieftains  of  the  Kievians,  requesting  permission  to  pass 
through  their  territory  into  Greece,  and  inviting  them  to  visit  him  as 
friends  and  fellow-citizens,  pretending  that  indisposition  prevented  him 
from  paying  his  respects  to  them  in  person.  The  princes,  relying  on  these 
appearances  of  friendship,  accepted  Oleg's  invitation  ;  but  when  they  ar- 
rived at  the  regent's  encampment,  they  were  surrounded  by  the  Varagian 
soldiers,  who  sprang  from  their  place  of  concealment.  Oleg,  taking  Igor 
in  his  arms,  and  casting  on  the  sovereigns  of  Kiev  a  fierce  and  threatening 
look,  exclaimed :  "  You  are  neither  princes,  nor  of  the  race  of  princes ; 
l)ehold  the  son  of  Rurik !"  These  words,  which  formed  the  signal  that 
had  been  agreed  on  between  Oleg  and  his  soldiers,  were  no  sooner  uttered. 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  OLEG — IGOR. 


590 


VABAGIAN3. —  CoSTUMKS   OF   Till;    Tl.MlJ    OF    i.llIK. 


tlidii  Ihe  latter  rushed  on  the  two  princes,  and  laid  them  prostrate  at  the 
leet  of  their  master.  The  inhabitants  of  Kiev,  thrown  into  consternation 
by  this  bold  and  treacherous  act,  made  no  resistance,  but  opened  the  gates 
of  their  eity  to  the  invader.  By  this  means,  the  two  Slavonian  states  were 
united  under  one  head. 

Having  ihus  made  himself  master  of  the  key  to  the  eastern  empire,  Oleg 
prepared  to  carry  into  effect  his  ambitions  designs  against  Constantinople. 
Leaving  Igo'*  at  Kiev,  he  embarked  on  the  Dnieper  with  eighty  tliousand 
warriors,  in  two  thousand  vessels.  The  inhabitants  of  the  imperial  city 
had  drawn  a  massy  chain  across  the  harbor,  hoping  to  prevent  their  land 
ing.  But  the  invaders  drew  ashore  their  barks,  fitted  wheels  to  their  flat 
bottoms,  and  converted  them  into  carriages,  which,  by  the  help  of  sails, 
they  forced  along  the  roads  that  led  to  the  city,  and  thus  arrived  under 
the  walls  of  Constantinople.  The  emperor  Leo,  instead  of  making  a  manly 
resistance,  is  said  to  have  attempted  carrying  off  his  enemies  by  poison  ; 
but,  this  not  succeeding,  he  was  obliged  to  purchase  from  the  conqueror 


600  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

an  ignominious  peace.  Oleg  obtained  the  completion  of  his  wishes,  by  the 
rich  booty  which  he  carried  off ;  and  his  people,  dazzled  with  his  brilliant 
success,  thought  him  endowed  with  supernatural  powers. 

Oleg  maintained  the  sovereign  power  for  thirty-three  years ;  nor  does  it 
appear  that  Igor  had  any  share  in  the  government  till  the  death  of  his 
guardian  left  him  in  full  possession  of  the  throne,  A.  D.  912,  at  which  time 
he  had  reached  his  fortieth  year.  He  soon  discovered  marks  of  the  same 
warlike  spirit  which  liad  actuated  his  predecessor.  Among  the  nations 
that  had  been  subjugated  by  Oleg,  several,  on  the  accession  of  a  new  sov- 
ereign, attempted  to  regain  their  independence;  but  they  were  quelled, 
and  punished  by  the  imposition  of  a  tribute.  Igor,  however,  soon  had  to 
contend  with  more  formidable  enemies.  The  Petchenegans,  a  nation  hitli- 
erto  unknown,  quitted  their  settlements  on  the  Yaik  and  the  Volga,  and 
made  incursions  into  the  Russian  territory  ;  and  Igor,  finding  himself  un- 
able to  cope  witli  them  in  arms,  concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance. 

The  Russian  monarch  was  now  far  advanced  in  years  ;  but  the  insatiable 
rapacity  of  his  officers,  ever  craving  fresh  spoils  from  vanquished  nations, 
impelled  him  to  turn  his  arms  against  the  Drevlians,  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  from  them  an  increase  of  their  yearly  tribute.  In  this  unjust 
attack,  he  was  at  first  successful,  and  returned  loaded  with  the  contribu- 
tions which  he  had  levied  from  that  people ;  but  having  dismissed  a  great 
part  of  his  troops  with  the  spoils  of  the  vanquished,  and  marching  with  the 
remainder  too  far  into  the  country,  he  fell  into  an  ambuscade,  which  the 
Drevlians,  now  grown  desperate,  had  formed,  on  his  approach,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Korosten.  The  Russians  were  overpowered,  and  Igor, 
being  taken  prisoner,  was  put  to  death.     This  occurred  in  945. 

Before  the  death  of  Oleg,  Igor  had  married  a  princess  of  a  bold  and 
daring  spirit,  named  Olga,  by  whom  lie  had  one  son,  Sviatoslafi";  but  as 
he  was  very  young  at  the  death  of  his  father,  the  queen-mother  Olga  as- 
sumed the  reins  of  government.  Her  first  care  was  to  take  signal  ven- 
geance on  the  Drevlians,  who,  satisfied  with  the  death  of  their  oppressor, 
appeared  desirous  of  renewing  their  amicable  intercourse  with  the  Rus- 
sians. Olga,  concealing  her  real  designs  under  a  specious  veil  of  kind- 
ness, appeared  to  listen  to  their  overtures,  and  received  the  deputies  of 
Male,  but  immediately  ordered  them  to  be  privately  put  to  death.  In  the 
meantime,  she  invited  a  larger  deputation  from  the  Drevlian  chief,  which 
she  treated  in  the  same  manner,  taking  caie  that  no  tidings  of  either  mur- 
der should  be  carried  to  the  Drevlians.  She  then  set  out,  as  if  on  an  ami- 
cable visit,  to  conclude  the  new  alliance  ;  and  having  proclaimed  a  solemn 
entertainment,  to  which  she  invited  some  hundreds  of  the  principal  inhab- 
itants of  the  Drevlian  towns,  slie  caused  them  to  be  treacherously  assassin- 
ated. This  was  but  the  first  step  to  the  dreadful  vengeance  which  she  had 
resolved  to  inflict  on  this  unhappy  people.  She  laid  waste  the  whole  coun- 
try, particularly  near  the  town  of  Korosten,  where  Igor  had  lost  his  life. 
For  a  long  time  she  could  not  master  the  place,  as  the  inhabitants,  dread- 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY — OLGA — SVIATOSLAFF.  601 

iug  the  lion-ible  fate  that  awaited  them  from  the  revengeful  spirit  of  Olga, 
defended  themselves  with  valor  and  success.  At  length,  being  assured  of 
clemency,  on  condition  of  sending  to  Olga  all  the  pigeons  of  the  town,  they 
submitted ;  but  Olga,  causing  lighted  matclies  to  be  fastened  to  the  tails 
of  the  pigeons,  set  them  at  liberty.  The  birds  flew  to  their  usual  places 
of  residence  in  the  town,  which  were  speedily  in  a  conflagration.  The 
wretched  inhabitants,  endeavoring  to  escape  the  flames,  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Russian  soldiers,  planted  round  the  town  for  that  purpose,  by  whom 
they  were  put  to  the  sword.  Though  not  uncommon  in  the  annals  of  a 
barbarous  people,  this  transaction  is  sufficient  to  hand  down  the  name  of 
Olga  with  detestation  to  posterity.  This  princess  was,  however,  the  first 
of  the  barbarians  who  professed  to  embrace  Christianity.  She  failed  in 
persuading  her  son  to  follow  her  example,  but  induced  a  few  of  her  sub- 
jects to  do  so. 

It  is  probable  that  Olga  retired  from  the  administration  of  affairs  soon 
after  her  profession  of  Christianity ;  for  we  find  Sviatoslaff  in  full  posses- 
sion of  the  government  in  957,  long  before  his  mother's  death.  This 
prince  has  been  considered  one  of  the  Russian  heroes  ;  and  if  a  thirst  for 
blood,  a  contempt  of  danger,  and  disregard  of  the  luxuries  and  conveni- 
ences of  life,  be  admitted  as  the  characteristics  of  a  hero,  he  deserves  the 
appellation.  He  took  up  his  habitation  in  a  camp,  where  his  accommoda- 
tions were  of  the  coarsest  kind ;  and  when  he  had,  by  this  mode  of  life, 
ingratiated  himself  with  his  troops,  he  prepared  to  employ  them  in  those 
ambitious  projects  which  he  had  long  been  forming. 

His  first  expedition  was  against  the  Khozari,  a  people  already  men- 
tioned, from  the  shores  of  the  Caspian,  and  the  Caucasian  mountains,  who 
liad  established  themselves  along  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Black  s'ea. 
These  people  had  rendered  tributary  both  the  Kievians  and  the  Yiateches, 
a  Slavonian  nation  that  dwelt  on  the  banks  of  the  Oka  and  the  Volg-a. 
Sviatoslaff,  desirous  of  transferring  to  himself  the  tribute  which  the  Kho- 
zari derived  from  the  latter  people,  inarched  against  them,  and  appears  to 
have  succeeded  in  his  design.  He  defeated  them  in  a  battle,  and  took 
their  capital  city  Sarkel,  or  Belgorod.  It  is  said  by  some  historians  that 
he  anniliilated  the  nation ;  and  it  is  certain  that,  from  that  time,  no  men- 
tion is  made  of  the  Khozari. 

The  martial  fame  of  Sviatoslaff  had  extended  to  Constantinople ;  and 
the  emperor  Nicephorus  Phocas,  who  was  then  harassed  by  the  Hunga- 
rians, assisted  by  his  treacherous  allies  the  Bulgarians,  applied  for  succors 
to  the  Russian  chieftain.  A  subsidiary  treaty  was  entered  into  between 
them,  and  Sviatoslaff  hastened  with  a  numerous  army  to  the  assistance  of 
liis  new  allies.  He  quickly  made  himself  master  of  most  of  the  Bulgarian 
towns  along  the  Danube  ;  but,  receiving  intelligence  that  the  Petchenegans 
had  assembled  in  great  numbers,  ravaged  the  Kievian  territory,  and  laid 
tiege  to  the  capital,  within  the  walls  of  which  were  shut  up  his  mother  and 
liis  sons,  he  hastened  to  the  relief  of  his  family. 


C02  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

Having  defeated  the  besiegers,  and  obliged  them  to  sue  for  peace,  he 
resolved  to  establish  himself  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  divided  his 
hereditary  dominions  among  his  children.  He  gave  Kiev  to  Yaropolk ; 
the  Drevlian  territory  to  Oleg ;  and  on  Vladimir,  a  natural  son,  he  be- 
stowed the  government  of  Novgorod.  On  his  return  to  Bulgaria,  liowever, 
lie  found  that  his  affairs  had  assumed  a  very  different  aspect.  The  Bulga- 
rians, taking  advantage  of  his  absence  with  his  troops,  had  recovered  most 
of  their  towns,  and  seemed  well  prepared  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  a 
foreign  power.  They  fell  on  Sviatoslaflf,  as  he  approached  the  walls  of 
Pereiaslavatz,  and  began  the  attack  with  so  much  fury,  that  at  first  the 
Russians  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter.  They,  however,  soon  ral- 
lied, and,  taking  courage  from  despair,  renewed  the  battle  with  so  much 
eagerness,  that  they  in  turn  became  masters  of  the  field.  Sviatoslafl'  took 
possession  of  the  town,  and  soon  recovered  all  that  he  had  lost. 

During  these  transactions,  the  Greek  emperor  Nicephorus  had  been 
assassinated,  and  John  Zemisces,  his  murderer,  had  succeeded  to  the  impe- 
rial diadem.  The  new  emperor  sent  embassadors  to  the  Russian  monarch, 
requiring  him  to  comply  with  the  stipulations  of  his  treaty  with  Nicepho- 
rus, and  evacuate  Bulgaria,  which  he  had  agreed  to  occupy  as  an  ally,  but 
not  as  a  master.  Sviatoslaff"  refused  to  give  up  his  newly-acquired  posses- 
sions, and  prepared  to  decide  the  contest  by  force  of  arms.  He  did  not 
live  to  reach  the  capital ;  for  having,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  his  most 
experienced  officers,  attempted  to  return  to  Kiev  up  the  dangerous  navi- 
gation of  the  Dnieper,  he  was  intercepted  by  the  Petchenegans  near  the 
rocks  that  form  the  cataracts  of  that  river.  After  remaining  on  the  defen- 
sive during  the  winter,  exposed  to  all  the  horrors  of  famine  and  disease, 
on  the  return  of  spring,  in  972,  attempted  to  force  his  way  through  the 
ranks  of  the  enemy;  but  his  troops  were  defeated,  and  himself  killed  in 
the  battle. 

Yaropolk,  the  sovereign  of  Kiev,  may  be  considered  as  the  successor  of 
his  father  on  the  Russian  throne ;  but  his  reign  was  short  and  turbulent. 
A  war  broke  out  between  him  and  his  brother  Oleg,  in  which  the  latter 
was  defeated  and  slain.  Vladimir,  the  third  brother,  dreading  the  in- 
creased power  and  ambitious  disposition  of  Yaropolk,  soon  after  aban- 
doned his  dominions,  which  were  seized  on  by  the  Kievian  prince.  Vladi- 
mir had  retired  among  the  Varagians,  from  whom  lie  soon  procured  such 
succors  as  enabled  him  to  make  effectual  head  against  the  usurper.  He 
advanced  toward  Kiev  before  Yaropolk  was  prepared  to  oppose  him.  The 
Kievian  prince  had,  indeed,  been  lulled  into  security  by  the  treacherous 
reports  of  one  of  his  voyvodes,  who  was  in  the  interest  of  Vladimir,  and 
who  found  means  to  induce  him  to  abandon  his  capital,  on  pretence  that 
the  inhabitants  were  disaffected  toward  him.  The  Kievians,  left  without 
a  leader,  opened  their  gates  to  Vladimir ;  and  Yaropolk,  still  misled  by 
llie  treachery  of  his  adviser,  determined  to  throw  himself  on  the  mercy  of 
his  brother ;  but  before  he  could  effect  this  purpose,  he  was  assassinated 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY — VLADIMIR  THE   GREAT  —  YAROSLAV  I.  603 

by  some  of  his  Varagiau  followers.  By  this  murder,  which  had  probably 
been  planned  by  Vladimir,  the  conqueror,  in  980,  acquired  the  undivided 
possession  of  all  his  father's  territories. 

The  commencement  of  Vladimir's  reign  formed  but  a  continuation  of  the 
enormities  which  had  conducted  him  to  the  throne.  He  began  with  remov- 
ing Blude,  the  treacherous  voyvode^  by  whom  his  brother  had  been  be- 
trayed into  his  power,  and  to  whom  he  had  promised  the  highest  honors 
and  dignities.  The  Varagians,  who  had  assisted  in  reinstating  him  on 
the  throne  of  his  ancestors,  requested  permission  to  go  and  seek  their  for- 
tune in  Greece.  He  granted  their  request,  but  privately  advertised  the 
emperor  of  their  approach,  and  caused  them  to  be  arrested  and  secured. 

Vladimir  engaged  in  numerous  wars,  and  subjected  several  of  the  neigh- 
boring states  to  his  dominion.  He  seized  on  part  of  the  Polish  territory ; 
and  compelled  the  Bulgarians,  who  dwelt  in  that  which  now  forms  the 
government  of  Kazan,  to  do  him  homage.  He  subdued  the  Petchencgans 
and  Khazares,  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  Kievian  state ;  he 
reduced  to  his  authority  Halitsch  (or  Kalisch)  and  Vladimir,  countries 
which  are  now  known  as  Galicia  and  Lubomiria ;  he  conquered  Lithuania 
as  far  as  Memel,  and  took  possession  of  a  great  part  of  modern  Livonia. 

This  monarch,  having  settled  the  affairs  of  his  empire,  demanded  in  mar- 
riage the  princess  Anne,  sister  to  the  Greek  emperor  Basilius  Porphyro- 
genitus.  His  suit  was  granted,  on  condition  that  he  should  embrace  Chris- 
tianity. With  this  the  Russian  monarch  complied ;  and  that  vast  empire 
was  thenceforward  considered  as  belonging  to  the  patriarchate  of  Constan- 
tinople. Vladimir  received  the  name  of  Basilius  on  the  day  he  was  bap- 
tized ;  and,  according  to  the  Russian  annals,  twenty  thousand  of  his  sub- 
jects were  baptized  on  the  same  day.  The  idols  of  paganism  were  now 
thrown  down,  churches  and  monasteries  were  erected,  towns  built,  and  the 
arts  began  to  flourish.  The  Slavonian  letters  were  also  at  this  period  first 
introduced'  into  Russia;  and  Vladimir  sent  missionaries  to  convert  the 
Bulgarians,  but  without  much  success.  We  are  told  that  Vladimir  called 
the  arts  from  Greece,  cultivated  them  in  the  peaceable  periods  of  his  reign, 
and  generously  rewarded  their  professors.  His  merits,  indeed,  appear  to 
liave  been  very  considerable.  He  has  been  extolled  by  the  monks  as  the 
wisest  as  well  as  the  most  religious  of  kings ;  his  zealous  exertions  in  pro- 
moting the  profession  of  Christianity  throughout  his  dominions  acquired 
for  him  the  title  of  saint ;  and  succeeding  historians,  comparing  the  virtues 
of  his  character  with  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  have  united  in  conferring 
upon  him  the  appellation  of  "  Vladimir  the  Great." 

His  son  Yaroslav,  who  reigned  thirty-five  years,  and  died  in  1054,  at 
the  age  of  seventy-seven,  was  a  prince  of  considerable  attainments,  and  a 
great  patron  of  the  arts.  The  church  of  St.  Sophia,  at  Novgorod,  was  by 
his  order  decorated  with  pictures  and  mosaics,  portions  of  which  are  said 
to  remain  to  the  present  time.  His  expedition  against  Constantino  XL, 
who  then  held  the  sceptre  of  the  eastern  or  Greek  empire  (though  unsuc- 


604  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

cessful),  as  well  as  his  acquirements,  and  the  splendor  in  which  he  lived, 
made  his  name  known  and  respected  throughout  Europe.  Three  of  his 
daughters  were  married  to  the  kings  of  France,  Norway,  and  Hungary ; 
and  his  eldest  son,  Yladimir,  who  died  before  him,  had  for  wife  a  daughter 
of  the  unfortunate  Harold,  the  last  of  the  Saxon  kings  of  England. 

Yaroslav,  at  his  death,  divided  his  empire,  as  was  usually  the  case, 
among  his  sons.  Vladimir  Monomachus,  his  grandson,  who  died  in  the 
early  part  of  the  next  century,  did  the  same  ;  and  as  the  Russian  monarchs 
were  blessed,  generally  speaking,  with  a  numerous  offspring  (the  last- 
mentioned  sovereign  had  eight  children),  the  country  was  continually  a 
prey  to  internal  dissensions  and  strife :  and  these  family  feuds  were  not 
settled  until  an  appeal  had  been  made  to  the  sword,  which,  being  conge- 
nial to  the  disposition  of  the  people  and  the  temper  of  the  times,  was  fre- 
quently prolonged  for  years.  In  the  year  preceding  the  death  of  Monoma- 
chus, Kiev  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire ;  and,  from  the  great  number  of 
churches  and  houses  that  fell  a  prey  to  the  flames,  that  city  must  then  have 
been  of  great  extent  and  opulence.  This  calamity  was  followed  in  the 
succeeding  reign  by  a  still  greater  one,  when  the  sister-capital,  Novgorod, 
was  desolated  by  a  famine  so  awful,  that  the  survivors  were  not  sufficiently 
numerous  to  bury  the  dead,  and  the  streets  were  blocked  up  by  the  putrid 
corpses  of  the  inhabitants  ! 

The  reigns  which  followed  this  period  of  Russian  history  are  distin- 
guished by  little  else  than  continual  wars  with  the  Poles,  Lithuanians, 
Polovetzes,  and  Tchoudes,  with  this  exception,  that  the  town  of  Vladimir, 
built  by  Yury  I.,  in  1157,  became  in  that  year  the  capital  instead  of  Kiev. 
But  a  more  formidable  enemy  than  the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  and 
tribes  already  mentioned  drew  near  the  Muscovite  territory,  in  the  person 
of  Tuschki,  the  son  of  Zinghis  Khan,  who,  emigrating  with  his  Tartars 
westward,  led  them,  about  the  year  1223,  fi'om  the  shores  of  the  sea  of 
Aral  and  the  Caspian  to  those  of  the  Dnieper.  The  Circassians  and  Polo- 
vetzes, having  endeavored  in  vain  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  horde,  were 
at  length  constrained  to  apply  to  their  hitherto  inveterate  foes  for  assist- 
ance ;  and,  the  cause  being  now  equally  dear  to  all  parties,  the  Russians 
made  an  intrepid  stand  on  the  banks  of  the  Kalka.  The  impetuous  attack, 
however,  of  the  invaders  was  not  to  be  withstood,  and,  the  prince  of  Kiev 
treacherously  abstaining  from  taking  part  in  the  battle,  the  Russians  were 
completely  routed,  and  scarcely  a  tenth  part  of  an  army  composed  of  one 
hundred  thousand  men  escaped.  The  enemy  then  pursued  his  way  unmo- 
lested to  the  capital,  which  he  took,  and  put  fifty  thousand  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  principality  of  Kiev  to  the  sword !  The  further  progress  of 
the  Tartars  northward  was  marked  by  fire  and  sword ;  but,  having  reached 
Novgorod-Severski,  they  faced  about  and  retreated  to  the  camp  of  Zinghis 
Khan,  who  was  at  this  time  in  Bokliara. 

Thirteen  years  after,  Batou  Khan,  grandson  of  Zinghis,  desolated  Rus- 
sia afresh,  committing  every  species  of  cruelty,  and  aggravated  breaches 


HISTORIC  SUMMARY  —  YAROSLAV   II.  —  ALEXANDER   I.  605 

of  faith  with  the  towns  who  submitted  to  his  arms.  In  this  manner,  the 
old  provinces  of  Riazan,  Periaslavl,  Rostov,  and  several  others,  fell  into 
his  hands ;  for,  with  incredible  apathy,  and  contrary  to  their  usually  war- 
like inclinations,  the  Russian  princes  neglected  to  raise  any  troops  to  dis- 
pute their  progress  ;  and  Yury  11. ,  prince  of  Vladimir,  was  at  this  critical 
juncture  occupied  in  celebrating  the  marriage  of  one  of  his  boyars.  At 
length,  suddenly  roused  to  a  sense  of  his  desperate  position,  he  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  some  troops  hastily  called  together,  and  left  his 
family  under  the  protection  of  one  of  his  nobles,  trusting  tliat  his  capital 
would  be  able  to  sustain  a  long  siege.  He  was  mistaken  :  the  Tartars 
soon  made  themselves  masters  of  Vladimir,  and  the  grand  princesses,  as 
well  as  other  persons  of  distinction,  were  burnt  alive  in  tlie  church  in 
which  they  liad  taken  shelter.  On  hearing  of  this  tragical  event,  Yury 
marched  with  his  adherents  to  meet  the  foe.  The  contest  was  sanguinary 
and  short ;  but,  after  performing  prodigies  of  valor,  the  Russians  were 
borne  down  by  overpowering  numbers,  and  their  prince  was  left  among 
the  slain.  There  was  now  nothing  to  dispute  the  march  of  the  ruthless 
Tartars,  and  they  pushed  forward  to  within  sixty  miles  of  Novgorod,  when 
they  again  turned  round  without  any  ostensible  motive,  and  evacuated  the 
Russian  territory. 

The  wretched  condition  into  which  the  southern  and  central  parts  of 
the  empire  were  thrown  by  these  invasions,  afforded  a  most  advantageous 
opportunity  for  other  enemies  to  attack  it ;  and,  accordingly,  in  1242,  and 
during  the  reign  of  Yaroslav  II.,  the  Swedes,  Danes,  and  Livonians,  sent 
a  numerous  and  well-disciplined  army  to  demand  the  submission  of  Novgo- 
rod. This  Alexander,  the  son  of  the  reigning  sovereign,  refused;  and, 
leaving  his  capital,  he  advanced,  unaided  by  any  allies,  to  meet  his  oppo- 
nents, and  fought  the  celebrated  battle  of  the  Neva,  which  gained  him  the 
surname  of  Nevski,  and  a  place  in  the  Russian  calendar.  The  personal 
courage  of  Alexander  in  this  battle  was  of  tlie  highest  order,  and  mainly 
contributed  to  secure  the  victory.  His  memory  is  still  cherished  by  the 
Russians,  and  the  order  instituted  in  honor  of  him  is  much  valued. 

A  cruel  and  constantly-fluctuating  war  with  the  Tartars — various  incur- 
sions by  the  Livonians,  Lithuanians,  Swedes,  and  Poles — and  the  most 
frightful  civil  discord  among  the  several  almost  regal  provinces  of  Russia 
—  consumed  fourteen  successive  reigns,  between  Yury  II.,  who  died  in 
1238,  and  Ivan  I.,  who  succeeded,  his  father  in  the  principality  of  Vladimir 
in  1328.*     At  times,  during  this  period,  the  Tartars,  adding  insult  to 

*  The  mgns  during  tins  period  were  those  of  Yaroslav  II.,  1238-'47  ;  Sviatoslaff  II.,  1247-'48  ; 
Michael  II.,  1248-'49  ;  Andrew  II.,  1249-'52  ;  Alexander  I.  (Nevski),  1252-'63  ;  Yaroslav  III., 
1263-72;  Vassili  I.,  1272-76 ;  Dmitri  I.,  1276-'94;  Andrew  III.,  1294-'1304;  Michael  III., 
1304-'19;  YU17III.,  1319-'22;  Dmitri  II.,  1322-'25  ;  Ale.xander  II.,  1325-'28.  The  last  half 
centui7  of  this  epoch  Karamsin  speaks  of  as  the  most  disastrous  period  of  Russian  history.  "The 
aspect  of  Russia  was  that  of  a  gloomy  forest  rather  than  an  einpire.  Might  took  the  place  of  right, 
and  pilhige,  authorized  by  impunity,  was  exercised  alike  by  Russians  and  Tartars.  There  was  no 
safety  for  travellers  on  the  roads,  or  for  females'  in  their  houses ;  and  robbery,  like  a  contagiou< 
malady,  infested  all  properties." 


606  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

injury,  arrogated  to  themselves  the  power  of  protectors  of  this  or  that  inter 
est ;  and,  in  the  case  of  Ivan  I.,  Uzbek  Khan  secured  to  him  the  possession 
of  Novgorod,  as  well  as  of  Vladimir  and  Moscow.  Ivan's  fatlier  had 
greatly  beautified  and  improved  the  latter  town ;  and  Ivan  followed  his 
example,  and  made  it  his  residence.  Here  also  resided  the  metropolitan, 
and  it  therefore  rapidly  advanced  in  importance,  Ivan's  reign  of  thirteen 
years  was  remarkable  as  improving  and  peaceful,  and  he  exercised  a  sound 
discretion  by  building  a  wall  of  wood  round  the  city,  which  supported  a 
rampart  of  earth  and  stone.  At  the  close  of  his  life  he  took  monastic 
vows,  and  died  in  1341.  In  the  reign  of  Ivan  II.,  second  son  of  the  pre- 
vious monarch  of  that  name,  Moscow  established  its  pre-eminence  as  a 
city,  and  became  the  capital  of  tlie  empire. 

Ivan  II.  died  in  1358,  and  was  succeeded  by  Dmitri  III.,  who  died  in 
1863.  The  throne  was  then  occupied  by  Dmitri  IV.,  under  whom,  toward 
the  close  of  this  century,  the  Russians  raised  an  army  of  four  hundred  thou- 
sand men,  and  met  the  Tartars  near  the  Don,  who  were  defeated  with  great 
loss.  This  terrible  contest  lasted  three  days,  and  was  known  in  after-ages 
as  "  the  Battle  of  the  Giants."  The  victors,  however,  suffered  greatly  ; 
and  when  Dmitri  reviewed  his  army  after  the  battle,  he  found  it  reduced 
to  forty  thousand  men !  This  success  obtained  for  him  the  surname  of 
Donskoi.  Subsequently,  however,  to  this  victory,  the  Tartars  again  ad- 
vanced ;  and  Dmitri,  betrayed  by  his  allies,  the  princes  of  the  neighboring 
states,  deserted  Moscow,  which  fell  by  capitulation  into  the  hands  of  th<'. 
ruthless  invaders,  who  devastated  it  with  fire  and  sword  until  it  was  ut- 
terly destroyed,  no  building  being  permitted  to  remain  except  those  which 
happened  to  have  been  constructed  of  stone  by  the  grand  prince. 

The  character  of  Dmitri  IV.  is  thus  given  by  the  metropolitan  Cypriau 
"  He  knew,"  says  that  ecclesiastic,  "  how  to  soften  the  kingly  ofiice  by 
condescension,  he  was  impartial  in  the  administration  of  justice,  and  de- 
lighted to  promote  the  peace  and  happiness  of  his  subjects ;  his  learning 
was  small,  but  the  rectitude  of  his  disposition  and  the  kindness  of  his  heart 
supplied  the  defects  of  education,  and  entitle  him  to  a  distinguished  place 
among  Russian  sovereigns."  It  was  this  prince  who  caused  the  kremlin 
to  be  erected  of  stone,  and  closed  by  a  wall  flanked  with  towers,  which 
were  defended  by  ditches  surmounted  with  stone. 

Vassili  or  Basil  II.,  who  succeeded  his  father  Dmitri  in  1389,  was  also 
destined  to  see  his  country  invaded  by  the  Tartars  under  Tamerlane ;  but 
tliey  never  reached  the  capital,  for  he  prepared  to  give  them  battle  near 
the  river  Oka,  when  they  suddenly  turned  round  and  retired,  as  their  coun- 
trymen had  previously  done  on  two  other  occasions.  The  Russians  attrib- 
uted this  to  a  miracle  performed  by  a  picture  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  said  to 
have  been  painted  by  St.  Luke.  The  barbarian  horde,  however,  joined  by 
the  Lithuanians,  afterward  laid  siege  to  Moscow,  but  were  repulsed  by  the 
inhabitants,  the  grand  prince  having  retired  with  his  family  to  Kostroma 
Exasperated  at  this  defeat,  the  Tartars  in  their  retreat  harassed  the  sur 


HISTORIC  SUMMARY  —  VASSILI   II.  —  IVAN   HI.    THE   GREAT.  607 

rounding  country,  and  slaughtered  tlic  defenceless  peasantry.  Money  was 
first  coined  in  Novgorod  during  this  reign,  its  place  having  hitherto  been 
supplied  wfth  skins  and  pieces  of  leather :  twenty  skins  of  the  martin  were 
considered  as  equivalent  to  a  g-rivna,  the  value  of  which  was  a  real  pound 
of  gold  or  silver,  of  nine  and  a  quarter  ounces  in  Kiev  and  thirteen  in 
Novgorod. 

During  the  reign  of  Vassili,  Kazan  was  taken  from  the  Tartars,  and 
Russia  was  thrice  visited  with  the  plague  and  famine,  while  the  ancient 
city  of  Novgorod  was  shaken  by  an  earthquake  after  the  greater  part  of 
its  buildings  had  been  consumed  by  fire.  Internal  dissensions  broke  out 
on  the  death  of  Yassili,  a  dispute  having  arisen  respecting  the  succession 
to  the  throne  between  the  son  of  that  monarch  and  his  uncle  George. 
This  was,  by  the  consent  of  both  parties,  left  to  the  decision  of  the  khan 
of  Tartary,  who  determined  in  favor  of  the  former.  Nevertheless,  a  civil 
war  ensued,  and  George  was  for  a  short  time  in  possession  of  the  throne, 
when,  finding  himself  abandoned  by  his  party  and  his  family,  he  restored 
it  to  his  nephew,  and  returned  to  his  principality  of  Halitsch. 

Complicated  wars,  Russian  and  Tartar,  now  followed ;  the  principal 
incident  of  which  was  that  Ivan,  the  prince  of  Mojask,  in  the  interest  of 
the  traitor  Chemiaka,  induced  Vassili  to  stop  at  the  monastery  of  the 
Troitzkoi,  to  return  thanks  on  his  arrival  from  the  Tartars,  and,  having 
seized  him  there,  he  took  him  to  Moscow  and  put  out  his  eyes.  A  few 
years  after  the  prince  of  Mojask  had  committed  this  savage  act,  Vassili 
was  restored  to  the  throne,  and  died  in  1462.  The  Tartars,  under  Makh- 
met,  again  possessed  themselves  of  Kazan  in  this  reign. 

Vassili  II.  was  succeeded  by  Ivan  III.  The  first  exploit  which  the  new 
monarch  attempted  was  the  reduction  of  the  province  of  Kazan,  in  which 
he  succeeded  after  two  severe  campaigns.  The  next  was  the  subjection 
of  Novgorod,  in  which  he  also  succeeded,  incorporating  that  city  and  prov- 
ince with  his  own  dominions,  and,  having  received  the  oaths  of  allegiance 
of  the  inhabitants,  he  carried  off  with  him  to  Moscow  their  celebrated 
town-clock,  which  he  suspended  in  a  tower  before  the  kremlin,  to  be  used 
only  to  call  the  people  to  their  devotions. 

Tlie  next  and  most  arduous  undertaking  was  the  destruction  of  the 
"  Golden  Horde,"  under  Achmet,  which  he  effected  in  revenge  for  the 
insult  offered  him  by  that  khan  in  demanding  the  homage  whicli  he  had 
received  from  his  predecessors.  Ivan  spat  on  the  edict  and  Achract's 
seal,  and  put  his  embassadors  to  death,  sparing  one  only  to  convey  the 
intelligence  to  his  master,  who  prepared  in  the  following  year  to  take  his 
revenge ;  but,  awed  by  the  preparations  made  to  receive  him  on  the  bank.s 
of  the  Oka,  he  retired  for  a  time,  and  subsequently  took  the  more  circuit- 
ous route  through  Lithuania,  from  which  country  he  expected  support. 
The  Russians,  however,  met  and  defeated  a  part  of  his  horde,  and  were 
returning  home,  when  the  khan  was  met  on  a  different  route  by  the  Nogai 
Tartars,  who  routed  his  army  and  slew  him  in  the  battle.     His  ally,  Cas' 


608  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF    RUSSIA, 

mir  IV.,  also  brought  himself  under  Ivan's  indignation,  not  only  for  this 
war,  hut  because  he  attempted  to  poison  him,  and  an  incursion  that  he 
made  into  the  territories  of  the  Polish  king  was  eminently  successful. 

This  powerful  and  ambitious  prince  also  made  treaties  with  and  received 
embassadors  from  the  pope,  the  sultan,  the  kings  of  Denmark  and  Poland, 
and  the  republic  of  Venice.  He  assumed  the  title  of  "  Grand  Prince  of 
Novgorod,  Vladimir,  Moscow,  and  all  Russia,"  and  changed  the  arms  of 
St.  George  on  horseback  for  the  black  eagle  with  two  heads,  after  his  mar- 
riage with  Sophia,  a  princess  of  the  imperial  blood  of  Constantinople.  In 
fact,  Ivan  III.  may  be  called  the  true  founder  of  the  modern  Russian  em- 
pire. Karamsin,  the  historian,  thus  describes  him :  "  Without  being  a 
tyrant  like  his  grandson,  he  had  received  from  nature  a  certain  harsliness 
of  character,  wliich  he  knew  how  to  moderate  by  the  strength  of  his  rea- 
son. It  is  said,  however,  that  a  single  glance  of  Ivan,  when  he  was  ex- 
cited with  anger,  would  make  a  timid  woman  swoon ;  that  petitioners 
dreaded  to  approach  his  "ihrone ;  and  that,  even  at  his  table,  the  boyars 
his  grandees,  trembled  before  him"  —  which  portrait  does  not  belie  his 
own  declaration,  when  the  same  boyars  demanded  that  he  should  give  the 
crown  to  his  grandson  Ivan,  whom  he  had  dispossessed  in  favor  of  a  son 
by  his  second  wife — "I  will  give  to  Russia  whomsoever  I  please!"  He 
died,  very  infirm,  in  1505,  having  reigned  forty-three  years. 

Wars  between  the  Russians,  the  Poles,  the  Tartars,  and  the  Novgorod- 
ians,  again  arose  on  the  death  of  Ivan ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  death  of 
Vassili  IV.,  his  successor,  and  a  minority  of  twelve  years  had  elapsed  m 
the  reign  of  Ivan  IV.,  that  internal  cabals  and  intrigues  were  for  a  time 
suppressed.     This  monarch,  the  first  to  take  the  title  of  "  Czar"*  married 


# 


■  We  have  adopted  the  more  popular  orthography  of  this  word.  Schnitzler,  however,  lu  hi» 
"  Secret  Historj-  of  the  Court  and  Government  of  Russia,"  although  using  the  form  czar  in  his  work, 
seems  to  look  upon  tzar  or  tsar  as  the  more  prevalent  and  correct  form.  He  makes  the  following 
observations  on  the  orthography  and  derivation  of  the  word:  "There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  with 
regard  to  the  orthography  of  this  word.  Formerly  it  was  always  written  'czar,'  but  since  the  corn- 
niencement  of  this  century  the  custom  adopted  by  Le  Clerc  of  writing  it  '  tzar'  or  '  tsar'  has  iiiseri- 
sibly  been  established.  The  latter  form  is  the  only  one  which  exactly  corresponds  with  the  Russian 
pronunciation.  We  have  borrowed  the  form  'czar'  from  the  Poles:  the  Germans  also  have  de- 
rived it  from  them,  although  in  their  language  the  word  should  be  written  '  zar,'  their  z  being  a 
harsh  articulation  composed  of  the  two  consonants  t  and  s.  But  instead  of  pronouncing  this  word 
'  gzar,'  as  the  French  do,  the  Poles  said  '  tchar.'  They  now  write  '  car,'  and  pronounce  '  tsar,' 
like  the  Russians,  for  their  c  corresponds  to  ts,  and  is  never  pronounced  as  k.  It  has  been  said 
that  in  the  form  'czar' the  etymology  of  the  word  may  he  perceived  as  derived  by  abbreviation 
from  '  Csesar,'  emperor.  To  this  conjecture,  however,  there  is  a  sufficient  objection,  namely,  that 
in  the  old  Slavonic  version  of  the  New  Testament  the  name  of  Caesar  is  always  given  under  the 
form  of  Kessar  or  Kcfar,  and  that  the  title  '  tsar '  is  given  in  it  to  kings  and  not  to  emperors.  {^Isyde 
prov'elenie  oth  Kegar  Avgousta^  —  'Then  went  forth  a  decree  from  Cfesar  Augustus.'  —  Luke  ii.  1. 
'  Vozdoditie  ibo  Kegaref  KefarevL'  — '  Render  therefore  unto  Cassar  the  things  which  are  Caesar's.' 
—  Matt.  xxii.  21.)  It  is  true  that  the  emperor  of  Constantinople  receives  the  same  title  of  'isar' 
from  the  Russian  annalists,  but  the  more  ancient  give  him  also  that  of  Kefar.  Among  the  Slavo- 
nians that  are  not  Russians  the  title  of  'tsar'  is  but  little  known.  But,  then,  whence  comes  it? 
From  what  source  have  the  Russians  derived  it?  The  following  is  what  Karamsin,  the  most  es- 
teemed of  Russian  historians,  Bays  on  this  subject:  'This  word  is  not  an  abbreviation  of  the  Lati  i 
Usesar,  as  n^any  have  eiToneously  supposed,  but  an  ancient  term  of  the  eastern  languages-     KnrJMii 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  IVAN   IV,   THE   TERRIBLE, 


609 


Ivan  IV.  the  Terrible. 


Anastasia,  the  daughter  of  Roman  Yuryvicli,  who  in  the  early  part  of  his 
reign  had  the  happiest  ascendency  over  a  character  naturally  violent  and 
cruel.  Ivan  was  at  this  period  affable  and  condescending,  accessible  to 
both  rich  and  poor,  and  his  mental  powers  under  her  guidance  were  em- 
ployed in  advancing  the  interests  and  happiness  of  his  subjects,  Ivan  soon 
perceived  that,  to  preserve  his  power,  he  must  anniliilatc  the  Tartar  do- 
minion. To  this  he  felt  that  his  uninstructed  army  was  unequal :  he  there- 
fore established,  in  1545,  the  militia  of  the  Strelitzes,  and  armed  them 
with  muskets  instead  of  bows,  hitherto  their  arms,  as  their  name  imports, 
from  strelai,  "  an  arrow,"  He  tlien  laid  siege  to  and  captured  Kazan, 
taking  the  khan  prisoner.  He  likewise  defeated  Gustavus  Vasa,  king  of 
Sweden,  in  a  pitched  battle  near  Yiborg  ;  ravaged  Livonia,  taking  Dorpat, 
Narva,  and  thirty  fortified  towns ;  and  made  war  on  the  king  of  Poland 
because  he  had  refused  him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  An  unsuccessful 
campaign  against  this  potentate,  attributed  by  the  boyars  to  the  unskilful 
arrangements  of  the  foreign  generals,  as  well  as  the  death  of  his  wife  Anap- 
tasia,  whose  controlling  influence  was  no  longer  felt,  led  to  the  unlimited 

ameng  U3  by  the  Slavonic  translation  of  the  Bible,  it  has  been  employed  to  designate  the  emperors 
(if  Byzantium,  and  more  recently  the  Mongol  khans.  In  the  Persian  language  it  implies  the  idea 
of  a  throne,  or  of  the  supreme  power.  It  may  be  recognised  in  the  final  syllables  of  the  names  of 
the  kings  of  Assyria  and  Babylon  —  Phalas-sar,  Nabonas-sar,  &c.'  In  a  note  the  scrupulous  histo- 
rian adds':  'In  our  printed  translation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  we  always  find  it  Kess,  Kessar,  in 
place  of  Caesar.  "Tsar"  is  quite  another  word.'  As  it  is  habitually  used  with  respect  to  the 
kings  of  Kazan,  Astrakhan,  and  Siberia,  and  as  Ivan  IV.  ( Vassilievich)  seems  to  have  adopted  it, 
more  particularly  after  the  conquest  of  these  two  neighboring  kingdoms,  Huppel  thinks  that  it 
came  thence,  and  that  the  Russian  autocrats,  after  having  gained  this  considerable  extension  to 
their  territory,  assumed  llie  title  of  the  vanquished  sovereigns." 

39 


dlO  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

indulgence  of  liis  naturally  ferocious  disposition ;  and  the  remaining  acts 
of  liis  life  gained  for  liim,  in  the  history  of  his  country,  the  surname  of 
"  The  Terrible."  Independently  of  the  many  and  dreadful  acts  of  barbar- 
ity of  which  he  was  guilty,  he  killed  his  own  son  in  a  paroxysm  of  rage, 
but  died  a  prey  to  the  grief  and  remorse  which  this  fearful  crime  occa- 
sioned him,  after  having  endeavored  to  atone  for  it  by  giving  large  sums 
of  money  to  different  monasteries.  He  received  the  tonsure  in  his  last 
moments. 

As  a  legislator,  Ivan  lY.  was  superior  to  his  predecessors,  having,  with 
the  assistance  of  his  nobles,  compiled  a  code  of  laws  called  "  Soudebnik.^" 
In  his  reign  an  English  ship,  commanded  by  Richard  Chancellor,  on  a 
voyage  of  discovery,  before  alluded  to,  in  the  Arctic  sea,  anchored  in  the 
mouth  of  the  Dwina;  and,  when  the  information  of  this  circumstance  was 
forwarded  to  Ivan,  he  invited  Chancellor  to  Moscow,  where,  on  his  arrival, 
he  was  received  with  marked  attention,  and  presented  with  a  letter  to  carry 
back  to  his  sovereign,  Queen  Elizabeth,  expressing  a  desire  to  enter  into 
commercial  relations  with  England,  and  to  have  English  artificers  and 
workmen  sent  to  him.  It  is  curious  that  even  at  this  early  period  the  fair 
which  he  established  at  Narva  was  so  glutted  with  English,  Dutch,  and 
French  goods,  that  some  of  them  were  sold  for  less  than  the  prime  cost  in 
their  respective  countries.  Ivan  controlled  his  religious  prejudices,  and 
tolerated  the  Lutheran  churches  of  the  German  merchants  at  Moscow ; 
but  he  never  shook  hands  with  a  foreign  embassador  without  washing  his 
own  immediately  after  his  visiter  had  taken  his  leave  !  With  a  character 
so  strongly  marked  by  cruelty,  superstition,  and  caprice,  it  is  remarkable 
to  find,  not  only  that  he  was  enterprising  and  intelligent,  but  that  he  should 
ever  have  entertained  the  idea  of  placing  the  Scriptures  in  the  hands  of  his 
subjects  in  the  mother-tongue :  he  did,  however,  order  a  translation  to  be 
made  of  the  Acts  and  Epistles,  and  had  it  disseminated  over  his  domin- 
ions. "  In  the  memory  of  the  people,"  observes  Karamsin,  "  the  brilliant 
renown  of  Ivan  survived  the  recollection  of  his  bad  qualities.  The  groans 
had  ceased,  the  victims  were  reduced  to  dust ;  new  events  caused  ancient 
traditions  to  be  forgotten ;  and  the  memory  of  this  prince  reminded  people 
only  of  the  conquest  of  three  Mongol  kingdoms.  The  proofs  of  his  atro- 
cious actions  were  buried  in  the  public  archives  ;  while  Kazan,  Astrakhan, 
and  Siberia,  remained  in  the  eyes  of  the  nation  as  imperishable  monuments 
of  his  glory.  The  Russians,  who  saw  in  him  the  illustrious  author  of  their 
power  and  civilization,  rejected  or  forgot  the  surname  of  tyrant  given  him 
by  his  contemporaries.  Under  the  influence  of  some  confused  recollections 
of  his  cruelty,  they  still  call  him  Ivan  '  The  Terrible,'  without  distinguish- 
ing him  from  his  grandfather  Ivan  III.,  to  whom  Russia  had  given  the 
same  epithet  rather  in  praise  than  in  reproach.  History  does  not  pardon 
wicked  princes  so  easily  as  do  people."  Ivan  TV.  died  in  1584,  having 
governed  the  Russian  nation  for  a  longer  period  than  any  other  sovereign, 
namely,  fifty-one  years. 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  FEODOR  I.  —  BORIS  —  VLADISLAUS.        '       611 

Feodor  I.,  who  ascended  the  throne  after  the  death  of  Ivan  IV.,  and 
was  a  feeble  and  vacillating  prince,  died  in  1598.  His  successor  was  Bo- 
ris Godunofi",  the  brother  of  Anastasia,  the  czar  Ivan's  first  wife,  who,  like 
the  English  Richard,  compassed  the  death  of  his  nephew  Dmitri,  Feodor's 
younger  brother,  during  that  czar's  lifetime  ;  and  therefore  in  Feodor  ended 
the  dynasty  of  Rurik,  which  during  eight  centuries  had  wielded  the  Rus- 
sian sceptre.  Consequent  upon  this  deed  came  all  kinds  of  civil  calami- 
ties, and  in  1604  there  arose  a  pretender  to  the  throne  in  the  person  of  a 
Russian  monk.  This  man  assumed  the  character  of  the  murdered  Dmitri, 
and,  having  drawn  to  his  standard  the  Poles  and  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don, 
met  Boris  in  the  field,  remained  master  of  it,  and  in  the  space  of  one  year 
seated  himself  on  the  throne. 

Nor  was  this  civil  war  the  only  calamity  which  befell  the  Russians  during 
the  reign  of  Boris.  Moscow  was,  in  1600,  decimated  by  the  most  appal- 
ling famine  that  ever  devastated  the  capital  of  a  country.  It  is  related 
that,  driven  by  the  pangs  of  hunger,  instances  occurred  of  mothers  having 
first  slain  and  then  eaten  their  own  children ;  and  it  is  recorded  that  a 
woman,  in  her  extremity,  seized  with  her  teeth  the  flesh  of  her  son  whom 
she  carried  in  her  arms.  Others  confessed  that  they  had  entrapped  into 
their  dwellings,  and  subsequently  killed  and  eaten,  three  men  successively. 
One  hundred  and  twenty-seven  thousand  corpses  remained  for  some  days 
in  the  streets  unburied,  and  were  afterward  interred  in  the  fields,  exclu- 
sive of  those  which  had  been  previously  buried  in  the  four  hundred 
churches  of  the  city !  An  eye-witness  relates  that  this  awful  visitation 
carried  off  five  hundred  thousand  persons  from  this  densely-peopled  capi- 
tal, the  population  of  which  was,  at  the  time,  augmented  by  the  influx  of 
strangers.  During  this  dreadful  calamity,  Boris,  with  justifiable  violence, 
broke  open  the  granaries  wl»ich  avarice  had  closed,  and  had  the  grain  sold 
at  half  its  value. 

Interminable  and  inexplicable  troubles,  a  second  false  Dmitri,  and  other 
impostors,  led  to  the  occupation  of  Moscow  by  the  Poles  in  1610,  who 
entered  the  city  with  Vladislaus,  son  of  Sigismund,  king  of  Poland,  elected 
to  the  throne  by  the  boyars,  on  condition  that  he  should  embrace  the  Greek 
religion.  This  gave  great  offence  to  the  national  feeling ;  and  Minim,  a 
citizen  of  Nijnei-Novgorod,  called  his  countrymen  to  arms,  and  entreated 
the  general  Pojarski  to  take  the  command.  This  he  did  without  reluc- 
tance, and  his  army  was  quickly  increased  by  the  arrival  of  troops  and 
money  from  various  towns,  and  by  the  Cossacks  and  Strelitzes  who  flocked 
to  his  banner.  Thus  reinforced,  they  marched  to  Yaroslav,  and  afterward 
to  Moscow,  to  which  they  laid  siege,  carried  the.Kitai  Gorod  by  assault, 
and  made  a  fearful  slaughter  of  the  Poles ;  when  the  inhabitants,  driven 
to  the  last  extremity  by  famine,  surrendered,  and  Vladislaus  abandoned 
the  country.  A  fine  monument,  previously  referred  to,  was  erected  in  the 
open  space,  under  the  kremlin-walls,  in  1818,  to  the  memory  of  Minim  and 
Pojarski.     It  represents  the  high-spirited  citizen  of  Nijnei  calling  on  his 


(J12 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 


countrymen  to  rid  Russia  of  the  foreign  enemy,  while  Pojarski  listens 
attentively  to  the  stirring  exhortation. 

With  a  vacant  throne,  and  unembarrassed  by  republican  feelings,  the 
boyars,  after  the  flight  of  Yladislaus,  proceeded  to  elect  as  their  czar 
Michael  Romanoff,  the  son  of  the  metropolitan  of  Rostof,  who  was,  at  the 


Michael  Romanoff, 

r 

time,  only  sixteen  years  of  age ;  and  from  him  is  descended  the  present 
imperial  family.  The  usual  routine  of  civil  strife  and  foreign  wars  contin- 
ued after  tlie  accession  of  Romanoff ;  and  that  in  which  the  czar  was  in- 
volved with  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sw€den,  was  terminated,  not  much 
to  the  advantage  of  Russia,  through  the  mediation  of  England,  France,  and 
Holland.  A  treaty  was  signed  by  the  belligerent  parties  on  the  26th  of 
January,  1616,  which  gave  to  Sweden  Ingria,  Carelia,  Livonia,  and  Es- 
thonia,  the '  Russians  retaining  Novgorod ;  and  these  terms  seem  to  have 
been  dictated  by  the  czar's  love  of  peace.  The  Poles  were,  at  this  time, 
masters  of  Smolensk,  and  ravaged  the  country  up  to  the  walls  of  Moscow, 
against  which  they  made  a  night  attack,  but  were  repulsed  ;  they  remained, 
however,  in  possession  of  Smolensk,  after  sustaining  a  siege  of  two  years. 
Dragoons  are  mentioned,  for  the  first  time  in  this  reign,  as  forming  part 
of  a  Russian  army,  and  the  czar  was  assisted  in  his  wars  by  both  German 
and  French  troops :  these  regiments  served  him  as  models  for  the  organi- 
zation of  tlie  Russian  army,  which  was  further  improved  by  the  discipline 
introduced  by  tlic  foreign  officers  in  Romanoff's  pay. 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  ROMANOFF  —  ALEXIS  —  FEODOR   III. 


618 


After  a  reign  distinguished  by  an  enlightened  policy  and  virtuous  habits, 
the  czar  died  in  July,  1645,  at  the  age  of  only  forty-nine  years.  His  son 
Alexis,  who  was  a  prince  of  a  mild  and  benevolent  disposition,  succeeded 
him.  The  chief  events  of  his  reign  were,  the  marauding  expeditions  of 
the  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  led  by  Rizan ;  a  rebellion  in  the  city  of  Astra- 
khan ;  and  the  appearance  of  another  false  Dmitri,  who  was  brought  cap- 
tive to  Moscow,  and  put  to  a  violent  and  cruel  death.  In  this  reign  ship- 
wrights came  over  from  Holland  and  England,  and  a  Dutchman  named 
Butler  built  a  vessel  called  the  Eagle,  at  Didiloff,  the  first  ship  that  the 
Russians  had  seen  built  on  scientific  principles. 

Alexis  died  in  1676,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Feodor  HI.,  who 
died  young,  in  1682.  During  the  short  period  allotted  him  for  the  exer- 
cise of  power,  he  evinced  every  disposition  to  carry  out  his  father's  plans. 
He  directed  his  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the  laws,  and  rendered 
justice  accessible  to  all,  and,  in  the  words  of  a  Russian  historian,  "  lived 
the  joy  and  delight  of  his  people,  and  died  amid  their  sighs  and  tears. 
On  the  day  of  his  death,  Moscow  was  in  the  same  distress  that  Rome  was 
on  the  death  of  Titus."  The  sovereignty  of  the  Cossacks  was  secured  to 
Russia  in  this  reign.  Feodor  left  no  children,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
half-brother  Peter,  whom,  some  accounts  say,  was  named  by  him  as  his 
successor. 


Uesidencr  ok  Peter  the  Gkeat  in  Holland. 


614  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 


CHAPTER   XXY. 

HISTORIC    SUMMARY  —  PETER    THE    GREAT    TO    NICHOLAS. 

THE  succession  of  Peter  to  the  throne  of  the  empire  was  by  no  means 
pleasing  to  the  majority  of  the  Russian  nobles,  and  it  was  particu- 
larly opposed  by  Prince  Galitzin,  the  prime  minister  of  the  late  czar. 
This  able  man  had  espoused  the  interests  of  Sophia  (the  sister  of  Feodor 
ni.  and  Ivan,  and  half-sister  of  Peter),  a  young  woman  of  eminent  abili- 
ties and  insinuating  address.  Sophia,  upon  the  pretence  of  asserting  the 
claims  of  her  brother  Ivan,  who,  though  of  a  feeble  constitution  and  weak 
intellect,  was  considered  as  the  lawful  heir  to  the  crown,  had  really  formed 
a  design  of  securing  the  succession  to  herself;  and,  with  that  view,  had 
not  only  insinuated  herself  into  the  confidence  and  good  graces  of  Galitzin, 
but  had  brought  over  to  her  interests  the  Strelitzes.  These  turbulent  and 
licentious  soldiers  assembled  ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of  placing  on  the 
tlirone  Prince  Ivan,  whom  they  proclaimed  czar  by  acclamation.  During 
three  days  these  Russian  Janizaries  roved  about  the  city  of  Moscow,  com- 
mitting the  greatest  excesses,  and  putting  to  death  several  of  the  chief 
officers  of  state  who  were  suspected  of  being  hostile  to  the  designs  of  So- 
phia. The  princess  did  not,  however,  entirely  gain  her  point ;  for,  as  the 
new  czar  entertained  a  sincere  affection  for  Peter  (who,  as  already  seen, 
was  only  his  half-brother),  he  insisted  that  this  prince  should  share  with 
him  the  imperial  dignity.  This  was  at  length  agreed  to ;  and  on  the  6th 
of  May,  1682,  Ivan  and  Peter  were  solemnly  crowned  joint-emperors  of  all 
the  Russias,  while  the  princess  Sophia  was  nominated  their  copartner  in 
the  government. 

Prom  the  imbecility  of  Ivan,  and  the  youth  of  Peter  (now  only  ten  years 
of  age),  the  whole  power  of  the  government  in  fact  rested  on  Sophia  and 
her  minister  Galitzin,  though  until  the  year  1687  the  names  of  Ivan  and 
Peter  only  were  annexed  to  the  imperial  decrees.  Sophia  had  scarcely 
established  her  authority,  when  she  was  threatened  with  deposition,  from 
an  alarming  insurrection  of  the  Strelitzes.  This  was  excited  by  their  com- 
mander, Prince  Kovanskoi,  who,  demanding  of  Sophia  that  slie  would  marry 
one  of  her  sisters  to  his  son,  met  with  a  refusal.  In  consequence  of  this 
insurrection,  which  threw  the  whole  city  of  Moscow  into  terror  and  con- 
sternation, Sophia  and  the  two  young  czars  took  refuge  in  a  monastery, 
about  twelve  leagues  from  the  capital ;  and,  before  the  Strelitzes  could 


HISTORIC  SUMMARY  —  IVAN   V.,   PETER   I., 


AND   SOPHIA. 


615 


Peter  I.  the  Gbkat. 


follow  them  thither,  a  considerable  body  of  soldiers,  principally  foreigners, 
was  asstmbled  in  their  defence.  Kovanskoi  was  taken  prisoner,  and  in- 
stantly beheaded ;  and,  though  his  followers  at  first  threatened  dreadful 
vengeance  on  his  executioners,  they  soon  found  themselves  obliged  to  sub- 
mit, when  the  most  guilty  among  the  ringleaders  suffered  death. 

The  quelling  of  these  disturbances  gave  opportunity  to  the  friends  of 
Peter  to  puisue  the  plans  which  they  had  formed  for  subverting  the  au- 
thority of  Sophia ;  and  their  designs  were  favored  by  a  rupture  with  Tur- 
key. The  Ottoman  Porte  was  now  engaged  with  Poland  and  the  German 
empire,  and  both  the  latter  powers  had  solicited  the  assistance  of  Russia 
against  the  common  enemy.  Sophia  and  her  party  were  averse  to  the  alli- 
ance ;  but  as  the  secret  friends  of  Peter  had  sufficient  influence  to  persuade 
the  majority  that  a  Turkish  war  would  be  of  advantage  to  the  state,  they 
even  prevailed  on  Galitzin  to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  army,  and  thus 
removed  their  principal  opponent.  Assembling  an  army  of  nearly  three 
hundred  thousand  men,  he  advanced  to  the  confines  of  Turkey,  and  here 
consumed  two  campaigns  in  marches  and  countermarches,  and  lost  nearly 
forty  thousand  men,  partly  in  unsuccessful  skirmishes  with  the  enemy,  but 
chiefly  from  disease. 

Wliile  Galitzin  was  thus  trifling  away  his  time  in  the  south,  Peter,  who 


b'l6  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP  RUSSIA. 

already  began  to  give  proofs  of  those  great  talents  which  afterward  ei.v>- 
bled  him  to  act  so  conspicuous  a  part  in  tlie  theatre  of  the  nortli,  was 
strengthening  his  party  among  the  Russian  nobles.  His  ordinary  resi- 
dence was  at  a  village  not  far  from  Moscow,  and  here  he  had  assembled 
round  him  a  considerable  number  of  young  men  of  rank  and  influence, 
whom  he  called  his  playmates.  Under  the  appearance  of  a  military  game, 
Peter  was  secretly  establishing  himself  in  the  affections  of  his  young  com- 
panions ;  and  he  contrived  effectually  to  lull  the  suspicions  of  Sophia,  till 
it  was  too  late  for  her  to  oppose  his  machinations. 

In  the  year  1689,  Peter,  who  had  now  attained  his  seventeenth  year, 
determined  to  make  an  effort  to  deprive  Sophia  of  all  share  in  the  govern- 
ment, and  thus  secure  to  himself  the  undivided  sovereignty.  An  open  rup- 
ture soon  took  place,  and  Sophia,  finding  that  she  could  not  openly  oppose 
the  party  of  the  czar,  attempted  to  procure  his  assassination ;  but  her  de- 
sign was  discovered,  and  an  accommodation  was  agreed  to,  on  condition 
that  she  would  give  up  all  claim  to  the  regency  and  retire  to  a  nunnery. 
She  was  consequently  incarcerated  in  a  monastery  for  the  rest  of  her  life. 
This  princess  was,  considering  the  times  in  which  she  lived,  a  woman  of 
extraordinary  taste  and  literary  acquirements.  A  tragedy,  written  by  her 
when  she  was  involved  in  state  intrigues,  and  apparently  absorbed  in  politi- 
cal turmoil,  is  still  preserved.  The  commander  of  the  Strelitzes,  who  was 
to  have  been  her  agent  in  the  assassination  of  Peter,  was  beheaded,  and 
the  minister  Galitzin  sent  into  banishment  to  Archangel.  Peter  had  now 
obtained  the  wished-for  possession  of  the  imperial  throne  ;  for  though  Ivan 
was  still  nominally  czar,  he  had  voluntarily  resigned  all  participation  in 
the  administration  of  affairs,  and  retired  to  a  life  of  obscurity.  He  sur- 
vived until  1696. 

The  ruling  passion  of  Peter  the  Great  was  a  desire  to  extend  his  empire 
and  consolidate  his  power ;  and  accordingly  his  first  act  was  to  make  war 
on  the  Turks,  an  undertaking  which  was  at  the  outset  imprudently  con- 
ducted, and  consequently  unsuccessful.  He  lost  thirty  thousand  men  be- 
fore Azov,  and  did  not  obtain  permanent  possession  of  the  town  until  tlic 
year  1699,  and  then  by  an  armistice.  In  the  following  year  he  was  de- 
feated in  his  intrenched  camp  at  Narva,  containing  eighty  thousand  men, 
by  eight  thousand  Swedes  under  Charles  XII.,  then  only  a  boy  of  seven- 
teen ;  and  on  many  other  occasions  the  Russians  suffered  severe  checks 
and  reverses.  But  at  length  the  indomitable  perseverance  of  Peter  pre- 
vailed. In  1705,  he  carried  Narva,  the  scene  of  his  former  defeat,  by 
assault ;  and  two  years  after,  by  the  crowning  victory  of  Poltava,  where  he 
showed  the  qualities  of  an  able  general,  he  sealed  the  fate  of  his  gallant 
and  eccentric  adversary  and  the  nation  over  which  he  ruled. 

In  1711,  Peter  once  more  took  the  field  against  the  Turks ;  but  his 
troops  were  badly  provisioned,  and,  having  led  them  into  a  very  disadvan- 
tageous position,  where  they  were  surrounded  by  the  grand  vizier's  army, 
he  was  only  enabled,  by  a  present  of  his  consort's  jewels  to  the  Turkish 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  PETER  THE   GREAT.  617 

commander,  to  negotiate  a  humiliating  peace,  one  of  the  conditions  of 
which  was  that  the  king  of  Sweden,  tlien  a  fugitive  in  Turkey,  should  be 
permitted  to  return  to  his  own  country. 

From  this  period  to  1718,  Peter  was  constantly  occupied  in  pursuing 
with  vigor  the  plans  which  he  had  originated  for  extending  the  frontiers 
of  his  kingdom  toward  the  west.  In  the  latter  year  he  drove  the  Swedes 
out  of  Finland,  made  several  descents  upon  the  coast  near  Stockholm,  de- 
stroyed whole  towns,  obliged  her  navy  to  fly,  and  finally,  in  1721,  by  the 
peace  of  Nystadt,  retained  Esthonia,  Livonia,  Ingria,  a  part  of  Carelia  and 
Finland,  as  well  as  the  islands  of  Dago,  Moen,  CEsel,  &c. 

Having  now  no  enemy  on  the  side  of  the  Baltic,  Peter  turned  his  arms 
eastward,  and  took  Derbend,  on  the  Caspian,  from  the  shah  of  Persia,  in 
1724  —  an  inglorious  conquest,  for  only  six  thousand  Persians  were  op- 
posed to  his  veteran  army  of  eleven  thousand,  besides  Kalmucks  and  Cos- 
sacks. This  was  his  last  military  achievement,  for  he  died  in  1725  (of  a 
cold  contracted  in  attempting  to  rescue  some  shipwrecked  sailors  near 
Kronstadt),  in  the  fifty-second  year  of  his  age.  His  latter  years  were 
clouded  by  domestic  infelicity :  his  second  wife,  Catherine,  was  more  than 
suspected  of  being  unfaithful  to  him  ;  and  his  son  Alexis  was  disobedient. 
The  former  he  spared ;  the  latter  he  brought  to  trial,  and  is  believed  to 
have  put  to  death  in  prison — some  accounts  affirm,  with  his  own  hand ! 

We  have  said  that  the  czar's  ruling  passion  was  to  extend  his  empire 
and  consolidate  his  power,  but  he  likewise  possessed  in  an  eminent  degree 
the  national  characteristics  —  a  persevering  mind  and  a  resolute  will,  which 
bid  defiance  to  all  difficulties.  By  the  assistance  of  his  foreign  officers, 
he  succeeded  in  forming  and  bringing  into  a  high  state  of  discipline  a  large 
army  ;  he  found  Russia  without  a  fishing-smack,  and  bequeathed  to  her  a 
navy  to  which  that  of  Sweden,  long  established  and  highly  efficient,  low- 
ered her  flag ;  he  built  St.  Petersburg,  which  may  be  said  to  float  upon  the 
waters  of  the  Neva ;  he  caused  canals  and  other  public  works  of  utility  to 
be  constructed  in  various  parts  of  his  empire  ;  endowed  colleges  and  uni- 
versities, and  established  commercial  relations  with  China  and  almost 
every  other  nation  on  the  globe.  The  czar  likewise  possessed  the  capability 
of  enduring  privation  and  bodily  fatigue  to  an  almost  incredible  extent, 
and  seemed  to  act  upon  the  idea  that,  by  his  own  personal  exertions  and 
the  versatility  of  his  genius,  he  could  accomplish  for  Russia  tliat  which  it 
had  taken  centuries  to  efl"ect  in  other  countries,  and  fancied  that  he  could 
infuse  into  her  citizens  an  immediate  appreciation  of  the  mechanical  and 
polite  arts,  as  well  as  a  taste  for  those  things  which  are  seen  only  in  an 
advanced  stage  of  civilization.  Peter  devoted  his  whole  attention  and 
energies  to  this  theory ;  and,  though  he  could  not  compass  impossibilities, 
he  was  enabled,  by  the  uncontrolled  exercise  of  the  imperial  will  and  in- 
exhaustible resources,  to  effect  a  most  extraordinary  and  rapid  change  in 
the  political  and  physical  condition  of  his  country. 

His  manual  dexterity  and  mechanical  knowledge  were  great.     Against 


618  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

the  expressed  wish  of  his  boyars  and  the  clergy,  who  thought  it  an  irreli- 
o-ious  act,  he  left  Russia  to  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  arts  and 
inventions  of  other  European  nations,  and  worked  with  an  adze  in  the 
principal  dockyards  of  Holland  ;  he  not  only  built,  but  sailed  his  own  boat, 
which,  as  remarked  in  a  previous  chapter,  is  still  to  be  seen  in  St.  Peters- 
burg, as  are  specimens  of  his  engra\aug,  turning,  and  carpenter's  work. 
He  rose  at  four  o'clock  in  summer  ;  at  six  he  was  either  in  the  senate  or 
the  admiralty  :  and  his  subjects  must  have  believed  that  he  liad  the  gift  of 
ubiquity,  so  many  and  so  various  were  his  occupations.  He  had  also  the 
virtue  of  economy,  a  quality  rarely  seen  in  a  sovereign.  He  even  found 
time  to  dabble  in  literature,  and  translated  several  works  into  Russian : 
among  these  was  the  "Architecture"  of  Le  Clerc,  and  the  "Art  of  Con- 
structing Dams  and  Mills  "  by  Sturm ;  these  manuscripts  are  preserved. 

During  the  czar's  visit  to  London,  he  was  much  gazed  at  by  the  popu- 
lace, and  on  one  occasion  was  upset  by  a  porter  who  pushed  against  him 
with  his  load ;  when  Lord  Carmarthen,  fearing  there  would  be  a  pugilis- 
tic encounter,  turned  angrily  to  the  man,  and  said,  "  Don't  you  know  that 
this  is  the  czar?"  — "  Czar!"  replied  the  sturdy  porter,  with  his  tongue  in 
his  cheek,  "  we  are  all  czars  here  !"  Sauntering  one  day  into  Westmin- 
ster hall  with  the  same  nobleman,  when  it  was,  as  usual,  alive  with  wigs 
and  gowns,  Peter  asked  who  these  people  might  be ;  and,  when  informed 
that  they  were  lawyers,  nothing  could  exceed  his  astonishment.  "  Law- 
yers !"  he  said,  "  why  I  have  but  two  in  all  my  dominions,  and  I  believe  I 
shall  hang  one  of  them  the  moment  I  get  home  !" 

The  vices  of  Peter  were  such  as  to  have  been  expected  in  a  man  of  his 
violent  temperament,  despotic  in  a  barbarous  country,  and  who  in  early 
life  had  been  surrounded  by  flatterers  and  dissolute  associates.  But  it 
would  be  foreign  to  the  purpose  of  this  work  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of 
this  nature.  The  Russians  date  their  civilization  from  his  reign ;  but  a 
slight  glance  at  the  history  of  some  of  the  early  czars  will  show  that,  in 
many  of  the  points  on  which  the  greatness  of  his  reputation  rests,  he  was 
anticipated  by  his  predecessors.  Dark  and  savage  as  the  early  history  of 
the  country  is,  an  attempt  at  public  education  had  been  made,  religious 
toleration  and  an  anxiety  to  promote  commerce  existed,  and  the  institution 
of  a  code  of  laws  had  already  occupied  their  attention.  The  untimely 
deaths  of  some  of  these  princes  deprived  Russia  of  monarchs  far  more  be- 
nevolent than  Peter — men  of  finer  and  more  generous  minds,  and,  though 
not  so  ambitious,  quite  as  anxious  for  her  welfare.  Under  their  sway  no 
such  rush  at  improvement  w^ould  have  been  made  ;  no  such  influx  of  for- 
eigners would  have  taken  place  ;  but,  if  not  so  rapidly,  at  least  as  surely, 
these  sovereigns  would  have  effected  quite  as  much  real  good.  Peter  left 
no  code  of  laws  established  on  the  broad  principles  of  justice  ;  he  travelled 
in  England  and  Holland,  but  thought  only  of  their  navies,  and  wholly  over- 
looked tlie  great  principles  of  their  governments,  by  which  he  might  have 
ameliorated  the  condition  of  his  own.     Trial  by  jury  never  appears  to  have 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY CATHERINE   I. 


G19 


attracted  his  attention.  The  czar,  it  is  true,  reigned  over  a  nation  of 
serfs  —  so  did  Alfred  the  Great  of  England,  and  in  the  ninth  instead  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

Peter  was  succeeded  by  his  consort  Catherine,  in  whose  favor  he  had, 
some  years  before  his  death,  altered  the  order  of  succession.  She  was 
the  illegitimate  daughter  of  a  Livonian  peasant.  After  some  years  spent 
in  the  service  of  a  clergyman,  she  married  a  Swedish  dragoon,  who  shortly 
afterward  went  on  an  expedition,  and  never  returned.  She  then  resided, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  as  servant  or  paramour,  with  the  Russian  general 
Bauer,  when  Prince  Menchikoff  became  enamored  of  her  charms,  and  made 
her  his  mistress.  Peter  the  Great  now  distinguished  her  by  his  notice 
nnd  she  became  at  first  his  mistress  and  afterward  his  empress. 


"*->^ 


The  Empress  Catherine  I. 


Catherine  I.  conducted  herself  with  great  gentleness  and  prudence  m 
the  administration  of  the  government.  She  reduced  the  annual  capitation 
tax  ;  recalled  the  greater  part  of  those  whom  Peter  had  exiled  to  Siberia ; 
caused  every  gallows  to  be  taken  down  and  all  instruments  of  torture  de- 
stroyed ;  paid  the  troops  their  arrears ;  and  restored  to  the  Cossacks  their 
privileges  and  immunities  of  which  they  had  been  deprived  during  the  late 
reign.  She  concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  German  emperor,  by 
which  it  was  stipulated  that,  in  case  of  attack  from  an  enemy,  either  party 
should  assist  the  other  with  a  force  of  thirty  thousand  men,  and  should 
each  guaranty  the  possessions  of  the  other.     In  her  brief  reign  the  bounda- 


620  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

rics  of  the  empire  were  extended  in  the  Trans-Caucasus.  Catlierinc  also 
founded  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Her  indulgence  in  the  use  of  intoxi- 
cating liquors  produced  a  disease  of  which  she  died  on  the  17th  of  May, 
1727.  at  the  age  of  forty-one,  having  reigned  only  about  two  years. 

Catherine  settled  the  crown  on  Peter,  the  son  of  Alexis,  and  grandson 
of  Peter  the  Great,  by  his  first  wife,  Eudoxia,  and  who  succeeded  by  the 
title  of  Peter  II.  This  prince  was  only  twelve  years  of  age  when  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  imperial  throne,  and  his  reign  was  short  and  uninteresting. 
He  was  influenced  chiefly  by  Prince  Menchikoff,  whose  daughter  Catherine 
had  decreed  him  to  marry.  This  ambitious  man,  who,  from  a  very  mean 
condition,  had  risen  to  the  first  offices  of  the  state  under  Peter  the  Great, 
and  had,  under  Catherine,  conducted  the  administration  of  the  government, 
was  now,  however,  drawing  toward  the  end  of  his  career.  The  number  of 
his  enemies  had  greatly  increased,  and  their  machinations  succeeded  so 
well,  that  Menchikofi"  and  his  whole  family  were  banished  to  Siberia. 

The  artful  counsellors  of  the  young  monarch,  instead  of  cultivating  his 
naturally  good  abilities,  encouraged  him  to  waste  his  time  and  exhaust  his 
strength  in  hunting  and  other  athletic  exercises  ;  and  it  is  supposed  that 
the  debility  consequent  on  such  fatigue  increased  the  danger  of  the  small- 
pox, with  which  he  was  attacked  in  January,  1730,  and  of  which  he  died, 
at  the  age  of  only  fifteen  years. 

Notwithstanding  the  absolute  power  with  which  Peter  the  Great  and 
Catherine  I.  had  settled  by  will  the  succession  to  the  throne,  the  Russian 
senate  and  nobility,  upon  the  death  of  Peter  II.,  ventured  to  set  aside  the 
order  of  succession  which  those  sovereigns  had  established.  The  male 
issue  of  Peter  was  extinct;  and  the  duke  of  Holstein  (of  Denmark),  son 
to  Peter's  eldest  daughter,  was,  by  the  destination  of  the  late  empress, 
entitled  to  the  crown ;  but  the  Russians,  for  political  reasons,  chose  Anne, 
duchess  of  Courland,  second  daughter  to  Ivan,  Peter's  half-brother ;  thus 
excluding  her  eldest  sister,  who  was  still  living,  because,  as  duchess  of 
Mecklenburg,  she  was  allied  to  one  of  the.  royal  houses  of  Germany, 

In  1735,  a  rupture  took  place  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  occasioned 
partly  by  the  mutual  jealousies  that  had  subsisted  between  these  powers 
ever  since  the  treaty  on  the  Pruth,  and  partly  by  the  depredations  of  the 
Tartars  of  the  Crimea,  then  under  the  dominion  of  the  Porte.  A  Russian 
army  entered  the  Crimea,  ravaged  part  of  the  country,  and  killed  a  consid- 
erable number  of  Tartars  ;  but  having  ventured  too  far,  without  a  sufficient 
supply  of  provisions,  was  obliged  to  retreat,  after  sustaining  a  loss  of 
nearly  ten  thousand  men.  This  misfortune  did  not  discourage  the  court 
of  St.  Petersburg;  and,  in  the  following  year,  another  armament  was  sent 
into  the  Ukraine,  under  the  command  of  Marshal  Munich,  while  a  second 
army,  under  Lascy,  proceeded  against  Azov.  Both  these  generals  met 
with  considerable  success :  the  Tartars  were  defeated,  and  the  fortress  of 
Azov  once  more  submitted  to  the  Russian  arms.  A  third  campaign  took 
place  in  1737,  when  the  Russians  were  assisted  by  a  body  of  Austrian 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY — ANNE IVAN    VI. ELIZABETH.  621 

troops.  Municli  laid  siege  to  Otchakov,  which  surrendered,  while  Lascy 
desolated  the  Crimea.  No  material  advantages  were,  however,  gained  on 
either  side,  and  disputes  arose  between  the  Austrian  and  Russian  generals. 
At  length,  in  1739,  Marshal  Munich,  having  crossed  the  Boug  at  the  head 
of  a  considerable  army,  defeated  the  Turks  in  a  pitched  battle  near  Stavut- 
sham,  made  himself  master  of  Jassy,  the  capital  of  Moldavia,  and,  before 
the  end  of  the  campaign,  reduced  the  whole  of  that  province  to  subjection. 
These  successes  of  the  Russian  arms  induced  the  Porte  to  propose  terms 
of  accommodation ;  but  when,  in  the  latter  end  of  1739,  a  treaty  was  con- 
cluded, Russia  (probably  through  the  influence  of  Austrian  intrigue)  again 
relinquished  Azov  and  Moldavia,  and  only  gained  permission  to  build  a 
ibrtress  on  the  Don. 

The  empress  Anne  rendered  herself  memorable  by  the  decisive  turn  she 
gave  to  the  contests  which  arose  in  central  Europe.  She  assisted  the  em- 
peror Charles  VI.  of  Germany  ;  frustrated  the  schemes  of  the  French  min- 
istry for  placing  Stanislaus  on  the  throne  of  Poland,  and  actually  procured 
the  crown  for  his  competitor  Augustus,  the  elector  of  Saxony.  Her  chief 
merit,  however,  was  in  advancing  the  commerce  of  the  country,  and  estab- 
lishing silk  and  woollen  manufactures  —  her  chief  folly,  the  building  a 
palace  of  ice,  to  which  she  sent  a  prince  Galitzin,  one  of  her  buffoons,  and 
iiis  wife,  to  pass  the  night  of  their  wedding-day ;  the  nuptial  couch  was 
also  constructed  of  this  cold  material,  as  well  as  all  the  furniture,  and  four 
cannons  which  fired  several  rounds  ! 

Anne  died  in  1740,  after  a  reign  of  ten  years,  and  was  succeeded  by 
lier  great-nephew,  Ivan  VI.,  when  only  two  years  of  age.  He  was  the 
son  of  the  princess  Anne  of  Mecklenbui-g,  the  daughter  of  her  eldest  sister, 
who  had  married  Prince  Anthony  Ulric  of  Brunswick-Boveren.  The  ad- 
ministration of  the  princess  Anne  and  her  husband,  in  the  name  of  their 
son,  the  infant  czar,  was  upon  many  accounts  unpopular,  not  only  among 
the  Russians,  but  with  other  powers  of  Europe ;  and,  notwithstanding  a 
successful  war  which  they  carried  on  with  the  Swedes,  the  princess  Eliza- 
beth Petrowna,  daughter  to  Peter  the  Great  by  the  empress  Catherine, 
and  born  in  1709,  formed  a  respectable  party  in  her  favor,  by  whom  she 
was  raised  to  the  imperial  dignity  in  December,  1741. 

The  princess  of  Mecklenburg,  her  husband,  and  son,  were  made  prison- 
ers, and  the  two  former  sent  into  banishment,  to  an  island  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Dwina,  in  the  White  sea,  where  the  princess  Anne  died  in  child-bed 
in  1747.  Ivan  was  for  some  time  shut  up  in  a  monastery  at  Oranienburg ; 
and,  on  attempting  to  escape,  he  was  removed  to  the  castle  of  Schlussel- 
burg,  where  he  was  afterward  cruelly  put  to  death. 

The  war  which  had  commenced  between  Russia  and  Sweden  during  the 
short  regency  of  Anne  of  Mecklenburg,  was  now  carried  on  with  vigor  and 
success  by  Elizabeth.  The  Russian  forces  took  possession  of  Abo,  and 
made  themselves  masters  of  the  greater  part  of  Finland.  At  length,  in  con  - 
sequence  of  the  negotiations  that  were  carrying  on  relative  to  the  succes- 


622 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCEIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 


The  Empress  Elizabeth. 

sion  of  the  Swedish  crown,  a  peace  was  concluded  between  the  two  powers, 
in  1743,  on  condition  that  Elizabeth  should  restore  the  conquered  part  of 
Finland.  On  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  empire,  however,  the  Russian 
arms  were  less  successful,  several  of  the  provinces  wrested  from  Persia  by 
Peter  the  Great  having  been  reconquered  by  Nadir  Kouli  Khan. 

Soon  after  her  accession,  Elizabeth  determined  to  nominate  her  succes- 
sor to  the  imperial  throne,  and  had  fixed  on  Charles  Peter  Ulric,  son  of 
the  duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  by  Anne,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great.  Thi^ 
prince  was  accordingly  invited  into  Russia,  persuaded  to  become  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Greek  church,  and  proclaimed  grand-duke  of  Russia,  and  heir 
of  the  empire. 

Elizabeth  now  began  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  politics  of  Europe. 
The  death  of  Charles  VI.,  emperor  of  Germany,  had  left  his  daughter 
Maria  Theresa,  queen  of  Hungary,  at  the  mercy  of  the  enterprising  king  of 
Prussia,  Frederick  the  Great  (who  immediately  began  the  "  Seven  Years' 
War"  by  seizing  the  province  of  Silesia  from  the  house  of  Austria),  until 
a  formidable  party,  more  from  jealousy  at  that  monarch's  military  fame, 
tlian  regard  to  the  interests  of  an  injured  princess,  was  formed  in  her  be- 
half. Frederick,  whose  sarcastic  wit  spared  no  one,  having  satirized  in 
some  verses  Madame  de  Pompadour,  the  powerful  and  vindictive  mistress 
of  Louis  XV.,  the  French  monarch  at  once  espoused  the  cause  of  Austria ; 
and  it  is  remarkable  that,  from  a  like  trivial  cause,  the  Prussian  king 


HISTORIC  SUMMARY  —  ELIZABETH  —  PETER   III.  623 

broiight  upon  liimpclf  the  vengeance  of  Elizabeth.  Detesting  Frederick  for 
some  coarse  but  truthful  remark  levelled  at  her  mother,  she  made  war  on 
Prussia,  which  was  conducted  with  great  ferocity.  Such  was  the  mutual 
hatred  excited  by  this  contest,  that  after  a  battle  the  wounded  soldiers  of 
the  two  nations  were  seen  tearing  each  other's  flesh  with  their  hands  and 
teeth,  even  in  the  agonies  of  death  ;  and  Marshal  Munich  declared,  in  trans- 
mitting to  the  empress  an  account  of  a  victory  which  he  gained,  but  with 
the  loss  of  half  his  army  —  "If  I  gain  another  such  victory,  I  shall  be  com- 
pelled to  go  myself,  on  foot  and  alone,  to  St.  Petersburg,  to  inform  your 
majesty  of  the  result !"  Elizabeth  persisted,  however,  in  prosecuting  the 
war ;  and  was  on  the  point  of  crushing  the  Prussian  monarch,  and  posses- 
sing herself  of  his  most  valuable  territories,  when  death  suddenly  closed 
her  career,  on  the  5th  of  January,  1762,  at  the  age  of  fifty-three,  and  in 
the  twenty-first  year  of  her  reign. 

The  taste  of  this  empress  for  architecture  greatly  contributed  to  embel- 
lish St.  Petersburg,  and  the  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture  in  that 
capital  was  instituted  by  her.  She  was,  however,  a  model  of  dissimulation 
and  hypocrisy ;  and,  while  from  feelings  of  pretended  humanity  she  abol- 
ished capital  punishments  (making  a  vow  at  her  accession  that  none  should 
take  place  during  her  reign),  and  deplored  the  miseries  her  troops  suffered 
in  the  war  with  Prussia,  she  established  a  kind  of  star-chamber,  in  which 
justice  and  mercy  were  unknown.  That  her  humanity  was  equivocal,  is 
instanced  in  the  shocking  punishment  which  she  inflicted  upon  the  countess 
Bestucheflf  and  Lapookin,  who  were  publicly  knouted,  and  had  their  tongues 
cut  out,  for  betraying  some  secrets  relating  to  the  amours  of  the  empress. 

On  the  demise  of  Elizabeth,  her  nephew,  the  grand-duke  Charles  Peter 
Ulric,  ascended  the  throne,  by  the  name  of  Peter  III.  This  prince  entered 
on  the  government  possessed  of  an  enthusiastic  admiration  of  the  virtues 
of  the  king  of  Prussia,  with  whom  he  immediately  made  peace  (thus  saving 
that  hero  from  his  impending  fame),  and  whose  principles  and  practice  he 
seems  to  have  adopted  as  patterns  for  his  imitation.  Several  wise  decrees 
were  passed  by  him  :  he  suppressed  the  secret  council  established  for  the 
examination  of  political  offenders,  softened  the  rigor  of  military  discipline, 
permitted  his  nobles  to  travel,  lowered  the  duties  in  the  Livonian  ports, 
reduced  the  price  of  salt,  abated  the  pressure  of  usury  by  the  establisliment 
of  a  loan-bank,  and  instituted  otlier  salutary  measures.  He  might  have 
surmounted  the  effects  even  of  those  peculiarities  which  were  unpopular  in 
Russia  ;  but  it  is  said  that  he  aimed  at  reformations  in  his  dominions  which 
even  Peter  the  Great  durst  not  carry  through — among  which  was  his  at- 
tempt at  cutting  off  the  venerable  beards  of  his  clergy,  and  his  abolition 
of  some  established  and  favorite  military  fashions.  He  was,  however,  so 
weak  and  vacillating  in  his  disposition,  that  he  had  no  opinions  of  his  own, 
but  childishly  adopted  the  sentiments  of  any  person  who  took  the  trouble 
to  teach  him.  His  tastes  were,  moreover,  entirely  German,  which  amounted 
to  a  crime  in  the  eyes  of  the  nobility.     His  chief  amusement  was  buffoon- 


624  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

vvy  ;  and,  as  he  was  a  comparative  stranger  to  the  country,  its  inhabitants, 
and  their  manners,  he  is  said  to  have  suffered  himself  to  be  persuaded,  by 
those  about  him,  tliat  the  Russians  were  fools  and  beasts,  unworthy  of  his 
attention,  except  to  make  them,  by  means  of  the  Prussian  discipline,  good 
fighting-machines !  These  sentiments  regulated  his  whole  conduct,  and 
prepared  the  way  for  the  revolution  which  afterward  dethroned  him. 

Peter  was  married,  in  1745,  to  the  German  princess  Catherine,  born  in 
1729,  and  daughter  to  the  prince  of  Anhalt-Zerbst.  In  addition  to  his 
other  great  faults,  Peter  was  addicted  to  low  society  and  to  the  most  scan- 
dalous excesses ;  and  Catherine,  even  in  her  youth,  was  by  no  means  re- 
markable for  chastity.  With  the  inconsistency  usually  to  be  observed  in 
such  cases,  each  party  reproached  the  other:  Catherine,  stung  by  her  hus- 
band's brutality,  became  still  more  openly  indecorous  in  her  conduct,  and 
Peter  indulged  in  low  wassail  to  such  an  extent,  that  he  must  have  been 
deranged.  The  empress,  who  was  as  talented  as  she  was  ambitious,  took 
every  means  in  her  power  to  secure  the  good  will  of  her  Russian  subjects. 
She  engaged  in  her  party  many  of  the  principal  families,  and  what  Peter 
lost  in  popularity  was  gained  by  the  emissaries  of  Catherine.  While  the 
latter,  in  spite  of  her  intrigues,  was  thus  liigh  in  the  public  esteem  and 
affection,  Peter  became  so  infatuated  by  his  disgust  for  Catherine  and  his 
son,  and  his  passion  for  one  of  his  mistresses,  the  countess  Woronzow,  that 
he  determined  to  divorce  and  imprison  the  former,  and  make  the  latter  his 
empress.  Catherine  saw  her  danger,  and  instantly  formed  her  resolution, 
foreseeing  that  she  must  either  submit  to  perpetual  imprisonment,  and  per- 
haps a  cruel  and  ignominious  death,  or  contrive  to  hurl  her  husband  from 
the  throne.  The  proper  steps  to  carry  out  her  design  were  immediately 
taken ;  folly  and  imbecility  fell  before  abilities  and  address  ;  and,  in  three 
days,  the  revolution  was  accomplished.  Peter  was  seized  and  sent  as  a 
prisoner  to  the  small  palace  of  Ropscha,  about  twenty  miles  from  St.  Pe- 
tersburg; but,  as  there  were  many  who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  new 
order  of  things,  it  was  soon  found  that  there  was  little  chance  of  tranquil- 
lity while  he  lived.  His  death  was  therefore  determined  on  ;  and,  at  the 
connivance  if  not  at  the  positive  command  of  the  empress,  the  unfortunate 
monarch  was  assassinated  by  the  hand  of  her  chief  favorite,  Prince  Alexis 
Orloff,  in  the  thirty-fourth  year  of  his  ago,  after  having  enjoyed  the  impe- 
rial dignity  only  six  months.  This  tragic  event  occurred  in  July,  1762, 
and  in  the  next  month  the  czarina  was  solemnly  crowned  empress  of  all  the 
Kussias,  under  tlie  name  of  Catherine  11. 

The  reign  of  this  extraordinary  Avoman  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in 
Russian  history.  In  the  early  part  of  it  she  interfered  in  the  affairs  of 
Poland,  whicli  produced  a  civil  war,  and  terminated  eventually  in  the  par- 
tition and  conquest  of  that  unfortunate  country.  In  1769,  the  Turks  de- 
clared war  against  Russia,  whicli  was  at  first  favorable  to  their  arms  ;  but 
they  were  afterward  defeated  with  great  slaughter  on  the  Dniester,  and 
compelled  to  abandon  Choczim.     At  this  period  was  fought  the  celebrated 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  CATHERINE   II. 


625 


The  Empress  Catherine  II. 


action  before  Tchesme,  in  which  the  Turkish  fleet  was  completely  destroyed 
—  an  achievement  that  was  mainly  owing  to  the  gallant  conduct  of  Admi- 
rals Elphinstone  and  Greig,  and  Lieutenant  Dugdale,  Englishmen  in  the 
Russian  service. 

In  a  succeeding  campaign,  the  Russians  carried  the  lines  of  Perecop, 
in  the  Crimea,  defended  by  nearly  sixty  thousand  Turks  and  Tartars,  and 
thus  wrested  that  important  and  fertile  peninsula  from  the  Porte,  while 
Romanzofi"  gained  several  victories  in  the  Danubian  provinces.  These 
conquests  were,  however,  dearly  purchased.  The  plague  passed  from  the 
Turkish  into  the  Russian  armies,  and  tlie  frightful  malady  was  carried  by 
the  troops  into  the  very  heart  of  the  country :  eight  hundred  persons  died 
daily  at  Moscow,  and  the  disease  subsided  only  with  the  severity  of  the 
ensuing  winter. 

It  was  at  this  period  that  the  Calmuck  Tartars  (as  alluded  to  in  a  pre- 
vious chapter),  who  had  been  for  upward  of  half  a  century  settled  near 
the  steppes  of  the  Volga,  north  of  Astrakhan,  suddenly,  and  to  the  numl^er 
of  half  a  million  of  souls,  left  the  Russian  territory  for  their  old  haunts  on 
the  Chinese  borders  —  an  affront  offered  to  them  by  the  empress  having 
been  said  to  be  the  cause  of  this  extraordinary  flight. 

Every  attempt  at  negotiation  having  failed,  the  contest  with  the  Turks 
was  renewed  in  1773 ;  and,  although  the  Russians  again  suffered  severe 
losses,  Romanzoff  brought  the  war  to  a  successful  termination.     By  the 

40 


G26  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

treaty  of  peace  concluded  in  the  following  year,  his  country  obtained  tl;e 
free  navigation  of  the  Black  sea,  the  cession  of  Kilburne  and  Enikaleh, 
together  with  a  tract  between  the  Boug  and  the  Dnieper,  and  also  the  town 
of  Taganrog  on  the  sea  of  Azov.  Russia  restored  her  other  conquests, 
and  the  Turks  paid  into  the  Russian  treasury  four  millions  of  roubles  tow- 
ard the  expenses  of  the  war  ;  they  also  acknowledged  the  independence  of 
the  Crimea,  which  in  the  year  1784  fell  altogether  into  the  hands  of  Russia, 
as  well  as  the  island  of  Taman,  and  part  of  the  Kouban  in  the  Caucasus. 

Shortly  after  this,  Catherine  and  the  northern  courts,  in  conjunction  with 
France,  jealous  of  the  British  maritime  power,  brought  about  a  combina- 
tion against  England,  which  was  hastened  by  the  following  singular  inci- 
dent: The  British  minister,  suspecting  that  this  intrigue  was  going  on, 
desired  Potemkin  *  to  lay  before  the  empress  a  memorial  that  he  had  drawn 
up,  which  the  prince  promised  to  do.  Of  this  memorial  the  French  gov- 
erness of  his  nieces  contrived  to  possess  herself,  and,  after  allowing  the 
French  minister  to  make  his  notes  in  refutation  of  it  in  the  margin,  re- 
placed it  in  Potemkin's  pocket,  who,  ignorant  of  the  circumstance,  laid  it 
before  Catherine ;  when  the  empress,  conceiving  the  notes  to  have  been 
made  by  her  favorite,  formed  a  league  with  Sweden  and  Denmark,  and 
announced  her  intention  of  supporting  it  with  her  navy. 

In  1787,  Catherine  made,  in  company  with  Potemkin  and  an  immense 
suite,  her  famous  triumphal  progress  to  the  Crimea,  and  the  following  year 
found  her  once  more  at  war  with  the  Turks.  Soon  after,  Gustavus  III.  of 
Sweden,  seizing  this  favorable  opportunity,  invaded  the  Russian  territo- 
ries ;  this  contest,  however,  produced  no  decisive  results,  and  was  settled 
by  a  pacification  in  1790.  In  the  close  of  that  year,  Constantinople  trem- 
bled at  the  forward  movement  of  the  Russians  ;  and  the  fall  of  Ismail  under 
SuwarroWjf  after  the  ninth  assault,  closed  the  war  on  the  22d  of  December. 

*  Gregory  Potemkin,  a  prince  and  field-marshal,  the  minion  of  Catherine  II.,  was  born  in  173C, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Smolensk,  of  a  poor  though  noble  family,  and  was  intended  for  the  church, 
but  obtained  a  cornetcy  in  the  horse-guards.  Over  the  empress,  after  the  death  of  her  husband,  he 
acquired  an  unbounded  influence,  and  he  retained  it  till  near  the  end  of  his  life.  He  distinguished 
himself  against  the  Turks,  particularly  in  the  war  of  1788,  when  he  commanded  in  chief.  He  ci:ed 
in  1791. 

t  Prince  Alexander  Suwarrow  (or  Suvaroff),  a  celebrated  Russian  field-marshul,  whose 
portrait  is  presented  on  the  opposite  page,  was  born  in  1730,  at  Suskoi,  in  the  Ukraine  —  as  son;e 
accounts  say,  of  Polish  parentage  —  and  was  educated  at  the  cadet-school  of  St.  Petersburg.  He 
distinguished  himself  against  the  Prussians  during  the  Seven  Years'  War,  in  which  he  attained  the 
rank  of  colonel ;  in  Poland,  in  1768,  against  the  confederates;  in  1773,  against  the  Turks;  and  in 
1782,  against  the  Noga'i  Tartars.  For  these  services  he  was  rewarded  with  the  rank  of  general-i;i- 
chief,  the  government  of  the  Crimea,  the  portrait  of  the  empress  set  in  diamonds,  and  several  Rtif- 
sian  orders.  In  the  war  against  the  Turks,  from  1787  to  1790,  he  gained  the  battle  of  Rymnik, 
look  Ismail  by  storm  (as  alluded  to  above),  putting  twenty  thousand  men  to  the  sword,  and  gained 
other  important  advantages.  In  1794,  he  defeated  the  Poles  who  were  struggling  for  freedom, 
ravaged  the  environs  of  Warsaw  with  the  fury  of  a  second  Attila,  and  earned  the  suburb  of  Prag;i 
by  assault.  For  this  sanguinary  conquest  the  empress  created  him  field-marshal.  After  the  deaiii 
of  Catherine,  Suwarrow  fell  into  disgrace  at  court,  for  venturing  to  condemn  the  love  of  innovation 
displayed  by  her  successor;  but  at  length  the  capricious  Paul  reinstated  him  in  his  favor,  and  :ih 
1799  the  command  of  the  Austro-Russian  army  was  confided  to  the  hero  of  Ismail.     While  figh'  ■.«; 


illSTORIC  SUMMARY  —  CATHERINE   II. 


627 


Field-Marshal  Suwabrow. 


In  this  extremity,  the  western  powers  of  Europe  combined  to  save  the 
Porte  from  destruction ;  and  in  1791  Russia  was  forced  to  relinquish  all 
the  territory  she  had  acquired,  excepting  that  guarantied  by  the  treaty  of 
1784.     In  the  various  wars  in  which  Russia  had  been  engaged  with  the 

on  the  plains  of  Italy,  aiid  opposed  to  inferior  numbers  of  the  French  under  Joubert,  during  the 
absence  of  Napoleon  in  Eg-ypt,  the  achievements  of  Suwarrow  seemed  to  justify  the  partiality  of  hin 
sovereign,  and  the  expectation  of  the  enemies  of  France;  but  no  sooner  had  he  entered  upon  the 
mountainous  regions  of  Switzerland,  with  tlie  wary  Massena  for  his  opponent,  than  his  laurels  began 
to  wither,  and  at  the  close  of  the  campaign  of  1799  the  sun  of  his  mih'tary  renown  set,  never  more 
to  rise.  More  than  once  during  this  terrible  retreat,  when  his  native  troops,  disheartened  at  the 
lukewarmness  of  the  Austrians,  and  benumbed  with  the  cold,  refused  to  proceed,  the  old  vetoian 
caused  a  deep  trench  to  be  dug  in  the  snow,  and,  laying  himself  in  it,  called  on  his  soldiers  to  ad- 
vance over  his  body !  The  appeal  was  effectual,  and  the  army,  reduced  from  fifty  thousnnd  to  Iesn 
than  twenty  thousand  men,  resumed  its  homeward  march.  On  his  return  to  St.  Petersburg  in  Jan- 
uaiy,  1800,  Suwarrow  was  coldly  received  by  the  emperor,  and  died  on  the  18th  of  May,  in  ihr 
same  year,  at  his  estate  of  Polcndorff,  in  Esthonia,  at  the  ago  of  soventy-on(!.  The  empi'ror  Alex- 
ander erected  to  him  a  statue,  to  which,  on  its  inauguration,  Suwarrow's  ancient  companions-in- 
arms paid  the  military  honors  that  he  would  have  received  himself,  and  the  grand-duke  Constantine 
pronounced  his  eulogium.  —  Bom  with  great  talents  and  vivacity.  Marshal  Suwarrow  possessed 
considerable  information,  and  spoke  several  languages  with  facility.  He  exhibited,  in  a  superior 
degree,  boldness,  activity,  and  the  art  of  inflaming  his  troops,  and  attaching  them  to  his  destiny  ; 
but,  as  i»  general,  he  has  been  reproached  with  shallow  combinations,  manoeuvres  more  rapid  than 
wise,  and  with  having  used  victory  to  satiate  revenge.  It  is  difficult  to  mention  this  singular  char- 
acter without  mixed  emotions  of  admiration  and  horror:  in  the  appellations  of  "  Eyminiski"  and 
"  Italiski,"  we  pay  respect  to  the  conqueror  of  the  Turks  and  of  Morean  ;  but  it  is  impossible  to 
contemplate  the  hero  of  Warsaw  and  Ismail  without  deeply  deploring  the  sanguinary  scenes  wliich 
were  there  enacted,  and  which  will  for  ever  remain  to  throw  the  dark  shade  of  inhumanity  over  the 
most  illustrious  actions  of  the  life  of  Suwarrow. 


628  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

Ottoman  empire  down  to  the  period  here  treated  of,  it  is  computed  that 
there  were  destroyed  one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  Austrians,  two  hun- 
dred thousand  Russians,  and  three  hundred  and  seventy  thousand  Turks, 
in  all  seven  hundred  thousand  men ! 

About  this  time  the  intrigues  of  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  for  the 
partition  of  Poland,  commenced,  and,  carried  on  for  several  years,  were 
brought  to  a  conclusion  by  two  sieges  of  Warsaw :  in  the  first,  Kosciusko 
was  made  prisoner ;  and  in  the  second  the  Poles,  unassisted  by  his  genius, 
gave  way  in  that  fearful  assault  which,  on  the  9th  of  November,  1794, 
consummated  the  ruin  of  Poland  as  a  nation.  In  1795,  by  the  third  par- 
tition of  that  unhappy  kingdom,  Russia  extended  her  power  toward  the 
west  as  far  as  the  Vistula.  Catherine's  subsequent  plans  of  aggrandize- 
ment in  Daghestan  and  on  tlie  shores  of  the  Caspian  were  cut  short  by  her 
death,  on  t\\e  9th  of  November,  1796,  in  the  sixty-eighth  year  of  her  age, 
and  the  thirty-fifth  year  of  her  reign. 

Ill  as  her  power  was  obtained,  Catherine  used  it  wisely  and  well.  The 
great  talents  for  governing  which  she  possessed  are  universally  admitted ; 
and,  though  her  energies  were  principally  displayed  in  carrying  out  her 
schemes  of  foreign  conquest,  she  by  no  means  neglected  the  interior  econ- 
omy of  her  empire.  Her  views  on  all  subjects  were  far  more  enlarged 
than  those  of  her  predecessors,  and  nearly  seven  thousand  children  were 
educated  at  St.  Petersburg  at  the  public  expense.  Catherine  invited  Pal- 
las, Eiiler,  and  Gmelin,  to  survey  her  territories  and  describe  their  char- 
acteristics ;  and  requested  D'Alembert  to  undertake  the  education  of  her 
grandson,  the  grand-duke  Alexander,  which,  however,  he  declined.  The 
empress  also  confirmed  the  abolition  of  the  secret  state  inquisition,  and,  by 
dividing  the  college  of  the  empire  into  separate  departments,  facilitated 
the  despatch  of  business,  and  rendered  the  administration  in  each  more 
efficient.  She  founded  schools  and  towns,  encouraged  foreign  artisans  and 
workmen  of  all  kinds  to  settle  in  her  dominions,  and  projected  and  com- 
pleted public  works  of  equal  magnificence  and  utility.  With  a  view  to 
check  corruption,  she  raised  the  salaries  of  the  government  officers,  abol- 
ished many  monopolies  of  the  crown,  and  issued  a  ukase  which  prevented 
any  proprietor  from  sending  his  serfs  to  the  mines,  or  to  any  distant  part 
of  the  empire,  except  for  agricultural  purposes.  But  her  amours  in  the 
meantime  injured  her  as  a  woman,  and  her  tyrannous  conduct  toward 
Poland  is  a  foul  blot  upon  her  escutcheon  as  a  sovereign.  Ambition,  how- 
ever, and  lack  of  female  virtue,  did  not  wholly  degrade  her,  for,  as  already 
shown,  her  internal  policy  was  as  much  directed  to  the  useful  as  to  the 
grand  ;  and,  amid  all  the  distraction  of  business  and  voluptuous  dissipation, 
she  found  time  to  encourage  literature.  Indeed,  she  was  herself  the  author 
of  instructions  for  a  code  of  laws,  which  she  translated  into  German ;  and 
she  wrote  several  dramatic  pieces,  and  some  moral  tales  for  the  use  of 
children !  Possessed  of  great  beauty  in  her  youth,  Catherine  preserved 
the  traces  of  it  to  the  end  of  her  life.     She  purchased  the  praises  of  the 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  PAUL   I. 


629 


French  philosophers,  corresponded  with  Voltaire  and  D'Alcmbert,  and 
complimented  Charles  James  Fox,  the  great  English  orator,  by  asking  him 
for  his  bust,  which  she  placed  between  those  of  Demosthenes  and  Cicero. 
Some  letters  written  by  Frederick  the  Great  to  Peter  III.,  found  after  his 
decease,  which  strongly  recommended  to  him  a  change  of  conduct,  and 
particularly  pleaded  in  behalf  of  his  repudiated  consort,  fixed  Catherine 
throughout  her  reign  in  the  friendship  and  policy  of  the  Prussian  monarch. 
In  matters  of  religion  she  was  tolerant  from  political  motives,  extravagant 
in  an  extraordinary  degree,  and,  with  a  woman's  liberality,  paid  well  those 
who  served  her ;  and,  though  there  are  many  acts  in  her  reign  which  can 
hot  be  defended,  she  did  more  for  the  civilization  of  Russia  than  anv  of 
her  predecessors. 


Paul  I 


Catherine  II.  Avas  succeeded  by  her  son,  the  grand-duke  Paul,  by  Peter 
III.,  who  ascended  the  throne  under  the  title  of  Paul  I.  This  prince  had 
attained  his  forty-second  year  before  the  death  of  his  mother  placed  him 
on  the  imperial  throne.  For  many  years  he  had  lived  in  a  state  of  retire- 
ment, and  had  apparently  been  considered  by  the  empress  as  incapable  of 
taking  any  active  part  in  the  administration  of  affairs.  It  is  well  known 
that  Catherine  never  admitted  him  to  any  participation  of  power,  and  even 
kept  him  in  complete  ignorance  of  the  afiairs  of  the  empire.  On  the  day 
following  the  death  of  his  mother,  however,  Paul  made  his  public  entry 
into  St.  Petersburg,  amid  the  acclamations  of  all  ranks  of  the  people. 

At  his  coronation,  Paul  decreed  a  law  of  hereditary  succession  to  the 
crown  in  the  male  line,  and  afterward  in  the  female,  instead  of  leaving  it 
to  the  caprice  of  the  reigning  sovereign.     One  of  the  first  measures  of  the 


630  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

new  emperor  was  that  of  ordering  the  remains  of  his  father,  Peter  III.,  to 
be  removed  from  the  sepulchre  in  which  they  had  been  deposited  in  the 
church  of  St.  Alexander  Nevski ;  which,  after  having  laid  in  state  for 
three  weeks,  were  interred  in  the  sepulchre  of  Catherine  II.,  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul.  He  also,  with  strong  marks  of  admiration 
and  friendship,  liberated  Kosciusko  from  the  prison  wherein  he  had  lan- 
guished in  St.  Petersburg  since  his  defeat  and  capture  in  1794. 

Few  political  events  of  any  importance  marked  the  reign  of  Paul  previ- 
ous to  the  year  1798,  when,  in  consequence  of  a  treaty  between  Russia  and 
the  emperor  of  Germany,  who  wore  subsidized  by  England,  an  army  of 
about  fifty  thousand  men,  under  Field-Marshal  Suwarrow,  joined  the  impe- 
rialists in  Austrian  Italy,  as  already  detailed.  In  1799,  the  emperor  Paul 
entered  into  a  treaty  of  ofiensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Great  Britain. 
This  treaty  was  signed  at  St.  Petersburg  on  the  22d  of  June ;  in  conse- 
quence of  which,  a  Russian  fleet  joined  that  of  Britain  in  Yarmouth  roads, 
and  took  part  in  the  unfortunate  expedition  to  the  coast  of  Holland  under- 
taken in  the  summer  of  that  year. 

Soon  after  this  period  the  Russian  emperor  began  to  show  marks  of 
mental  derangement.  His  favors  and  his  displeasures  were  alternately 
experienced  by  some  of  his  most  distinguished  courtiers  and  adherents. 
Stanislaus,  the  deposed  king  of  Poland,  partook  by  turns  of  his  beneficence 
and  his  severity ;  while  to  the  memory  of  Suwarrow,  who  is  said  to  have 
fallen  a  broken-hearted  victim  to  the  detraction  of  his  imperial  master,  he 
raised  a  colossal  statue  of  bronze ;  and  on  the  days  when  he  reviewed  his 
troops  in  the  square  where  the  statue  had  been  erected,  he  used  to  com- 
mand them  to  march  by  in  open  order,  and  face  the  statue. 

The  ill  success  of  the  Russian  arms  against  the  French,  augmented  by 
the  bad  understanding  which  subsisted  between  his  generals  and  those  of 
Austria,  appeared  also  to  have  an  extraordinary  effect  upon  the  mind  of 
Paul.  Meanwhile,  Napoleon  had  returned  from  Egypt,  and  was  chosen 
first  consul  of  France.  He  immediately  liberated  ten  thousand  Russian 
prisoners-of-war,  and,  presenting  them  with  new  uniforms  and  everything 
necessary  for  their  long  journey,  despatched  them  to  their  own  country, 
together  with  a  friendly  epistle  to  their  sovereign.  Paul  was  not  yet  so 
"insane"  but  that  he  could  appreciate  this  truly  magnanimous  act  as  it 
deserved ;  and,  from  having  been  the  uncompromising  opponent  of  Napo- 
leon, he  now  entered  into  amicable  correspondence  with  him,  and  became 
one  of  his  most  ardent  admirers.  He  laid  an  embargo  on  all  the  English 
vessels  in  his  ports,  and  induced  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Prussia,  to  join 
him  in  the  northern  armed  confederacy  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  the 
British  government.  This  gave  great  oJBFence  to  the  mercantile  classes, 
who  preferred  the  English  to  the  French  alliance. 

The  growing  eccentricities  of  Paul  exhibited  themselves  in  the  most  fan- 
tastic manner.  Among  his  ukases  was  one  against  the  use  of  shoestrings 
and  round  hats ;  and  in  the  number  of  queer  whims  which  infected  his 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  PAUL   I. — ALEXANDER   L  631 

brain  was  a  rago  for  painting  with  the  most  glaring  colors  the  watch-boxes, 
giitos,  and  bridges,  throughout  the  empire  !  This  continued  course  of  folly 
and  caprice  disgusted  many  of  the  nobles,  who  at  length  entered  into  a 
confederacy  to  prevent  the  ruin  of  their  country,  by  removing  the  empe- 
ror. For  this  purpose  they  employed  Plato  Zuboff,  the  last  of  Catherine's 
favorites,  who  had  been  banished  from  the  court  in  disgrace.  In  order  to 
avenge  this  afiront,  Zuboff  formed  the  design  of  murdering  the  emperor. 
He  contrived,  by  his  intrigues,  to  insinuate  himself  into  the  favor  of  Paul, 
and  associated  with  the  noblemen,  in  order  the  more  securely  to  effect  his 
j)urpose.  Having  taken  their  measures,  the  assassins  proceeded  to  the 
imperial  palace  on  the  evening  of  March  22,  1801.  The  emperor,  who 
usually  slept  on  a  sofa,  in  an  apartment  next  to  that  of  the  empress,  con 
trary  to  his  custom,  kissed  the  members  of  his  family  very  affectionately, 
visited  the  sentinels  at  their  posts,  and  then  retired  to  rest.  The  guard 
l>eing  changed  by  officers  who  were  in  the  conspiracy,  the  murderers  pene 
trated  with  ease  to  the  door  of  the  emperor's  apartment,  where  a  hussar, 
whom  it  had  been  found  impossible  to  remove,  presented  his  musket. 
Zuboff  cut  him  down  with  his  sabre.  The  murder  of  his  faithful  servant 
roused  the  unfortunate  monarch,  who,  springing  from  his  sofa  when  the 
conspirators  entered  the  room,  at  first  endeavored  to  shelter  himself  behind 
chairs  and  tables ;  then,  assuming  an  air  of  authority,  commanded  them  to 
surrender  as  his  prisoners.  As  they  fiercely  advanced  toward  him,  he 
implored  them  to  spare  his  life,  offering  to  accept  of  any  terms  which  they 
might  propose.  Finding  supplication  vain,  he  made  a  violent  effort  to 
reach  the  window,  in  which  he  cut  his  hand ;  and,  being  drawn  back,  he 
knocked  down  one  of  the  assailants  with  a  chair.  The  empress,  awakened 
by  the  noise  and  turmoil,  would  have  called  for  assistance,  if  a  voice  had 
not  whispered  to  her  to  remain  silent  on  pain  of  instant  death.  While  the 
emperor  made  a  desperate  resistance,  one  of  the  conspirators  brought  him 
to  the  floor  with  a  blow  on  the  temples  ;  when,  recovering  a  little,  he  again 
supplicated  for  life.  Another,  taking  off  his  sash,  threw  it  twice  round 
the  neck  of  the  defenceless  czar ;  and  one  end  being  held  by  himself,  while 
the  other  was  given  to  Zuboff,  they  strangled  their  sovereign.  Having 
accomplished  the  horrid  deed,  the  assassins  retired  without  molestation  to 
their  respective  homes. 

Early  the  next  morning  the  intelligence  of  the  death  of  Paul  (as  having 
been  produced  by  apoplexy !),  and  the  accession  of  the  grand-duke  Alex- 
ander, were  announced  to  the  capital.  The  principal  nobility  and  the 
great  officers  of  state  being  assembled,  Alexander  was  solemnly  proclaimed 
emperor  of  all  the  Russias.  As  in  the  case  of  the  murder  of  Peter  IH., 
none  of  the  assassins  of  Paul  were  punished,  but  rewards  were  heaped 
'jpon  them.  How  far  his  sons  were  cognizant  of  what  was  going  on,  it  is 
impossible  to  tell ;  but  it  was  generally  believed  that  they  were  in  the 
secret,  and  connived  at  it  from  a  conviction  that  their  father  intended  to 
immure  them  in  a  fortress.     It  is  also  a  significant  fact  that,  on  the  night 


632  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

of  the  murder,  the  English  fleet  under  Nelson  was  sailing  into  the  Baltic 
for  the  attack  on  Copenhagen. 

The  new  emperor,  on  the  day  of  his  accession,  presented  himself  at  the 
parade  on  horseback,  and  was  hailed  by  the  troops  with  loud  and  cordial 
acclamations.  In  the  following  September  his  coronation  at  Moscow  took 
place  amid  great  splendor.  Alexander  was  in  his  twenty-fourth  year 
when  he  ascended  the  throne  ;  and,  from  his  amiable  disposition,  had  ac- 
quired the  love  and  respect  of'  all  his  subjects.  The  first  measure  which 
he  adopted,  his  opening  proclamation,  and  his  earliest  imperial  orders,  all 
tended  to  encourage  and  confirm  the  hopes  with  which  the  Russian  people 
beheld  him  mount  the  throne  of  his  forefathers.  In  the  same  year  he  re- 
called the  Siberian  exiles,  suppressed  the  secret  state  inquisition  which 
had  been  re-established  by  Paul,  and  remodelled  the  senate.  He  likewise 
founded  (in  1804)  the  university  of  KharkoflF,  and  emancipated  the  Jews. 

Alexander  appeared  desirous  to  cultivate  the  friendship  of  the  neighbor- 
ing states,  and  especially  that  of  Great  Britain.  His  father,  among  other 
projects,  had  procured  himself  to  be  elected  grand-master  of  the  knights 
of  Malta,  and  had  laid  claim  to  the  sovereignty  of  that  island.  This  claim, 
which  had  nearly  produced  a  rupture  between  the  courts  of  London  and 
St.  Petersburg,  Alexander  consented  to  abandon,  though  he  expressed  a 
wish  to  be  elected  grand-master  of  the  order  by  the  free  suffrages  of  the 
knights  of  St.  John. 

In  the  meantime,  a  confederacy  had  been  formed  among  the  northern 
powers  of  Europe,  as  before  intimated,  with  a  view  to  oppose  the  British 
claim  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  seas ;  but  by  the  wanton  bombardment  of 
Copenhagen,  and  the  spirited  interference  of -the  British  court,  especially 
with  the  cabinet  of  St.  Petersburg,  the  good  understanding  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  northern  states  was  re-established,  and  the  embargo  which 
had  been  laid  on  British  vessels  in  the  Russian  ports  was  taken  off.  A 
treaty  of  amity,  commerce,  and  navigation,  between  Russia  and  Sweden, 
was  also  agreed  upon,  to  continue  for  twelve  years.  The  most  remarkable 
part  of  this  treaty  was  the  recognition  by  the  court  of  St.  Petersburg  of 
the  northern  confederacy,  which  the  amicable  adjustment  with  Britain  ap- 
peared to  have  done  away. 

On  the  25th  of  March,  1802,  was  signed  at  Amiens  the  definitive  treaty 
of  peace  between  the  belligerent  powers  of  Europe,  by  one  material  article 
of  which  the  islands  of  Malta,  Gozo,  and  Comino,  in  the  Mediterranean, 
were  to  be  restored  to  the  knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  under  the 
joint  protection  and  guaranty  of  France,  Great  Britain,  Austria,  Spain, 
Russia,  and  Prussia.  Some  time  after  the  conclusion  of  this  treaty,  dis- 
putes arose  among  the  contracting  powers  relative  to  the  sovereignty  of 
Malta ;  and  the  emperor  of  Russia  (who  now  for  the  first  time  appeared 
personally  among  the  potentates  of  Europe,  and  in  June  had  an  interview 
with  the  king  of  Prussia  at  Memel)  insisted  that  it  should  be  yielded  to 
Naples,  otherwise  he  would  not  undertake  to  guaranty  the  order  of  the 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY — ALEXANDKR  I. 


633 


Alexander  I. 


knights,  and  would  separate  from  it  the  priories  of  Russia.  The  retention 
of  this  island  by  the  British  forces,  in  direct  violation  of  the  treaty  above 
referred  to,  was  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  renewal  of  the  bloody  con- 
test between  England  and  her  allies  and  Napoleon  which  so  long  desolated 
the  face  of  Europe. 

Alexander  watched  with  a  jealous  eye  the  violence  exercised  by  France 
among  the  German  states,  and  the  encroachments  which  she  appeared  de- 
sirous of  making  on  the  free  navigation  of  the  Baltic.  He  had,  in  1803, 
oflfcrcd  his  mediation  between  Great  Britain  and  France,  but  without  effect, 
and  both  these  parties  strove  to  bring  over  the  Russian  emperor  to  their 
alliance.  The  court  of  London  finally  prevailed  ;  and  on  the  11th  of  April, 
1805,  a  treaty  of  concert  was  concluded  between  Great  Britain  and  Rus- 
sia, to  which  Austria  also  became  a  party,  in  which  the  three  governments 
agreed  to  adopt  the  most  efficacious  means  for  forming  a  general  league 
of  the  crowned  heads  of  Europe  to  be  directed  against  the  powers  of  re- 
publican France.  The  ostensible  olijects  of  this  league  were  the  evacua- 
tion of  the  country  of  Hanover  (then  belonging  to  the  crown  of  England) 
and  tlie  north  of  Germany ;  the  independence  of  the  republics  of  Holland 
and  Switzerland  ;  the  re-establishment  of  the  king  of  Sardinia  in  Piedmont 
(who  had  first  attacked  France)  ;  the  security  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples ; 
and  the  complete  evacuation  of  Italy,  the  island  of  Elba  included,  by  the 
French  forces :  but  the  principal  motive,  and  underlying  all  others,  was 
the  desire  for  overthrowing  Napoleon,  the  elective  emperor,  and  reinsta- 
ting the  Bourbons,  to  reign  by  "  divine  right,"  and  thus  presenting  a  solid 


G34  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

barrier  against  the  future  spread  of  free  principles.  For  the  prosecution 
of  the  great  objects  of  this  treaty,  it  was  proposed  that  an  army  of  four 
hundred  thousand  men  .should  be  levied.  It  was  stipulated  that  these 
troops  should  be  provided  by  the  powers  of  the  continent  who  should  be- 
come parties  to  the  league,  and  that  subsidies  should  be  granted  by  Great 
Britain  in  the  proportion  of  over  six  millions  of  dollars  for  every  hundred 
thousand  men,  besides  a  considerable  additional  sum  for  the  necessary  ex- 
pense occasioned  in  bringing  them  into  the  field. 

About  this  time,  the  occupation  of  Genoa  by  the  French,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve it  from  an  attack  by  the  English  fleet,  was  communicated  to  the  dif- 
ferent sovereigns  of  Europe,  among  whom  it  excited  the  highest  indigna- 
tion. The  emperor  Alexander,  incensed  at  this  new  act  of  Napoleon, 
immediately  recalled  his  envoy  ;  and  this  appeared  to  be  the  signal  for 
hostilities  on  the  part  of  Russia  and  Austria  against  France.  Napoleon, 
well  knowing  the  British  government  and  aristocracy  to  be  the  main  pro- 
jectors of  all  the  coalitions  against  him,  had  collected  an  immense  arma- 
ment at  Boulogne  for  the  invasion  of  England  ;  but  learning  that  Alexan- 
der, at  the  head  of  fifty  thousand  men,  was  rapidly  marching  to  join  the 
Austrians  under  the  emperor  Francis,  for  the  purpose  of  secretly  attacking 
France,  he  resolved  to  meet  them  on  their  own  ground.  With  surprising 
celerity  he  traversed  France  and  Germany,  and,  encountering  the  superior 
forces  of  the  allies  on  the  plain  of  Austerlitz,  December  2, 1805,  he  utterly 
overthrew  them.  In  their  retreat  across  a  lake,  a  large  body  of  Russians 
were  drowned  by  the  breaking  of  the  ice  from  the  artillery-sliots  of  the 
French.  The  emperors  Francis  and  Alexander,  from  an  eminence,  beheld 
with  anguish  the  complete  discomfiture  of  their  splendid  army,  and  tlie 
latter  soon  after  returned  to  St.  Petersburg.  When  the  news  of  tliis  deci- 
sive battle  reached  England,  the  prime-minister  Pitt  remarked,  "  We  may 
now  close  the  map  of  Europe  for  years."  His  death,  soon  after,  was  hast- 
ened by  chagrin. 

The  consequence  of  these  disastrous  events  to  the  allies  was,  first,  a  ces- 
sation of  hostilities,  and  finally  a  treaty  of  alliance  between  Russia  and 
France  in  1806.  Alexander,  however,  was  determined  to  make  one  more 
effort  to  gain  better  terms  from  Napoleon.  The  Russian  envoy  at  Paris, 
D'Oubril,  had  hastily  concluded  a  preliminary  treaty  of  peace  between 
Russia  and  France.  The  terms  of  this  convention,  when  laid  before  the 
privy  council  by  Alexander,  appeared  so  derogatory  to  the  interests  of 
Russia,  that  the  emperor  refused  them  his  sanction  ;  but  at  the  same  time 
sio-nified  his  willingness  to  renew  the  negotiations  for  peace  on  such  terms 
as  were  consistent  with  the  dignity  of  his  crown  and  the  interests  of  his 
empire.  The  machinations  of  the  British  government,  however,  broke  off 
the  negotiations,  and  both  parties  again  prepared  for  war. 

In  the  meantime,  the  king  of  Prussia,  urged  on  by  the  English  and  Aus- 
trian cabinets,  prepared  to  oppose  his  efforts  to  the  growing  power  of 
France.     He  collected  an  army  of  two  hundred  thousand  men  near  Weimar 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  ALEXANDER   I.  635 

and  Jena,  while  the  French  forces  assembled  in  Franconia  and  on  the 
frontiers  of  Saxony.  The  same  extraordinary  success,  however,  was  still 
to  attend  the  arms  of  France.  The  Prussians  were  totally  defeated  by 
Napoleon  at  Jena ;  and  on  the  same  day  was  fought  the  decisive  battle  of 
Auerstadt,  in  which  Marshal  Davoust,  with  an  inferior  French  force,  com- 
pletely routed  the  enemy,  who,  besides  numerous  infantry  and  artillery, 
had  forty  thousand  splendid  cavalry,  commanded  by  the  prince  of  Prussia. 
In  these  two  actions  the  loss  of  the  Prussians  amounted  to  about  twenty 
thousand  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  above  thirty  thousand  prisoners. 
The  lines  of  fugitives,  converging  from  the  fields  of  Jena  and  Auerstadt, 
fled  tumultuously  toward  Berlin,  which  capital  Napoleon  entered  on  the 
27th  of  October. 

While  the  French  were  thus  successful  over  the  Prussians,  the  troops 
of  Alexander  entered  Prussian  Poland,  and  General  Benningsen  took  up 
his  residence  at  Warsaw,  which,  however,  he  was  soon  compelled  to  evac- 
uate by  the  French  under  Murat,  who  entered  the  city  on  the  28th  of  No- 
vember. After  several  skirmishes,  in  which  the  Russians  were  defeated, 
a  dreadful  engagement  took  place  between  them  and  the  French  at  Ostra- 
lenka,  about  sixty  miles  from  Warsaw.  The  fighting  continued  for  three 
days,  and  the  loss  was  immense  on  both  sides,  though  the  advantage  ap- 
pears to  have  been  on  the  side  of  the  French.  On  the  26th  of  December 
the  latter  were  beaten  by  the  Russians  at  Pultusk,  which  terminated  the 
campaign  of  1806. 

On  the  7th  and  8th  of  February,  1807,  the  severely-contested  battle  of 
Eylau  was  fought,  in  which  Napoleon  commanded  in  person  at  the  head 
of  the  imperial  guards.  Each  side  three  times  lost  and  won,  the  deciding 
move  being  made  by  Benningsen,  who  took  Koningsberg  by  assault.  At 
one  time,  wliile  Napoleon  was  reconnoitring  the  field  of  action  from  a 
church,  a  detachment  of  Cossacks  dashed  up  the  streets  of  the  town,  and 
would  have  captured  him,  but  for  a  timely  charge  of  French  dragoons. 
On  the  night  of  the  8th,  Benningsen  was  reinforced  by  fifteen  thousand 
Prussians,  who  wished  to  renew  the  battle  on  the  third  day,  but  at  a  coun- 
cil of  war  the  Russian  commander  deemed  it  prudent  to  retreat,  though 
greatly  superior  in  force  to  the  French. 

Several  actions  succeeded,  at  Spanden,  at  Lamitten,  at  Guttodadt,  and 
at  Heilsberg,  in  all  of  which  the  French  had  the  advantage.  On  the  28th 
of  May,  1807,  they  took  Dantzic ;  and  on  the  14th  of  June  the  Russians 
appeared  in  considerable  force  on  the  bridge  of  Friedland,  whither  the 
French  army  under  Napoleon  was  advancing.  Here,  notwithstanding  the 
utmost  efforts  of  the  Russians,  they  were  totally  defeated  by  the  French, 
who  carried  all  before  them.  In  consequence  of  this  victory,  the  latter 
became  masters  of  all  the  country  round  Koningsberg,  and  Marshal  Soult 
entered  that  city  in  triumph.  Thus  concluded  the  campaign  in  Germany, 
in  which  the  Russians  sustained  a  loss  of  at  least  thirty  thousand  of  their 
choicest  troops. 


636  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

The  defeats  which  the  allied  armies  had  suffered  in  Prussia  and  Poland 
rendered  peace,  on  almost  any  terms,  a  desirable  object ;  and  Alexander 
found  himself  constrained  to  meet,  at  least  with  the  appearance  of  friend- 
ship, the  conqueror  of  his  armies.  Propositions  for  an  armistice  had  been 
made  by  the  Prussian  general  to  the  grand-duke  of  Berg  near  Tilsit ;  and, 
after  the  battle  of  Friedland,  the  Russian  prince  Labanoff  had  a  confer- 
ence, for  the  same  purpose,  with  the  prince  of  Neufchatel,  soon  after  which 
an  armistice  was  concluded  between  the  French  and  Russians.  On  the 
25th  of  June,  an  amicable  meeting  took  place  between  the  emperors  of 
France  and  Russia,  in  a  handsome  pavilion  erected  on  a  raft  for  the  occa- 
sion, which  was  moored  in  the  middle  of  tlie  river  Niemen.  The  result  of 
this  interview  was  the  famous  treaty  of  Tilsit,  concluded  between  the  em- 
peror of  the  French  on  the  one  part,  and  the  emperor  of  Russia  and  the 
king  of  Prussia  on  the  other,  on  the  7th  and  12th  of  July,  1807. 

Alexander,  by  this  compact,  became  the  ally  of  France,  and  acknowl- 
edged tlie  brothers  of  Napoleon  as  kings  respectively  of  Naples,  Holland, 
and  Westphalia ;  he  formally  recognised  also  the  confederation  of  the 
Rhine,  and  promised  to  acknowledge  all  the  sovereigns  who  might  hereaf- 
ter become  members  of  that  confederation.  He  engaged  tliat  hostilities, 
on  the  part  of  Russia,  should  immediately  cease  with  the  Ottoman  Porte. 
He  undertook  also  to  mediate  for  a  peace  between  England  and  France. 
This  mediation  was  declined  on  the  part  of  the  British  government,  until 
it  should  be  made  acquainted  with  the  stipulations  of  the  treaty  of  Tilsit, 
and  should  find  them  not  conflicting  with  its  own  claims  to  the  free  navi- 
gation of  the  Baltic  and  the  introduction  of  British  goods  to  the  continent. 
The  grounds  of  this  declination  served  as  a  reason  for  binding  more  closely 
the  alliance  between  Russia  and  France,  by  breaking  off  the  connection 
of  the  former  with  Great  Britain.  Accordingly,  Lord  Gower,  who  had 
succeeded  the  marquis  of  Douglas  as  envoy,  received  a  note  from  the  Rus- 
sian government,  intimating  that,  as  a  British  embassador,  he  could  be  no 
longer  received  at  the  court  of  St.  Petersburg,  which  he  therefore  soon 
after  quitted. 

An  embargo  was  now  laid  on  all  British  vessels  in  the  ports  of  Russia ; 
and  it  was  peremptorily  required  by  Napoleon  and  Alexander  that  Sweden 
should  abandon  her  alliance  with  Great  Britain.  An  additional  cause  for 
the  Russian  declaration  of  war  against  the  latter  power  was  furnished  by 
tlie  second  bombardment  of  Copenhagen  and  the  seizure  of  the  Danish  fleet 
in  the  harbor  by  a  British  squadron ;  and,  although  Lord  Gower  had  at- 
tempted to  justify  these  measures,  on  the  plea  of  anticipating  the  French 
in  the  same  transaction,  the  emperor  of  Russia  expressed  in  the  warmest 
terms  his  indignation  at  this  unjust  and  outrageous  attack  on  a  neutral 
power.  A  considerable  Russian  fleet  joined  the  French,  but  the  combined 
squadrons  were  compelled  to  seek  for  shelter  in  the  Tagus,  where  they 
remained  blocked  up  by  a  superior  British  armament ;  and  another  Russo- 
French  fleet  of  fifteen  sail-of-the-line  that  proceeded  up  the  Mediterranean, 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  ALEXANDER   I.  637 

and  advanced  as  far  as  Trieste,  met  witli  a  similar  fate.     In  fact,  hostili- 
ties between  Russia  and  England  resulted  chiefly  in  a  cessation  of  trade. 

The  demand  of  concurrence  in  the  views  of  France  and  Russia  made  on 
Sweden,  was  formally  repeated  in  a  declaration  of  the  emperor  Alexander, 
published  at  St.  Petersburg  on  the  10th  of  February,  1808.  In  this  decla- 
ration, his  imperial  majesty  intimated  to  the  king  of  Sweden  that  he  was 
making  preparations  to  invade  his  territories ;  but  that  he  was  ready  to 
change  the  measures  he  was  about  to  take,  to  measures  of  precaution  only, 
if  Sweden  would,  without  delay,  join  Russia  and  Denmark  in  shutting  the 
Baltic  against  Great  Britain  until  the  conclusion  of  a  maritime  peace.  He 
professed  tliat  nothing  could  be  more  painful  to  him  than  to  see  a  rupture 
take  place  between  Sweden  and  Russia ;  but  that  his  Swedish  majesty  had 
it  still  in  his  power  to  avoid  this  event,  by  resolving,  without  delay,  to 
adopt  that  course  which  could  alone  preserve  strict  union  between  the  two 
states.  The  king  of  Sweden,  however,  determined  to  abide  by  the  meas- 
ures which  he  had  for  some  time  pursued,  and  to  accede  to  the  terms  of 
the  convention  which  had  just  been  concluded  between  him  and  the  king 
of  Great  Britain. 

In  consequence  of  this  determination,  a  Russian  army,  under  the  com- 
mand of  General  Buxhowden,  entered  Finland  in  the  beginning  of  March, 
1808,  and  advanced  against  Helsingfors,  which  was  occupied  by  a  single 
battalion  of  a  Swedish  regiment.  This  small  force  retired  into  the  fortress 
of  Sweaborg,  where  they  maintained  themselves  with  great  bravery  till  the 
17th  of  April,  when  they  were  obliged  to  capitulate.  The  loss  of  tliis  for- 
tress, though  inconsiderable  in  itself,  so  highly  enraged  the  king  of  Swe- 
den, that  he  dismissed  the  naval  and  military  commanders  who  had  been 
concerned  in  the  capitulation.  On  the  27th  of  April,  a  trifling  advantage 
was  gained  over  the  Russians  near  Rivolax,  by  the  Swedish  army,  under 
General  Count  Klinspor ;  but  this  was  only  a  transient  gleam  of  success. 
The  Russians  soon  overran  nearly  all  Finland,  took  possession  of  Vasa, 
old  and  new  Carleby,  and  reduced  under  subjection  the  whole  province  of 
which  Vasa  is  the  capital.  The  army  of  Klinspor,  which  originally  con- 
sisted of  sixteen  thousand  regulars,  besides  boors,  was,  by  the  end  of  the 
campaign,  reduced  to  little  more  than  nine  thousand  men.  The  king  of 
Sweden,  however,  continued  to  send  reinforcements  to  his  armies  in  Fin- 
land ;  but  no  advantages  of  any  importance  were  obtained,  and  the  Rus- 
sions  remained  in  possession  of  a  great  part  of  that  province  until  it  was 
permanently  ceded  to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of  Frederichausen  in  1809. 

A  second  meeting  between  the  emperors  of  France  and  Russia  took 
place  at  Erfurth,  in  Saxony,  on  the  27th  of  September,  1808  ;  Napoleon 
being  anxious  to  secure  the  friendship  of  Alexander  previous  to  his  medi- 
tated subjugation  of  Spain.  The  English  cabinet  had  now  succeeded  in 
forming  another  coalition  against  France,  hostilities  being  commenced  by 
her  old  ally,  Austria,  subsidized  as  usual  by  British  gold,  while  Sir  John  • 
Moore  was  despatched  with  a  strong  force  to  Spain. 


G38  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSrilA. 

As  previously  remarked,  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  Alexander  became  the 
ally  of  France,  and  took  part,  as  sucli,  in  the  war  now  opened  by  Austria 
(1809)  ;  but  his  want  of  zeal  in  the  cause  was  too  evident  to  escape  the 
penetration  of  the  French  emperor,  and  a  growing  coldness  between  the 
imperial  allies  began  to  appear,  partly  in  consequence,  it  is  said,  of  the 
remonstrance  of  Napoleon  against  the  annexation  of  Finland.  Austria, 
completely  humbled  by  the  defeat  of  Wagram,  was  compelled  to  form  an 
alliance  with  Napoleon. 

Great  injury  had,  however,  been  done  to  Russian  commerce,  and  heavy 
complaints  made  by  merchants,  in  consequence  of  their  ports  having  been 
shut  against  the  English :  they  were  therefore  again  opened  to  them,  pro- 
vided they  hoisted  American  colors,  while  French  goods  were  very  strictly 
prohibited.  This  induced  Napoleon,  in  retaliation,  to  make  himself  mas- 
ter of  the  principal  northern  ports  of  Germany,  and  to  incorporate  the 
possessions  of  the  duke  of  Oldenburg,  a  near  relation  of  Alexander,  with 
France.  Against  this  proceeding  Russia  made  a  very  energetic  protest ; 
and,  in  the  year  1811,  five  divisions  of  the  Russian  army  assumed  a  posi- 
tion opposite  Warsaw.  On  the  other  hand.  Napoleon  caused  the  fortresses 
on  the  Vistula  and  Oder  to  be  declared  in  a  state  of  siege,  sent  thither 
large  masses  of  troops,  and  occupied  Swedish  Pomerania,  because  Charles 
XIII.  of  Sweden  adhered  to  his  alliance  with  England. 

The  contest  in  Spain,  where  Wellington  was  operating  with  a  powerful 
British  auxiliary  force,  was  at  this  time  daily  growing  more  obstinate,  and 
the  large  amount  of  men  and  money  it  consumed  might  well  have  appeared 
to  Napoleon  a  sufficient  obstacle  to  a  struggle  with  Russia ;  but  he  calcu- 
lated that  his  entire  armies,  amounting  to  nearly  a  million  of  effective  men, 
would  be  sufficient  for  the  conflict  in  both  quarters :  and  he  also  relied 
upon  a  great  mass  of  auxiliary  forces,  chiefly  promised  by  the  confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine ;  besides  his  alliance  with  Prussia  and  Austria,  which 
covered  him  on  both  flanks,  and  secured  his  retreat.  He,  however,  made 
peaceable  ofters,  through  the  count  de  Narbonne,  his  embassador  at  St. 
Petersburg :  but  the  object  of  his  mission  being  unattained,  about  half  a 
million  of  soldiers,  consisting  of  French,  Germans,  Italians,  Poles,  Swiss, 
Spaniards,  and  Portuguese,  with  more  than  twelve  hundred  cannon,  were 
put  in  motion,  about  the  end  of  July,  1812,  to  attack  the  Russians  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Niemen  and  the  Vistula. 

To  meet  this  invasion,  Alexander,  having  re-established  his  alliance  witli 
Great  Britain,  made  peace  with  the  sultan,  and  withdrew  his  troops  from 
the  Turkish  frontier.  He  also  issued  a  ukase,  on  the  23d  of  March,  order- 
ing a  levy  of  two  men  out  of  every  five  hundred  throughout  the  empire. 
The  Russians,  in  three  divisions,  occupied  a  line  including  Kiev  and  Smo- 
lensk to  Riga.  The  first  western  army,  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
thousand  men,  in  Lithuania  and  Courland,  was  commanded  by  Barclay  de 
Tolly,  who  had  till  then  been  minister  of  war.  The  other  western  army, 
of  forty-eight  thousand  men,  was  commanded  by  Prince  Bagration.     A 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  ALEXANDER  I.  639 

third  body  of  forces,  led  by  General  Doctoroff,  served  to  keep  up  the  com- 
munication between  the  other  two. 

All  the  disposable  property  and  records  had  long  before  been  generally 
conveyed  into  the  interior.  The  first  western  Russian  army  in  Poland  was 
stationed  along  the  Niemen  as  far  as  Grodno,  and  comprised  six  corps  of 
infantry  and  two  of  cavalry.  The  second  western  army  was  in  the  vicinity 
of  Honim,  consisting  of  four  battalions  of  infantry  and  one  of  cavalry. 
The  communication  was  kept  up  between  them  by  the  hetman  Platoflf,  with 
ten  thousand  Cossacks,  at  Bialystok.  The  army  of  Volhynia,  under  Tor- 
masoflf,  at  Lutzk,  was  composed  of  two  divisions  of  infantry  and  one  of 
cavalry,  containing  together  about  twenty  thousand  men ;  and  there  were 
additional  coi'ps  stationed  at  other  points  on  the  western  frontier,  amount- 
ing to  about  forty  thousand  men  more. 

The  Russian  plan  of  the  campaign  was,  by  retreating,  to  avoid  a  deci- 
sive battle,  until  the  enemy  should  be  remote  from  all  his  resources,  and 
weakened  by  marches  through  a  desolate  region,  and  the  Russian  army 
should  be  so  considerably  strengthened  by  the  accession  of  all  the  forces 
that  might  be,  meanwhile,  raised,  as  to  have  a  decided  superiority.  Na- 
poleon's scheme,  on  the  contrary,  was,  to  use  every  eflbrt  to  compel  the 
Russians  to  battle,  to  destroy  them  after  the  defeat,  and,  pressing  forward 
with  haste  to  the  capital,  to  proffer  peace.  But  he  not  only  entirely  mis- 
took the  character  of  his  enemy,  but  he  overlooked  the  important  fact  that, 
though  the  Russians  might  retreat,  they  would  still  be  in  possession  of 
their  resources. 

On  the  6th  of  June,  1812,  Napoleon  crossed  the  Vistula,  and  on  the  23d 
the  Niemen,  and  pushed  on  to  Wilna,  the  Russians  carefully  retreating, 
and  leaving  the  French  to  pass  that  river  on  the  28th,  and  enter  the  town 
unopposed.  Here  the  French  emperor  remained  eighteen  days,  establish- 
ing magazines  of  arms  and  provisions,  and  then,  after  considerable  manoeu- 
vring, marched  on  Vitepsk,  where  he  hoped  to  bring  the  Russians,  under 
Barclay  de  Tolly,  to  a  general  action.  The  Russian  general,  however, 
declined,  and  retired  to  Smolensk.  Fatigue,  and  want  of  all  kinds,  had 
meanwhile  operated  so  detrimentally  on  the  French  army,  that  it  was 
obliged  to  halt  for  ten  days,  during  which  the  two  Russian  armies  finally 
formed  a  junction  under  tlie  walls  of  Smolensk.  Napoleon,  instead  of  fol- 
lowing the  advice  of  his  marshals,  and  wintering  on  the  Duna,  crossed  the 
Dnieper  and  marched  in  pursuit  of  the  enemy.  The  Russians  now  began 
to  act  on  the  off"ensive.  With  twelve  thousand  cavalry  they  attacked  Gen- 
eral Sebastiani,  and  drove  him  back  with  considerable  loss.  On  the  17th 
of  August  the  main  body  put  itself  in  motion  to  encounter  the  French  army, 
which  had  advanced,  in  order,  if  possible,  to  compel  a  general  battle. 
When  Napoleon  saw  his  attempts  to  surround  the  right  wing  of  the  Rus- 
sians defeated,  he  ordered  his  own  right  wing,  under  Poniatowski,  to  hasten. 
by  way  of  Ortza,  by  rapid  marches,  to  cut  off  the  Russians  from  Moscow. 
On  the  other  hand,  Bagration  hastened  to  defend  this  road,  and  Barclay 


640  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OP   RUSSIA. 

de  Tolly  sought  to  retard  tlie  Frencli  as  much  as  possible.  Smolensk,  an 
old  place,  strongly  fortified,  and  tlie  whole  position  on  the  Dnieper,  greatly 
favored  his  plan  ;  and  not  till  midnight  of  the  ITtli,  after  a  loss  of  many 
thousands,  did  the  French  succeed  in  taking  this  bulwark,  reduced,  for  the 
most  part,  to  a  ruin,  its  magazines  having  been  removed  or  destroyed,  and 
the  houses  set  on  fire  by  the  departing  inhabitants. 

The  Russian  army  retired  in  haste,  laying  waste  the  country,  and  burn- 
ing all  the  towns  through  which  it  passed,  while  Napoleon  followed,  his 
troops  suffering  more  and  more  from  want  and  the  climate.  Up  to  this 
time,  Barclay  de  Tolly,  the  Russian  commander-in-chief,  had  been  able  to 
adhere  to  his  plan  of  drawing  the  French  into  the  country  without  risking 
a  general  engagement  until  a  favorable  opportunity  should  ocjur — tactics 
which  were  not  liked  by  his  army ;  and  Alexander,  yielding  to  the  clamor 
of  the  nation,  appointed  Kutusoff  to  the  chief  command,  who  had  reaped 
new  laurels  in  the  Turkish  war  just  ended. 

The  battle  of  Borodino,  sometimes  called  that  of  Moscow,  fought  on  the 
borders  of  the  government  of  that  name,  on  the  1st  of  September,  was  the 
result  of  this  change  of  leaders.  Reinforced  by  militia  and  reserves,  Ku- 
tusoff resolved  to  await  the  enemy  at  the  point  above  mentioned  (about 
seventy  miles  from  the  city  of  Moscow),  in  a  strongly-entrenched  position. 
The  French  came  up,  and  a  terrible  battle  ensued.  The  combatants  on 
either  side  amounted  to  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men,  and 
the  killed  and  wounded  in  both  to  about  eighty  thousand,  of  whom  the 
Russians  lost  upward  of  fifty  thousand.  The  victory  of  the  French  would 
have  been  still  more  decisive,  but  for  the  refusal  of  Napoleon  to  allow  the 
imperial  guard  to  engage  in  the  battle.  The  Russians  continued  slowly 
and  sullenly  to  retreat  toward  Moscow,  establishing  their  batteries  wher- 
ever they  could  make  a  stand,  even  for  a  few  hours.  They  drove  before 
them  the  wretched  serfs,  blew  up  tlie  bridges  behind  them,  burned  the 
towns  as  they  passed  along,  and  carried  away  or  destroyed  all  the  provis- 
ions and  forage.  For  seven  days,  the  French,  emaciate  and  desponding, 
with  tottering  steps  pursued  their  foes  over  the  dreary  plains.  They  were 
everywhere  victorious,  and  yet  they  obtained  no  results  from  their  victo- 
ries. Count  Rostopchin,  the  governor,  was  making  effectual  preparations 
for  the  conflagration  of  the  capital,  and  was  urging,  by  every  means  in  his 
power,  the  evacuation  of  the  city  by  the  inhabitants. 

About  noon  of  the  14th  of  September,  Napoleon,  cautiously  advancing 
through  a  country  of  excessive  monotony  and  gloom,  from  the  summit  of 
the  Sparrow  hills  descried  in  the  distance  the  glittering  domes  and  mina- 
rets of  Moscow.  He  reined  in  his  horse,  and  exclaimed,  "  Behold !  yon- 
der is  the  celebrated  city  of  the  czars  !"  After  gazing  upon  it,  through  his 
telescope,  for  a  few  moments  in  silence,  he  remarked,  "  It  was  full  time !" 
The  soldiers,  thinking  that  their  sufferings  were  now  at  an  end,  and  antici- 
pating good  quarters  and  abundant  supplies,  gave  way  to  transports  of 
exultation.     Shouts  of  "  Moscow  !  Moscow  !"  spread  from  rank  to  rank, 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  ALEXANDER   I.  641 

and  all  quickened  their  pace  to  gain  a  view  of  the  object  of  their  wishes. 
They  approached  the  city ;  but,  to  their  amazement,  they  met  but  silence 
and  solitude.  The  astounding  intelligence  was  brought  to  Napoleon  that 
the  city  was  deserted.  A  few  of  the  miserable  creatures,  who  had  been  re- 
leased from  the  prisons  to  fire  the  city  as  soon  as  the  French  should  have 
taken  possession,  were  found  in  the  streets.  They  were  generally  intoxi- 
cated, and  presented  a  squalid  and  hideous  spectacle.  Napoleon  was 
amazed  at  the  entire  abandonment  of  the  city.  Rumors  of  the  intended 
conflagration  reached  his  ears.  Such  an  awful  sacrifice  he  had  not  sup- 
posed it  possible  for  any  people  to  make.  None  but  a  semi-barbarian  na- 
tion, under  the  influence  of  an  utter  despotism,  could  be  driven  to  such  an 
act.  More  than  a  hundred  thousand  of  the  wretched  inhabitants,  parents 
and  children  —  driven  by  the  Russian  soldiery  from  the  city — perished  of 
cold  and  starvation  in  the  woods !  Other  countless  thousands,  who  had 
attached  themselves  to  the  army  of  Kutusoflf,  perished  from  fatigue  and 
exposure.  Napoleon,  as  if  to  avoid  the  sight  of  the  desolate  streets,  did 
not  at  first  enter  Moscow.  He  stopped  at  a  house  in  the  suburbs,  and 
appointed  Marshal  Mortier  governor  of  the  capital.  "  Permit,"  said  he, 
"no  pillage.  Defend  the  place  alike  against  friends  and  foes."  The  sol- 
diers dispersed  through  the  city  in  search  of  provisions  and  quarters. 
Many  of  the  inhabitants  had  left  in  such  haste,  tliat  the  rich  ornaments  of 
the  ladies  were  found  on  their  toilets,  and  the  letters  and  gold  of  men  of 
business  on  their  desks. 

On  the  morning  of  the  15th,  Napoleon  removed  his  headquarters  to  the 
kreralin.  He  inmiediately  wrote  to  Alexander,  proposing  terms  of  peace, 
adding,  "  Whatever  may  be  the  vicissitudes  of  war,  nothing  can  diminish 
the  esteem  felt  by  me  for  my  friend  of  Tilsit  and  Erfurth."  The  day  was 
passed  in  establishing  the  army  in  their  new  quarters.  Some  twenty  thou- 
sand men  and  women  of  the  lowest  class,  fierce  and  revolting  in  aspect, 
gradually  stole  from  their  hiding-places  and  mingled  with  the  French  troops. 
Ten  thousand  prisoners,  whom  Rostopchin  had  liberated,  were  stealthily 
preparing  to  convert  the  magnificent  metropolis  into  a  vast  "  infernal  ma- 
chine" for  the  destruction  of  the  French  army.  Immense  magazines  of 
powder  were  placed  beneath  the  kremlin  and  other  structures  which  would 
be  filled  with  soldiers ;  shells  and  other  destructive  engines  of  war  were 
secreted,  in  vast  quantities,  in  chambers  and  cellars ;  the  fountains  had 
also  been  destroyed,  the  water-pipes  cut,  and  the  fire-engines  carried  off. 

About  midnight  of  the  16th,  tlie  cry  of  "  Fire !"  was  suddenly  heard  in 
the  streets.  Far  oif  in  the  east  of  the  kremlin,  immense  volumes  of  smoke 
and  flame  were  rolling  up  into  the  stormy  sky.  Loud  explosions  of  burst- 
ing shells  and  uphea\ing  mines  scattered  death  and  dismay  around.  The 
flames  spread  in  all  directions.  Mines  were  sprung,  shells  burst,  cannons 
discharged,  wagons  of  powder  and  magazines  blew  up,  and  in  a  few  hours 
of  indescribable  confusion  and  terror,  the  whole  vast  city  was  wrapped  in 
an  ocean  of  flame.     The  French  soldiers  shot  the  incendiaries,  bayoneted 

41 


642 


ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 


Napoleon  at  the  Kremlin. 

them,  tossed  them  into  the  fire ;  but  still,  like  demons,  they  plied  their 
work.  Napoleon  awoke  early  in  the  morning,  and,  looking  out  upon  the 
names  which  were  now  sweeping  through  all  parts  of  the  city,  exclaimed  : 
"  What  a  frightful  spectacle  !  such  a  number  of  palaces  '.  —  the  people  are 
<renuine  Scythians."  During  the  whole  of  the  17th  and  the  ensuing  night 
the  fire  continued  to  rage,  and  at  last  reached  the  kremlin,  forcing  Napo- 
leon to  retire  to  the  castle  of  Petrowski,  about  three  miles  distant ;  but  the 
flames  abating  on  the  19th,  he  returned  and  occupied  that  portion  of  the 
kremlin  which  yet  remained  uninjured. 

"  The  churches,"  says  Labaume,  "  though  covered  with  iron  and  lead, 
were  destroyed,  and  with  them  those  graceful  steeples  which  we  had  seen 
the  night  before  resplendent  in  the  setting  sun.  The  hospitals,  too,  whicli 
contained  more  than  twenty  thousand  wounded,  soon  began  to  burn  — a 
harrowing  and  dreadful  spectacle  —  and  almost  all  these  poor  wretches 
perished  !  A  few  who  still  survived  were  seen  crawling,  half-burnt,  among 
the  smoking  ruins,  while  others  were  groaning  under  heaps  of  dead  bodies, 
endeavoring  in  vain  to  extricate  themselves.  The  confusion  and  tumult 
which  ensued  when  the  work  of  pillage  commenced  can  not  be  conceived. 
Soldiers,  sutlers,  galley-slaves,  and  prostitutes,  were  seen  running  through 
the  streets,  penetrating  into  the  deserted  palaces,  and  carrying  away  every- 
thing that  could  gratify  their  avarice.  Some  clothed  themselves  with  rich 
stufi's,  silks,  and  costly  furs ;  others  dressed  themselves  in  women's  pelisses  ; 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  ALEXANDER  I.  643 

and  even  the  galley-slaves  concealed  their  rags  under  the  most  splendid 
courtrdresses  :  the  rest  crowded  to  the  cellars,  and,  forcing  open  the  doors, 
drank  the  wine  and  carried  off  an  immense  booty.  This  horrible  pillage 
was  not  confined  to  the  deserted  houses  alone,  but  extended  to  the  few 
whicli  were  inhabited,  and  soon  the  eagerness  and  wantonness  of  the  plun- 
derers caused  devastations  which  almost  equalled  those  occasioned  by  the 
conflagration."  —  "Palaces  and  temples,"  writes  Karamzin,  "  monuments 
of  art  and  miracles  of  luxury,  the  remains  of  past  ages  and  those  which  had 
been  the  creation  of  yesterday ;  the  tombs  of  ancestors  and  the  nursery- 
cradles  of  the  present  generation,  were  indiscriminately  destroyed :  noth- 
ing was  left  of  Moscow  save  the  remembrance  of  its  former  grandeur."  — 
"  Not  even  the  fictions  of  the  burning  of  Troy,"  said  Napoleon  in  after- 
years,  "  though  heightened  by  all  the  powers  of  poetry,  could  have  equalled 
the  realities  of  the  destruction  of  Moscow.  .  .  .  Oh,  it  was  the  most  grand, 
the  most  sublime,  the  most  terrific  sight  the  world  ever  beheld !" 

At  length,  on  the  morning  of  the  19th  of  October,  after  a  stay  of  thirty- 
four  days,  Napoleon  quitted  Moscow  and  retreated  toward  Kalouga.  His 
army  numbered  about  a  hundred  thousand  men,  with  five  hundred  and  fifty 
pieces  of  cannon,  and  some  forty  thousand  sick,  wounded,  and  stragglers. 
To  Marshal  Mortier,  with  a  band  of  but  eiglit  thousand  men,  was  assigned 
the  perilous  task  of  remaining  behind  to  superintend  the  evacuation  of  the 
city.  The  Cossacks  crowded  upon  him  in  vast  numbers.  For  four  days, 
while  the  enormous  mass  of  men  and  carriages  were  retiring,  he  defended 
himself  within  the  massive  walls  of  the  kremlin,  keeping  the  enemy  at  bay. 
In  the  vaults  over  which  he  stood  and  fought  he  placed  one  hundred  and 
eighty-three  thousand  pounds  of  gunpowder.  Barrels  of  powder  were  also 
deposited  in  all  the  halls  and  apartments.  He  was  compelled  to  do  this 
even  while  the  flames  of  war  were  blazing  fiercely  around  him.  It  might 
be  necessary  at  any  hour  to  retire  before  the  accumulating  numbers,  and 
to  apply  the  torch.  A  single  spark  from  one  of  the  enemy's  guns  would 
have  blown  the  heroic  soldier  and  his  whole  division  into  the  air  together  ! 

Having  successfully  protected  the  march  of  the  army  from  the  city,  Mor- 
tier placed,  in  connection  with  the  mines  of  powder,  a  lighted  fuse,  whose 
slow  combustion  could  be  nicely  calculated.  With  rapid  step  he  hurried 
from  the  volcano,  which  was  ripe  for  its  eruption.  The  Cossacks,  eager 
for  plunder,  rushed  within  the  deserted  walls.  Suddenly  the  majestic 
fabric  was  raised  into  the  air.  The  earth  shook  under  the  feet  of  Mortier. 
The  explosion,  in  most  appalling  thunder-peal,  startled  the  army  in  its 
midnight  bivouac.  From  the  darkened  and  sulphurous  skies  there  was 
rained  down  upon  the  city  a  horrible  shower  of  fragments  of  timber,  rocks, 
shattered  weapons,  heavy  pieces  of  artillery,  and  mangled  bodies  !  Napo- 
leon was  thirty  miles  distant  from  Moscow.  That  terrific  peal  roused  him 
from  sleep,  and  told  him  that  the  kremlin  had  fallen,  and  that  his  rear- 
guard had  commenced  its  march.  Mortier  hastened  his  flight,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  rejoining  the  army. 


644  ILLUSTBATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  EUSSIA. 

And  now  the  picture  of  the  advance  to  Moscow  was  to  be  reversed. 
Hordes  of  Cossacks  hung  upon  the  rear  of  the  retreating  army,  cutting  off 
the  stragglers,  and  committing  every  atrocity.  Murat  was  defeated  at 
Malo-Yaroslavitz  on  the  24th  of  October,  and  an  unsuccessful  stand  was 
made  at  Viasma  on  the  3d  of  November.  On  the  6th,  a  winter  peculiarly 
early  and  severe,  even  for  Russia,  set  in — the  thermometer  sank  eighteen 
degrees  —  the  wind  blew  furiously  over  the  desert  country  —  and  the  sol- 
diers, vainly  struggling  with  the  eddying  snow,  which  drove  against  them 
with  the  violence  of  a  whirlwind,  could  no  longer  distinguish  the  road, 
and,  falling  into  the  ditches  by  the  side,  were  quickly  covered  with  the 
wintry  mantle,  and  there  found  a  grave.  Others  crawled  on,  badly  clothed, 
with  nothing  to  eat  or  drink,  frost-bitten,  and  groaning  with  pain.  What 
scenes  did  not  the  retreat  then  present!  —  discipline  was  gone — under 
such  horrible  sufferings  even  these  tried  and  veteran  soldiers  could  no 
longer  obey  their  officers.  Thus  disorganized,  they  spread  themselves  right 
and  left  in  search  of  food,  and,  as  the  horses  fell,  seized  upon  their  man- 
gled carcasses,  and  devoured  them  raw  like  dogs  !  Many  remained  by  the 
dying  embers  of  the  bivouac-fire,  and,  as  these  expired,  an  insensibility 
crept  over  them  which  soon  became  the  sleep  of  death — thus  thousands 
perished. 

On  the  9th  of  November,  Napoleon  reached  Smolensk,  and  remained  till 
the  15th,  collecting  his  scattered  forces,  now  reduced  to  forty  thousand 
effective  men,  when  he  set  out  for  Krasnoi.  Meantime,  Kutusofi",  with  a 
hundred  thousand  Russians,  advanced  by  a  parallel  road,  and  stationed 
himself  across  Napoleon's  route  ;  while  the  French  rear-guard,  under  Ney, 
exposed  to  constant  and  harassing  attacks  from  PlatofF's  Cossacks,  was 
nearly  destroyed.  The  emperor,  however,  pressing  forward,  succeeded  in 
cutting  his  way  through  the  dense  masses  of  the  Russians,  though  with  the 
loss  of  more  than  half  his  imperial  and  young  guards,  which  had  been  con- 
solidated. But  from  this  time  to  the  26th  and  27th,  when  the  French 
crossed  the  Beresina,  all  was  utter  and  hopeless  confusion ;  and  in  the 
passage  of  that  river,  in  the  midst  of  a  furious  attack  from  the  Russians, 
one  of  the  frail  bridges  broke  beneath  the  weight  of  artillery,  baggage,  and 
troops,  with  which  it  was  burdened.  A  vast  and  frenzied  crowd,  strug- 
gling at  the  heads  of  the  bridges,  trampled  upon  each  other,  while  cannon- 
balls  ploughed  through  the  living,  tortured  mass.  Multitudes  were  forced 
into  the  stream,  and  with  shrieks,  which  pierced  through  the  thunders  of 
the  battle,  sank  beneath  the  floating  ice.  The  exact  extent  of  the  French 
loss  was  never  known ;  but  a  Rfissian  account  states  that  thirty-six  thou- 
sand bodies  were  found  in  the  river  alone,  and  burnt  after  the  thaw  !  The 
genius  of  Napoleon  was  never  more  conspicuous  than  on  this  occasion.  It 
is  the  testimony  alike  of  friend  and  foe  that  no  other  man  could  have  ac- 
complished what  he  did  in  the  awful  passage  of  the  Beresina.  On  the 
29th,  the  emperor  resumed  his  march,  and  was  met  by  a  convoy  of  provis- 
ions from  Wilna. 


HISTORIC  SUMMARY  —  ALEXANDER  I.  645 

The  French  were  now  upon  the  borders  of  Poland,  and  received  sym- 
pathy and  aid  from  the  people.  Napoleon,  having  brought  the  remnant 
of  his  army  to  this  point,  yielded  to  the  advice  of  his  counsellors,  and  on 
the  5th  of  December,  in  company  with  Caulaincourt  and  Lobau,  and  attend- 
ed by  a  small  Polish  escort,  he  set  out  in  a  sledge  for  Paris,  leaving  Murat 
to  command  in  his  stead.  On  the  10th  he  reached  Warsaw,  and,  making 
a  short  stay,  proceeded  to  Dresden,  wliere  he  arrived  on  the  14th,  and  had 
an  interview  with  the  king  of  Saxony.  At  midnight,  on  the  18th,  he  en- 
tered his  capital  and  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries. 

The  Russians,  meanwhile,  under  Wittgenstein,  pressed  hard  upon  the 
retreating  French,  until  tlioy  reached  the  Niemen,  the  ancient  boundary 
of  tlie  empire.  At  Kowno,  Marshal  Ney,  with  a  handful  of  men,  held  the 
enemy  at  bay  for  four  days  ;  and  seizing  a  musket,  fought  like  a  common 
soldier,  until  the  last  man  had  retired  across  the  bridge :  then  deliberately 
walking  backward,  he  fired  the  last  bullet  at  the  advancing  Russians,  and 
threw  his  gun  into  the  stream.  He  was  the  last  of  the  "  Grand  Army" 
that  left  the  Russian  territory. 

The  losses  of  Napoleon  in  this  terrible  campaign  amounted  to  about  four 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men,  of  whom  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
thousand  were  slain  in  fight ;  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  thousand  died 
from  fatigue,  hunger,  and  the  severity  of  the  climate ;  and  one  hundred 
and  ninety-three  thousand  were  made  prisoners.  Thus  ended  the  greatest 
military  catastrophe  that  ever  befell  an  army  in  either  ancient  or  modern 
times,  and  which,  though  on  a  smaller  scale,  was  realized  to  the  Anglo- 
Indian  army,  while  retreating  through  the  gorges  and  ravines  of  the  Khoord 
Cabul,  in  1842.  Enormous  as  was  this  loss,  however,  that  of  tlie  Russians, 
including  women  and  children,  is  affirmed  to  have  been  far  greater ! 

The  emperor  Alexander,  who  had  hitherto  only  fought  on  the  defensive, 
now  resolved  in  his  turn  to  become  the  aggressor ;  and,  joining  his  army 
in  Poland,  published  in  February,  1813,  the  celebrated  manifesto  which 
served  as  a  basis  for  the  coalition  of  the  other  powers  of  Europe  to  destroy 
Napoleon  and  overturn  the  French  empire.  The  king  of  Prussia  at  the 
same  time  summoned  all  capable  of  bearing  arms  to  battle  for  their  coun- 
try ;  and,  though  he  did  not  then  designate  his  object,  his  people,  who  for 
five  years  had  been  humbled  and  degraded,  understood  him,  and,  with  un- 
paralleled enthusiasm,  thousands  poured  forth  to  their  places  of  rendez- 
vous from  every  section  of  the  country.  In  vain  had  the  French,  witli  the 
aid  of  their  last  reserves  and  of  troops  drawn  together  in  Iiaste,  made 
efforts  to  remain  on  the  Pregel,  on  the  Vistula,  and  on  the  Oder.  The 
Russians  advanced  everywhere  with  superior  numbers,  and  the  French 
were  obliged  to  retire  behind  the  Elbe.  Prussia  now  declared  war  against 
France,  and  concluded  an  alliance  with  Russia ;  the  confederation  of  the 
Rhine  was  dissolved  ;  and,  although  Austria  yet  remained  neutral,  the  in- 
surrection was  general  in  northern  Germany.  Meantime,  however,  much 
time  was  lost  in  negotiations  with  the  king  of  Saxony ;  and  KutusofiF  died 


646  ILLUSTEATED  DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

of. fever  at  Buntzlaw,  upon  which  Alexander  appointed  Wittgenstein  to 
the  chief  command.  These  circumstances  were  promptly  taken  advantage 
of  by  Napoleon  ;  but,  though  this  prolonged  the  contest,  it  proved  but  of 
little  avail  in  the  sequel.  In  August,  the  Austrians  joined  the  allies  ;  but 
the  latter  were  defeated  by  Napoleon  at  the  battles  of  Lutzen  and  Bautzen, 
and  also  on  the  27th  at  Dresden  (where,  during  a  reconnaissance.  General 
Moreau,  the  French  traitor,  was  mortally  wounded  by  the  side  of  Alexan- 
der). On  the  18th  of  October  occurred  the  terrible  battle  of  Leipsic,  in 
which  the  French  were  overwhelmed  by  greatly  superior  numbers.  The 
allies  now  rapidly  advanced  to  the  Rhine ;  and  though  Napoleon,  with  the 
broken  fragments  of  his  armies,  continued  the  struggle  through  the  winter, 
and  gained  victory  after  victory,  his  adversaries  gradually  environed  him 
with  half  a  million  of  men,  and  Alexander  entered  Paris  on  the  31st  of 
March,  1814.  In  the  subsequent  negotiations  which  took  place  relative  to 
the  affairs  of  France,  he  exerted  himself  against  the  dethronement  of  Na- 
poleon, for  whom  he  still  retained  the  warmest  personal  friendship ;  this 
failing,  he  advocated  a  regency  in  favor  of  the  emperor's  son,  the  young 
king  of  Rome.  But  he  was  overborne  by  the  English  and  Prussian  com- 
missioners ;  and  it  was  only  by  assuming  the  most  energetic  attitude,  that 
he  succeeded  in  procuring  the  sovereignty  of  Elba  for  the  fallen  monarch. 
During  his  stay  in  France  he  visited  the  ex-empress  Josephine  at  Malmai- 
son,  toward  whom  he  exhibited  the  tendcrest  regard  and  sympathy. 

After  the  conclusion  of  peace,  Alexander,  in  company  with  the  king  of 
Prussia  and  Marshal  Blucher,  visited  England,  where  he  was  received 
with  great  distinction.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  Blucher  (whose  claims 
to  civilization  may  be  inferred  from  his  habitual  brutality  and  drunkenness, 
and  his  wish  to  blow  up  the  monument  to  Napoleon  in  the  Place  Vendome) 
received  the  honorary  degree  of  doctor  of  laws  fi-om  Oxford  university ! 

The  "  Holy  Alliance"  at  Vienna,  in  1815,  having  settled  the  affairs  of 
Europe  to  their  satisfaction,  the  emperor  Alexander  devoted  himself  to 
the  advancement  of  his  own  dominions.  The  most  opposite  traits  are  found 
combined  in  the  character  of  this  sovereign :  he  was  at  once  seen  encour- 
aging bible-societies  and  the  education  of  his  people,  yet  interfering  with 
the  spread  of  political  knowledge  and  of  liberty  in  distant  states.  He  was 
at  times  firm  even  to  stubbornness,  at  others  vacillating:  his  character 
baffles  all  who  endeavor  to  describe  him  as  he  actually  was.  His  dispo- 
sition, however,  was  kind  and  generous,  his  manners  mild  and  amiable,  and 
his  moderation  generally  prevented  him  from  abusing  liis  unlimited  power. 
He  made  many  judicious  alterations  in  the  government;  and,  under  the 
influence  of  his  mother  and  the  empress,  the  levity  and  extravagance  of 
the  Russian  court  were  materially  repressed. 

Alexander,  attended  to  the  last  by  his  wife  Elizabeth,  died  of  erysipelas, 
in  a  small  and  humble  dwelling  near  Taganrog,  December  1,  1825,  when 
on  a  tour  of  inspection  through  the  southern  provinces  of  his  empire ;  and 
was  succeeded  by  Nicholas  I.,  on  the  25th  of  the  same  month. 


HISTORIC  SUMMAEY  —  NICHOLAS  I.  ({41 


CHAPTER    XKVI. 

HISTORIC    SUMMARY  —  THE    REIGN    OP    NICHOLAS    I. 

NICHOLAS  PAULOVICH,  who  succeeded  Alexander,  in  wieldinjj. 
the  imperial  ticcptre  of  Russia,  was  born  at  St.  Petersburg,  on  the  7th 
of  July  (June  25,  old  style),  1796.  He  was  the  third  son  of  the 
emperor  Paul  I.,  and  seemed  to  have  no  prospect  of  mounting  the  throne. 
His  education  was  conducted  by  his  mother,  Mary  Feodorona,  an  intelli- 
gent and  devoted  woman,  who  exerted  a  great  influence  on  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  imperial  family.  General  de  Lambsdorf,  the  countess  de  Lieven. 
the  learned  Adelung,  and  others,  were  charged  with  the  education  of  the 
young  prince.  They  initiated  him  into  the  knowledge  of  modern  litera- 
ture, political  economy,  the  military  art,  and  especially  that  of  fortifica- 
tions. Nicholas  did  not  lack  a  certain  aptitude  for  study.  His  masters, 
however,  conceived  no  very  high  idea  of  his  capacity.  He  was  tacitui-n, 
melancholy,  and  occupied  with  trifles.  His  most  decided  taste  was  for 
music ;  he  even  composed  some  military  airs  which  are  not  without  merit. 
At  the  time  of  Napoleon's  invasion  of  Russia,  Nicholas  was  too  young 
to  take  an  active  part  in  that  gigantic  struggle.  After  the  restoration  of 
peace,  he  visited  the  principal  battle-fields  where  the  Russians  had  figured, 
and  subsequently  travelled  in  the  various  countries  of  Europe.  In  1816, 
he  made  his  appearance  at  the  court  of  England,  and  received  a  very  cor- 
dial welcome  from  the  British  aristocracy. 

On  his  return  to  Russia,  Nicholas  hastened  to  acquaint  himself  with  the 
condition  of  the  empire,  visiting  most  of  the  provinces,  and  residing  for  a 
considerable  time,  in  their  chief  cities.  On  the  1st  of  July,  1817,  he 
espoused  the  princess  Charlotte,  eldest  daughter  of  Frederick  William  III. 
of  Prussia :  being  therefore,  the  brother-in-law  of  the  present  king  of  that 
country.  This  lady  (born  July  13,  1798)  embraced  at  once  the  religion 
of  the  Greek  church,  and  assumed  the  name  of  Alexandra  Feodorona.  Of 
this  marriage  were  born  seven  children,  four  sons  and  three  daughters. 
The  sons  are — Alexander  Csesarovich  (heir  to  the  throne,  and  now  wear- 
ing the  imperial  crown),  who  was  born  in  1818,  and  married  in  1839  to 
Maria  Alexandrovua,  princess  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  by  whom  he  has  sev- 
eral children  ;  Constantino,  grand-admiral  of  the  Russian  navy,  who  wai» 
born  in  1827;  Nicholas,  born  in  1831;  and  Michael,  born  in  1832.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  sons  of  Nicholas  have  received  the  same  names 


648 


ILLUSTEATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 


as  the  sons  of  Paul,  and  in  the  same  order.  The  eldest  daughter  of  Nich- 
olas is  Marie  Nicolasvvna,  who  was  born  in  1819,  and  married  in  1839  to 
Maximilian  Beauliarnois,  duke  de  Leutchtenburg,  and  grandson  of  the  em- 
press Josephine  of  France.  The  emperor,  it  is  said,  designed  for  this 
daughter  a  union  which  he  deemed  more  in  consonance  with  her  own  emi- 
nent  position  ;  but  yielded  his  own  wishes  to  hers,  when  he  discovered  her 
unalterable  attachment  to  young  Beauharnois,  who  was  at  the  time  a  colo- 
nel in  the  Bavarian  service.  He  died  November  5,  1852.  The  second 
daughter  is  Olga,  who  was  born  in  1822,  and  was  married  in  1846  to 
Charles,  prince-royal  of  Wlirtemburg.  Alexandra,  the  youngest  dauglitcr 
in  the  imperial  family,  was  born  in  1825,  was  married  in  1844,  and  died 
in  August  of  the  same  year.  It  was  her  fatal  illness  which  shortened  the 
emperor's  visit  to  England  in  that  year,  as  mentioned  in  a  previous  cha^)- 
ter.  The  chamber  in  the  palace  at  Czarsko  Selo  in  which  she  sank  to  rest 
remains  precisely  as  it  was  at  that  last  sad  moment:  no  hand  is  suifered  to 
profane  by  its  touch  any  object  that  belonged  to  her.  In  a  secluded  por- 
tion of  the  park,  the  cenotaph,  a  view  of  wliich  is  presented  on  the  oppo- 
site page,  has  been  erected  as  a  tribute  to  her  memory.  In  a  niche  stands 
her  statue  in  marble,  the  size  of  life,  bearing  in  its  arms  her  infant,  which 
perished  almost  as  soon  as  born.  The  pedestal  of  the  statue  is  covered 
with  appropriate  passages  of  Scripture.  In  a  little  summer-house  near  by 
hangs  a  portrait  of  the  lamented  princess,  and  beneath  it  is  inscribed  a 
sentence  which  was  often  upon  her  lips:  "I  well  know,  dear  father,  that 
you  have  no  greater  pleasure  than  to  render  my  mother  happy." 


HISTORIC    SUMMARY — XICiiOLAS    I. 


G49 


Cknotaph  erected  to  the  Memory  of  the  Grand-Du(  hess  Alexandra,  at  Czar-ko  i~ELo. 


Prince  Nieliolas  did  not  at  all  think  of  the  imperial  crown  until  suddenly 
called  to  take  it,  in  1825,  under  the  following  circumstances.  Next  to 
Alexander,  the  grand-duke  Constantino,  then  residing  at  Warsaw  as  vice- 
roy of  Poland,  had  right  to  the  supreme  command.  But  Constautine  was 
a  strange,  half-barbarous  man.  He  was  first  married  to  a  princess  of  the 
house  of  Saxe-Coburg,  and  aunt  to  Prince  Albert  of  England  ;  but  such 
was  his  brutality  toward  her,  that  she  was  separated  from  him.  Finally, 
he  had  conceived  a  passion  for  the  daughter  of  a  simple  Polish  gentleman, 
and  to  obtain  a  divorce  from  his  former  w^ife  so  as  to  enable  him  to  form  a 
matrimonial  union  with  the  latter  he  had  secretly  signed  a  paper  renouncing 


(j50  illustrated   description   of  RUSSIA. 

the  throne  of  Russia.  On  the  death  of  Alexander,  Constantine,  who  had 
received  intelligence  of  the  event  several  days  before  his  brother,  faithful 
to  his  word,  sent  a  number  of  letters  to  his  family,  in  which  he  renewed 
his  renunciation  of  the  sovereign  dignity,  and  declared  that  he  acknowl- 
edged only  Nicholas  as  emperor  of  all  the  Russias.  In  a  manifesto  pub- 
lished December  24,  1825,  Nicholas  gave  an  authentic  relation  of  the  cir- 
cumstances which  had  called  him  to  the  throne  ;  and  the  next  day  received 
the  oath  of  fidelity,  and  assumed  the  imperial  sceptre  as  Nicholas  I. 

The  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Nicholas  was  marked  by  a  terrible  strug- 
gle. A  number  of  military  officers  belonging  to  the  nobility,  who  had 
passed  some  years  in  Germany  and  France,  in  the  wars  against  Napoleon, 
were  dissatisfied  with  the  despotic  government  established  in  their  own 
country.  They  had  organized  secret  societies,  similar  to  the  Tugendbund 
formed  by  the  Germans,  and  sought  the  favorable  moment  to  proclaim  a 
representative  government.  They  spread  in  the  army  false  rumors  that 
Nicholas  was  a  usurper,  that  the  grand-duke  Constantine  claimed  the 
throne,  and  that  he  was  marching  with  Polish  battalions  upon  St.  Peters- 
burg ;  and,  by  these  misrepresentations,  they  induced  the  soldiers  to  revolt. 

The  situation  was  extremely  critical.  Several  of  the  regiments  cried, 
"  Live  Constantine !"  They  had  massacred  two  generals,  seriously  in- 
sulted the  governor  of  the  capital,  and  disdainfully  repelled  the  Russian  J 
archbishop  who  came  to  urge  them  to  obedience.  Already  they  had  ad- 
vanced turbulently  to  the  imperial  palace,  and  the  populace  joined  the 
rebels,  besides  some  men  of  the  liberal  professions  who  desired  a  change 
in  the  form  of  the  government.  If  Nicholas  had  lingered  a  few  hours  in 
inaction,  all  would  have  been  lost  for  him,  and  perhaps  for  iiis  children. 

It  was  then  that  he  displayed  rare  coolness,  energy,  and  intrepidity. 
Accompanied  by  some  hundreds  of  guards  devoted  to  his  cause,  he  mounted 
his  horse,  went  to  the  place  of  revolt  in  the  great  square  of  the  Admiralty, 
and,  with  a  haughty  bearing,  called  out  to  the  rebels :  "  Return  to  your 
ranks  !  —  obey  !  —  Down  upon  your  knees  !"  Quailing  before  the  imperial 
order,  and  awed  by  the  sacred  character  attributed  in  Russia  to  the  empe- 
ror's person,  most  of  the  soldiers  kneeled  before  their  sovereign,  and,  in 
token  of  submission,  grounded  their  arms.  Those  who  persisted  in  resist-  . 
ance  were  shot  down  by  cannon.  On  the  night  of  the  25th  of  December, 
1825,  all  was  over:  the  crown  was  placed  permanently  upon  Nicholas's 
brow.  The  punishments  inflicted  upon  the  conspirators  were  frightful. 
Many  of  them  underwent  the  penalty  of  death.  Others,  to  the  number  of 
several  hundreds,  were  exiled  to  the  snows  and  mines  of  Siberia. 

Soon  after  Alexander's  death,  a  war  with  Persia  broke  out,  in  conse- 
quence of  disputes  arising  from  the  non-settlement  of  certain  boundaries 
between  Russia  and  that  power.  Abbas  Mirza,  who  had  just  then  succeeded 
to  the  throne  of  Persia,  thinking  the  moment  propitious  for  attacking  Rus- 
sia, at  once  marched  over  the  frontier,  and  advanced  as  far  as  Elizabetpol, 
in  Georgia ;  but  the  Persians  were  defeated,  and  driven  back.     War  was 


I 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  NICHOLAS   I.  651 

now  immediately  declared  against  them  ;  and  General  Paskiewitch,  being 
appointed  commander-in-chief  by  tlie  emperor,  passed  the  Araxes,  took  sev- 
eral strong  fortresses,  entered  ancient  Media  with  no  opposition,  and  forced 
the  sliah  to  sue  for  peace,  compelling  him  to  give  up  an  extensive  territory 
on  the  southwestern  shore  of  the  Caspian  sea,  with  some  provinces  on  the 
Caucasus,  besides  making  him  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war,  and  the  losses 
by  the  invasion. 

The  war  with  Persia  was  scarcely  ended,  when  Russia  engaged  in  an- 
other—  with  Turkey.  The  Porte  accused  the  Russians  of  having  secretly 
fomented  the  insurrection  of  Greece,  of  having  openly  attacked  and  de- 
stroyed their  fleet  in  the  bay  of  Navarino,*  with  having  violated  the  trea- 
ties of  Bucharest  and  Ackerman,  and  established  connections  with  the 
malcontents  in  every  part  of  the  empire.  The  Russians  replied  by  accu- 
sing the  Porte  of  having  excited  the  mountaineers  of  the  Caucasus  to 
revolt,  and  invited  them  to  embrace  Islamism ;  with  having  violated  or 
delayed  the  execution  of  all  the  treaties  in  favor  of  its  Christian  subjects, 
and  arbitrarily  closed  the  Bosphorus  on  various  occasions,  and  thereby 
deeply  injured  the  southern  provinces  of  the  empire.  A  declaration  of 
war  was  issued  by  the  emperor  of  Russia,  and  on  the  7th  of  May,  1828, 
the  Russian  forces  passed  the  Pruth  to  the  number  of  one  hundred  thou- 
sand, including  persons  of  all  distinctions  attached  to  the  camp.  Count 
Wittgenstein  was  commander-in-chief.  The  Turks  were  in  no  force  to 
resist  such  a  crusade,  and  retired  as  the  Russians  advanced,  leaving  an 
unobstructed  passage  to  the  invaders.  In  a  short  time  the  entire  level 
country  was  overrun ;  Jassy  and  Bucharest  occupied  ;  Galatz,  with  its 
beautiful  harbor,  taken  ;  and,  in  brief,  the  entire  left  bank  of  the  Danube 
was  occupied  by  the  Muscovite  troops. 

On  the  8th  of  June,  under  the  supervision  of  the  emperor  in  person,  the 
Russians  crossed  the  Danube,  and  attacked  and  captured  several  fortres- 
ses and  fortified  towns.  Ibrail,  or  Brahilov,  the  most  important  and 
strongest  place  on  the  lower  Danube,  situated  near  its  left  bank,  and  which 
had  been  besieged  by  the  Russian  troops  under  the  grand-duke  Michael 

•  The  history  of  the  insurrection  and  declaration  of  independence  of  Greece  is  known.  The 
Greek  insurrection  failed  in  Wallachia,  in  Moldavia,  and  in  Macedonia,  from  want  of  cohesion  ; 
but  in  ancient  Greece,  where  the  inhabitants  were  more  homogeneous  and  more  numerous  than  the 
mussulmans,  and,  moreover,  favored  by  their  mountains,  it  took  a  more  obstinate  and  decisive  char- 
acter. Ypsilanti,  Mavrocordato,  Bozzaiis,  Kanaris,  and  a  hundred  other  Greeks,  acquired  imper- 
ishable glory  by  their  sustained  devotion  to  the  liberty  of  a  country  of  which  nothing  remained  but 
the  name.  The  struggle  had  lasted  seven  years.  France,  England,  and  Russia,  came  to  an  under- 
standing that  it  was  time  to  put  an  end  to  it,  with  all  the  more  reason  from  its  being  highly  injuri- 
ous to  the  commerce  of  the  East  generally,  but  especially  to  that  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  treaty 
concluded  by  these  three  powers,  on  the  26th  of  July,  1827,  pronounced  and  guarantied  the  inde- 
pendence of  Greece,  recognising  her  as  a  state,  and  circumscribing  her  within  the  somewhat  nar- 
row limits  she  bears  at  the  present  day.  The  destruction  of  the  Turko-Egyptian  fleet  by  the  com- 
bined squadrons  of  England,  France,  and  Russia,  in  the  bay  of  Navarino,  October  27,  1827,  was  an 
event  resulting  from  this  treaty.  The  fleet  consisted  of  seventy-nine  Turkish  and  Egyptian  vessels, 
which  (with  the  exception  of  a  few  of  the  smaller  craft,  which  were  cast  ashore)  were  totally 
destroyed,  with  seven  thousand  of  their  crews. 


652  ILLUSTRATED    DESCKIPTION    OF   RUSSIA. 

since  May  11,  capitulated  June  18.  The  siege  and  capture  of  this  place 
cost  the  Russians  three  thousand  lives. 

The  Russian  besieging  force,  after  the  fall  of  Brahilov,  was  divided  into 
several  columns,  and  soon  overran  the  whole  level  country  between  the 
Danube  and  the  sea.  Several  engagements  took  place  during  July  and 
August  between  the  opposing  forces  in  the  open  field,  and,  althoug]i  the 
Ottoman  horse  maintained  their  superiority  over  the  Muscovite,  the  inva- 
ding army  (being  reinforced  with  sixty  thousand  fresh  troops)  was  too 
strong  in  infantry  and  artillery  for  their  opponents,  and  the  latter  with- 
drew into  their  entrenched  camp  around  Schumla.  The  emperor  at  first 
intended  to  hazard  an  attack  upon  this  stronghold,  the  key  to  the  Balkan  ; 
but  the  strength  of  the  position,  and  the  experience  he  had  had  of  the 
tenacity  with  which  the  Turks  always  maintained  their  ground,  induced 
him  to  change  his  determination.  He  left  a  sufficient  force  to  observe 
Schumla,  directed  the  remainder  of  the  army  against  Yarna,  which  was 
invested  by  both  land  and  sea,  and,  after  a  desperate  resistance,  taken  on 
the  10th  of  October. 

After  the  fall  of  Yarna,  the  Russian  generals  were  in  hopes  of  being 
able  to  take  Silistria,  which  had  been  blockaded  by  a  force  of  ten  thou- 
sand men  ;  but  the  approach  of  the  autumnal  storms,  the  scarcity  of  provis- 
ions and  forage,  and  the  loss  from  the  ravages  of  the  plague  and  the  usual 
pestilential  fevers  of  autunm  —  reducing,  including  those  who  had  fallen  in 
battle,  the  effective  force  of  the  army  to  nearly  half  its  original  number — 
rendered  it  evident  that  the  reduction  of  this  place  could  not  be  undertaken 
with  any  prospect  of  success  before  the  following  spring.  The  blockade 
therefore  was  raised,  and  orders  given  to  retreat  beyond  the  Danube. 

Leaving  sufficient  forces  to  occupy  and  maintain  the  captured  fortresses, 
Wittgenstein  commenced  his  retreat  with  the  remainder  of  his  army  on  the 
15th  of  October ;  and  it  was  conducted  with  so  much  secresy,  that  the 
Turks  for  some  days  were  not  aware  of  what  was  going  on,  and  he  at  first 
sustained  very  little  molestation.  But  this  did  not  long  continue.  On  the 
19th,  the  rear-guard  was  attacked  by  eight  thousand  Turkish  horse ,  and, 
though  they  kept  their  ground  till  the  third  corps,  which  was  defiling,  had 
got  through,  this  was  only  done  at  a  very  heavy  loss.  After  this,  as  the 
weather  every  day  became  worse,  the  retrograde  movement  became  emi- 
nently disastrous.  Eye-witnesses  of  both  compared  it  to  the  retreat  from 
Moscow.  The  Turkish  roads,  bad  at  all  times,  had  been  rendered  all  but 
impassable  by  the  ceaseless  passage  of  artillery  and  carriages  over  them 
during  the  summer,  and  the  heavy  rains  of  autumn.  Caissons  and  baggage 
were  abandoned  at  every  step ;  the  stragglers  nearly  all  fell  into  the  ene- 
my's hands,  by  whom  they  were  instantly  massacred ;  and  Wittgenstein 
experienced,  in  his  turn,  the  disasters  which  he  had  inflicted  on  Napoleon's 
army  during  the  retreat  from  Yitepsk  to  the  Beresina  in  1812.  At  length 
the  wearied  columns  reached  the  Danube,  which  they  immediately  crossed, 
and  spread  themselves  in  winter  quarters  over  Wallachia.     Thus  ended  in 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  NICHOLAS  I.  653 

Europe  the  campaign  of  1828,  in  which  the  Russians,  with  the  exception 
of  the  occupation  of  Wallacliia  and  Moldavia  (which  were  abandoned  by 
the  Turks  without  resistance),  and  the  reduction  of  Brahilov  and  Varna, 
had  made  no  sensible  progress.  Both  parties,  after  it  was  over,  found 
themselves  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  mutually  exhausted  by  the  most 
urgent  efforts. 

The  campaign  in  Asia  during  the  same  year,  though  conducted  on  the 
part  of  the  Russians  with  much  smaller  forces,  was  attended  with  much 
more  decisive  results.  The  force  under  Paskiewitch,  who  commanded  the 
army  in  Asia,  was  but  about  twenty  thousand  infantry  and  five  thousand 
cavalry,  less  than  half  of  which  was  under  the  immediate  direction  of  the 
commander-in-chief,  and  achieved  all  the  successes  of  the  campaign ;  the 
remainder  being  destined  to  subordinate  operations,  intended  chiefly  to  dis- 
tract the  attention  of  the  enemy  from  the  main  object  of  attack  by  the  for- 
mer. With  this  force  Paskiewitch  pushed  his  way  from  Caucasus  and 
Ararat  into  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  took  by  storm  the  strong  fortress  of  Kars, 
one  of  the  most  formidable  in  Asia,  and  the  central  point  of  Turkish  Ar- 
menia, with  all  its  arms  and  ammunition,  and  seven  thousand  prisoners. 
After  this,  several  other  fortresses  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians ;  so 
that,  besides  obtaining  possession  of  Mingrelia  and  Imeritia,  the  whole 
pachalic  of  Bajazid,  as  far  as  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  was  conquered. 
The  entire  loss  of  the  Russians  in  this  campaign,  by  disease  as  well  as  the 
sword,  was  about  three  thousand. 

The  winter  of  1828-'29  was  actively  employed  by  both  the  Russians  and 
the  Turks  in  preparing  for  the  opening  of  the  next  campaign.  We  have 
before  remarked  that  tlie  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  Russians  Avho 
had  crossed  the  Danube  during  the  preceding  campaign  had  melted  away 
before  its  close  to  half  that  number  by  fatigue,  sickness,  and  the  sword. 
These  were  reinforced  by  seventy  thousand  fresh  troops,  including  twenty 
thousand  hardy  Cossacks  ;  so  that  the  Russians  commenced  the  campaign 
in  Europe,  in  the  beginning  of  1829,  with  at  least  one  hundred  and  fifty 
tliousand  effective  men,  in  Bulgaria  and  on  the  line  of  the  Danube. 

Some  minor  operations  were  undertaken  during  the  winter  by  the  Rus- 
sian generals,  to  which  they  were  tempted  by  the  growing  superiority  of 
their  forces.  The  Turkish  entrenched  })osts  at  Kale  and  Turnoid,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Danube,  were  attacked  and  taken  —  the  first  on  January 
24,  and  the  latter  February  11.  This  success  led  to  the  capture  of  a  flo- 
tilla of  thirty  gun-boats  on  the  Danube,  near  Nicopolis,  a  few  days  after, 
which  gave  them  the  entire  command  of  that  portion  of  the  river.  A  still 
more  important  acquisition  was  the  castle  of  Sizepolis,  a  stronghold  situ- 
ated on  a  rock  projecting  into  the  BUick  sea,  a  little  to  the  south  of  the 
bay  of  Bocergas,  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Balkan.  It  yielded  in  a  few 
hours  to  the  cannonade  of  some  Russian  vessels-of-war,  the  garrison,  con- 
sisting of  one  thousand  Albanians,  having  evacuated  the  place.  The  cap- 
ture of  this  little  Gibraltar  secured  to  the  Russians  a  position  on  the  sea- 


654  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

coast,  within  the  line  of  the  Balkan,  and  a  means  of  communication  between 
the  invading  army  on  land  and  their  fleet  on  the  Black  sea. 

The  decided  superiority  of  the  Russians  at  sea,  in  both  the  Mediterra- 
nean and  the  Euxine,  gave  them  a  very  great  advantage,  which  threatened 
to  starve  Constantinople  itself  into  an  early  submission,  and  deprived  the 
Turks  of  all  possil)ility  of  transporting  their  troops  or  magazines  by  water. 
Admiral  Greig,  with  nine  sail-of-the-lino,  five  frigates,  and  twenty-eight 
corvettes,  carrying  fifteen  hundred  and  fifty  guns,  blockaded  the  Bospho- 
rus ;  while  Admiral  Hamelin  (the  present  commander  of  the  French  divis- 
ion of  the  allied  fleet  in  the  Euxine,  now  acting  against  Russia),  with  eight 
sail-of-the-line,  seven  frigates,  and  seventeen  corvettes,  shut  in  the  Darda- 
nelles. The  Turks  and  Egyptians,  whose  marine  had  been  totally  ruined 
by  the  battle  of  Navarino,  had  no  force  capable  of  meeting  these  fleets. 
Thus  the  entire  command  of  the  sea,  with  all  its  inestimable  consequences, 
fell  to  the  Russians  during  the  remainder  of  the  war. 

The  success  of  Wittgenstein,  in  the  preceding  campaign  against  the 
Turks  in  Europe,  had  not  been  such  as  to  justify  his  being  retained  in  the 
command,  and  he  was  accordingly  allowed  to  retire — a  step  deemed  proper 
also  from  his  age  and  infirmities.  He  was  succeeded  by  Count  Diebitch, 
the  chief  of  his  staff,  whose  abilities  and  success  in  the  succeeding  cam- 
paign fully  justified  the  emperor's  choice ;  for,  although  the  Turkish  army 
was  greatly  reinforced,  and  under  the  command  of  officers  of  high  renown 
and  unquestionable  bravery,  both  the  Russian  generals,  Diebitch  and  Pas- 
kiewitch,  proved  too  much  for  them. 

Paskiewitch,  who  conducted  the  campaign  in  Asia,  with  a  force  which 
never  could  muster  twenty  thousand  combatants  in  the  field,  achieved  ex 
traordinary  successes.  In  the  space  of  four  months,  from  June  to  Octobei-, 
to  briefly  sum  them  up,  he  marched  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  through 
hostile  countries  ;  beat  and  dispersed  three  Turkish  armies,  each  double  the 
strength  of  his  own  ;  carried  by  storm  several  entrenched  camps  and  four 
strong  fortresses  ;  conquered  Erzeroum,  the  capital  of  Asia  Minor,  and  two 
entire  pachalics  ;  took  two  hundred  and  sixty  pieces  of  cannon  and  sixty- 
five  standards,  and  made  prisoners  the  Turkish  general-in-chief  and  three 
thousand  soldiers.  The  sharpest  contest  of  the  Asiatic  campaign  was  oc- 
casioned by  the  pacha  of  Van's  attempt  to  retake  tlie  fortress  of  Bajazid. 
The  attack  was  made  with  seven  thousand  infantry  and  five  thousand  cav- 
alry, aided  by  the  fire  from  a  battery  on  a  range  of  rocks,  which  swept  the 
Russian  troops  on  the  flank  and  rear,  and  the  fire  of  musketry  from  the 
Tartar  quarter  of  the  place.  After  thirty-two  hours  of  incessant  fighting, 
the  Turks  retreated.  The  brilliant  successes  of  Paskiewitch  were  achieved 
with  the  loss  of  only  four  thousand  men  in  killed,  wounded,  prisoners,  and 
by  sickness  —  a  number  singularly  small,  when  it  is  considered  that,  during 
the  whole  course  of  the  campaign,  the  plague  raged  in  several  of  the  towns 
which  were  taken. 

The  campaign  in  the  European  provinces  was  quite  as  successful  to  the 


HISTORIC  SUJyiMARy — NICHOLAS  I.  655 

Russian  arms.  The  invading  army  under  Diebitch  crossed  the  DanuV)e 
from  the  8tli  to  the  lOtli  of  May,  in  two  columns,  at  Hirchova  and  Kala- 
vatsh,  immediately  below  Silistria.  The  latter  place  was  at  once  invested 
by  thirty-five  thousand  Russians,  with  eighty-eight  pieces  of  cannon,  while 
a  covering  or  reserve  army,  of  upward  of  forty  thousand,  was  stationed 
a  little  in  advance  toward  Schumla.  Silistria  has  acquired  an  additional 
interest  from  the  ineffectual  attempt  of  the  Russians  to  capture  it,  at  an 
immense  sacrifice  of  life,  in  1854.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Danube,  near  tlie  commencement  of  its  delta,  and  in  1829  contained  thirty 
thousand  inhabitants,  six  thousand  of  whom  were  among  the  armed  defend- 
ers of  the  place.  It  was  at  that  time  imperfectly  fortified  ;  and  such  had 
been  the  supineness  of  the  Turks  during  the  winter,  that  no  attempts  had 
been  made  to  injure  or  demolish  the  approaches  made  by  the  Russians 
during  the  campaign  of  the  preceding  year  :  so  that,  when  they  returned  on 
this  occasion,  they  marched  into  the  old  works  and  trenches,  as  if  they 
only  had  evacuated  them  the  preceding  day !  The  garrison,  exclusive  of 
the  armed  inhabitants,  was  nearly  ten  thousand,  commanded  by  Achmet 
Pacha,  a  man  of  determined  resolution  and  tried  ability. 

Diebitch  prosecuted  the  siege  of  tliis  fortress  with  the  utmost  vigor, 
while  a  powerful  flotilla,  issuing  from  the  upper  part  of  the  river,  cut  the 
besieged  off  from  all  communication  by  water  on  the  west.  But  the  Turks 
made  a  vigorous  resistance,  and  recourse  was  of  necessity  had  to  the  tedi- 
ous processes  of  sap  and  mine. 

During  the  progress  of  the  investment  of  Silistria,  a  battle  was  fought, 
on  the  11th  of  June,  at  Kulewtscha,  about  midway  between  Silistria  and 
Schumla,  between  the  Russian  reserve  under  Diebitch  (who  had  left  the 
prosecution  of  the  siege  meanwhile  to  General  Krasowsky)  and  forty  thou- 
sand Turks  under  Reschid  Pacha,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  Ottoman 
forces.  This  engagement  continued  for  eight  hours,  and  finally  resulted 
in  the  discomfiture  of  the  Turks,  who  retreated  in  confusion,  and  by  a  cir- 
cuitous route  succeeded  in  re-entering  Schumla. 

The  expedition,  which  resulted  in  this  battle,  retarded  but  did  not  sus- 
pend the  siege  of  Silistria.  On  the  return  of  Diebitch,  active  operations 
were  resumed.  The  garrison,  however,  continued  to  hold  out  till  the  night 
of  the  30th  of  June,  when  a  great  mine  under  the  rampart  having  been 
exploded,  made  a  yawning  breach  in  it,  which,  by  the  concentric  fire  of 
the  Russian  artillery,  was  soon  rendered  practicable  for  storming.  Seeing 
furtlier  resistance  hopeless,  Achmet  Pacha,  whose  ammunition  was  now 
almost  expended,  agreed  to  surrender.  The  troops,  to  the  number  of  eight 
thousand,  laid  down  their  arms,  and  were  made  prisoners-of-war.  The 
armed  inhabitants  were  allowed  to  retire  without  their  arms^  but  none  of 
them  availed  themselves  of  the  permission. 

General  Diebitch  now  determined  on  the  daring  step  of  passing  the 
Balkan,  in  preference  to  the  alternative  of  undertaking  another  siege  to 
secure  more  effectually  his  line  of  communication.     His  plan  being  formed 


656  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

accordingly,  he  invested  Schumla  with  ten  thousand  men  under  Krasow- 
sky.  Reschid  Pacha,  the  grand  vizier,  in  expectation  of  an  immediate  as- 
sault, recalled  a  portion  of  his  troops  from  the  mountain-passes,  to  aid  in 
the  defence  of  a  position  on  which,  in  his  opinion,  everything  depended. 
The  defenders  of  the  Balkan  being  thus  seriously  diminished,  the  Russian 
forces,  to  the  number  of  twenty-one  thousand,  were  enabled  to  force  their 
passage  across  the  mountains.  The  figurative  comparison  of  the  number 
of  Diebitch's  army  to  the  leaves  of  the  forest,  which  had  been  spread  by 
the  reports  of  the  Bulgarians,  acted  like  magic.  The  Turkish  army,  twenty 
thousand  strong,  deceived  by  these  exaggerated  accounts,  retired  to  the 
ridge  of  low  hills,  twenty-five  miles  in  front  of  Constantinople,  which  had 
so  often  in  ancient  times  served  as  a  barrier  against  the  northern  barba- 
rians. The  Russian  general,  thus  having  an  unobstructed  route,  resolved 
on  pushing  on  to  Adrianople.  Leaving  a  force  at  different  points  to  se- 
cure his  line  of  communications,  he  advanced  by  forced  marches,  and 
encamped  before  that  ancient  city  on  the  19th  of  August.  No  preparations 
for  the  defence  of  Adrianople  had  been  made,  and  a  hasty  capitulation 
enabled  the  Russians  to  enter  the  town  on  the  following  morning. 

The  better  to  subsist,  and  also  to  augment  the  report  of  the  magnitude 
and  invincibility  of  his  forces,  the  Russian  general,  like  Napoleon  after  the 
battle  of  Jena,  and  with  similar  success,  spread  them  out  from  the  centre 
at  Adrianople,  like  a  fan,  in  every  direction.  Wliile  the  advanced  guards 
were  pushed  on  the  high-road  to  within  eighty  miles  of  Constantinople,  tlie 
left  wing,  under  Rudiger,  advanced  and  took  Midiah,  within  sixty-five 
miles  of  the  Bosphorus,  where  it  entered  into  communication  with  Admiral 
Greig's  squadron  ;  and  the  right,  under  General  Sicorre,  moved  forward 
by  Trajanopolis  on  Enos,  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  met  the  fleet  of  Admi- 
ral Heiden,  which  was  at  anchor,  expecting  them,  in  the  bay.  At  the 
same  time,  Krasowsky,  by  repeated  attacks,  so  imposed  upon  the  garrison 
of  Schumla,  that,  so  far  from  thinking  of  disquieting  these  movements,  they 
deemed  themselves  fortunate  to  be  able  to  preserve  their  own  redoubts ! 
Thus  the  Russian  army  extended  from  the  Euxine  to  the  Mediterranean, 
across  the  entire  breadth  of  Turkey,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  forty 
miles,  and  was  supported  by  a  powerful  fleet  at  the  extremity  of  either 
flank  ;  while  at  the  same  time  its  reserve  blockaded  eighteen  thousand  men 
in  Schumla,  and  its  advanced  guard  menaced  Constantinople.  But  the 
strength  of  their  army  was  not  equal  to  so  great  an  expansion  of  its  force, 
and-  was  in  reality  on  the  verge  of  a  most  terrible  catastrophe.  In  the 
middle  of  September,  the  force  under  Diebitch  at  Adrianople  did  not  ex- 
ceed fifteen  thousand  men  ! 

An  extraordinary  impression  was  produced  by  these  decisive  events, 
both  at  Constantinople  and  over  Europe.  The  terror  in  the  Turkish  capi- 
tal was  extreme ;  for  the  Christians  apprehended  an  immediate  massacre 
from  the  infuriated  mussulmans,  and  the  latter  were  not  less  apprehensive 
of  extermination  from  the  avenging  swords  of  the  victorious  Muscovites. 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  NICHOLAS  I.  657 

The  sultan  (]\ralimoud  IV.)  was  besieged  at  one  time  by  the  violent  Otto- 
mans, urging  the  arming  of  all  the  followers  of  "  the  prophet,"  and  the  most 
severe  measures  against  the  Christians ;  at  another,  with  the  most  urgent 
entreaties  from  the  latter,  supported  by  the  earnest  representations  of  the 
western  embassadors,  to  yield  to  necessity,  and  avert  the  threatening  dan- 
gers by  an  immediate  concession  of  the  demands  of  Russia.  Their  efforts, 
joined  to  the  exaggerated  reports  of  Diebitch's  force,  who  was  repre- 
sented as  being  at  the  gates  of  the  capital  at  the  head  of  sixty  thousand 
men,  at  length  overcame  the  firmness  of  the  grand  seignior,  and,  with  tears 
in  his  eyes,  he  agreed  to  the  treaty  of  Adrianople — one  of  the  most  re- 
nowned in  the  Russian,  as  it  was  one  of  the  most  disastrous  in  the  Turk- 
ish annals. 

By  tliis  celebrated  treaty  the  emperor  of  Russia  restored  to  the  Sublime 
Porte  the  two  principalities  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  and  all  the  con- 
quered places  in  Bulgaria  and  Roumelia,  with  the  exception  of  the  islands 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  which  were  reserved  to  Russia.  All  conquests 
in  Asia  Minor  were  in  like  manner  restored  to  Turkey,  excepting  the  for- 
ti'esses  of  Anapa,  Poll,  Akhalzikh,  Abzkow,  and  Akhalkalaki,  which,  with 
a  considerable  territory  round  them,  were  ceded  to  Russia,  and,  in  a  mili- 
tary point  of  view,  constituted  most  important  acquisitions.  All  the  privi- 
leges and  immunities  secured  by  former  treaties  were  ratified  in  their  fullest 
extent  by  articles  five  and  six.  An  entire  and  unqualified  amnesty  was 
provided  for  all  political  offenders  in  every  part  of  the  Turkish  dominions. 
The  passage  of  the  Dardanelles  was  declared  open  to  all  Russian  merchant- 
vessels,  as  well  as  those  of  all  nations  at  peace  with  the  Sublime  Porte, 
with  all  guaranties  requisite  to  secure  to  Russia  the  undisturbed  navigation 
of  the  Black  sea. 

The  indemnity  to  be  awarded  to  Russian  subjects  complaining  of  arbi- 
trary acts  of  the  Turkish  government  was  one  and  a  half  millions  of  Dutch 
ducats,  or  nearly  four  millions  of  dollars,  payable  in  eighteen  months  ;  and 
that  to  the  Russian  government,  for  the  expenses  of  the  war,  was  ten  mil- 
lions of  ducats,  or  about  twenty-five  millions  of  dollars.  The  evacuation 
of  the  Turkish  terj-itories  was  to  take  place  progressively  as  the  indemnity 
was  discharged,  and  not  to  be  completed  till  it  was  entirely  paid  up. 

Another  convention,  signed  the  same  day,  of  still  greater  eventual  im- 
portance, determined  the  respective  rights  of  the  parties  to  Wallachia  and 
Moldavia.  It  provided  that  the  hospodars  of  these  provinces  should  be 
elected  for  life,  and  not,  as  heretofore,  for  seven  years ;  that  the  pachas 
and  officers  of  the  Porte  in  the  adjoining  provinces  were  not  to  be  at  lib- 
erty to  intermingle  in  any  respect  in  their  concerns  ;  that  the  middle  of 
the  Danube  was  to  be  the  boundary  between  them  to  the  junction  of  that 
river  with  the  Pruth  ;  and,  "  the  better  to  secure  the  future  inviolability 
of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  the  Sublime  Porte  engaged  not  to  maintain 
any  fortified  post  or  any  mussulman  establishment  on  tlie  north  of  the 
Danube ;  that  the  towns  situated  on  the  left  bank,  including  Giurgeva, 

42 


658  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OP  RUSSIA. 

should  be  restored  to  Wallachia,  and  their  fortifications  never  repaired  ; 
and  all  mussulmans  holding  possessions  on  the  left  bank  were  to  be  bound 
to  sell  them  to  the  natives  in  the  space  of  eighteen  months.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  hospodars  was  to  be  entirely  independent  of  Turkey  ;  and  they 
were  to  be  liberated  from  the  quota  of  provisions  they  had  hitherto  been 
bound  to  furnish  to  Constantinople  and  the  fortresses  on  the  Danube.  They 
were  to  be  occupied  by  the  Russian  troops  till  the  indemnity  was  fully  paid 
up,  for  which  ten  years  were  allowed ;  and  to  be  relieved  of  all  tribute  to 
the  Porte  during  their  occupation,  and  for  two  years  after  it  had  ceased." 

Though  the  campaigns  of  1828-'29  terminated  to  the  disadvantage  of 
Turkey,  they  are  yet  eminently  calculated  to  modify  the  ideas  generally 
entertained  as  to  the  great  power  of  Russia  in  aggressive  warfare,  as  well 
as  to  evince  the  means  of  defence,  in  a  military  point  of  view,  which  the 
Ottoman  dominions  possess.  The  Turks  began  the  war  under  the  greatest 
possible  disadvantages.  Their  land  forces  had  been  exhausted  by  seven 
bloody  campaigns  with  the  Greeks ;  their  marine  ruined  in  the  battle  of 
Navarino  ;  their  enemies  had  the  command  of  the  Euxine  and  the  ^gean  ; 
the  interior  lines  of  communication  in  their  empire  were  cut  off;  the  Jani- 
zaries, the  military  strength  of  the  state,  had  been  in  part  destroyed,  in  part 
alienated ;  and  only  twenty  thousand  of  the  regular  troops,  intended  to 
replace  them,  were  as  yet  clustered  round  the  standards  of  the  prophet. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Russians  had  been  making  their  preparations  for 
six  years  ;  they  had  enjoyed  fourteen  years  of  European  peace  ;  and  a  hun- 
dred and  twenty  thousand  armed  men  awaited  on  the  Pruth  the  signal  to 
march  to  Constantinople.  Yet,  with  all  these  disadvantages,  the  scales 
hung  all  but  even  between  the  contending  parties.  Varna  was  only  taken 
in  the  first  campaign  in  consequence  of  the  Russians  having  the  command 
of  the  sea ;  the  Balkan  passed  in  the  second,  from  the  grand  vizier  having 
been  out-generaled  by  the  superior  skill  of  Diebitch.  Even  as  it  was,  it 
was  owing  to  treachery  and  disaffection  that  the  daring  march  to  Adrian- 
ople  did  not  terminate  in  a  disaster  second  only  to  the  Moscow  retreat. 

The  Polish  revolution  is  the  next  important  event  in  the  history  of  Rus- 
sia. Although  the  immediate  cause  of  this  revolution  was  severe  punish- 
ment inflicted  on  pupils  of  the  military  academy  at  Warsaw,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  Poles  were  encouraged  to  make  the  attempt  by  the  success 
that  attended  the  Parisians  in  July,  1830,  to  secure  to  themselves  a  con- 
stitutional government.  Accordingly,  on  tlie  19th  of  November  following, 
the  military  cadets  and  students  of  Warsaw,  joined  by  the  Polish  troops, 
seized  the  arsenal,  with  forty  thousand  stand  of  arms,  and  the  insurrection 
became  general.  On  the  next  morning,  forty  thousand  troops  and  citizens 
were  in  arms,  and  the  Russians  were  expelled  from  the  capital.  January 
24, 1831,  the  Polish  diet,  which  had  been  opened  on  the  18th  of  December, 
declared  the  absolute  independence  of  Poland,  and  the  termination  of  the 
Russian  dominion ;  and,  on  the  25th,  that  the  Polish  throne  was  vacant. 
The  object  of  the  Polish  revolutionists,  however,  was  not  to  withdraw  them- 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  NICHOLAS  I.  659 

selves  entirely  from  the  authority  of  the  Russian  emperor,  but  only  to  main- 
tain the  privileges  that  were  guarantied  to  them  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
in  1815,  and  to  get  rid  of  the  tyrannous  viceroyship  of  the  grand-duke  Con- 
stantino.* Nevertheless,  they  had  now  drawn  the  sword ;  and,  although 
two  commissioners  were  sent  to  St.  Petersburg,  to  endeavor  to  effect  an 
arrangement,  the  emperor  refused  to  listen  to  them,  and  denounced  the 
revolted  Poles  as  traitors  to  whom  no  lenity  would  be  shown. 

Marshal  Diebitch,  who  had  so  successfully  conducted  the  war  with  the 
Turks,  entered  Poland  at  the  head  of  a  large  army.  He  advanced  as  far 
as  Warsaw,  and  was  victorious  over  the  Poles  near  the  walls  of  their  capi- 
tal, February  25,  1831  (the  loss  of  the  Poles  is  stated  to  have  been  five 
thousand  five  hundred,  and  that  of  their  enemies  four  thousand  five  hun- 
dred) ;  but  when  Prince  Radzivil  resigned  the  command  on  the  28th,  and 
Skrzynecki,  then  only  a  colonel,  was  appointed  in  his  place,  the  Polisli 
cause  gained  strength.  This  brave  officer,  though  finally  unsuccessful,  like 
the  heroic  Kosciusko,  proved  that  he  deserved  a  better  fate.  On  the  31st 
of  March  he  was  victorious  over  the  Russians  in  a  night  attack.  He  ad- 
vanced cautiously,  and,  favored  by  the  darkness  of  the  night,  reached  their 
cantonments  without  being  perceived.  The.  advanced  guard  of  General 
Geismar,  consisting  of  eight  or  ten  thousand  men,  was  first  attacked,  and 
almost  wholly  destroyed :  the  Poles  took  four  thousand  prisoners  and  six- 
teen pieces  of  cannon.  Immediately  afterward  he  attacked  General  Rosen, 
who  was  posted  with  twenty  thousand  men  at  Dembe  Wielski,  and  obliged 
him  to  retreat,  with  the  loss  of  two  thousand  prisoners  and  nine  pieces 
of  cannon. 

Another  important  victory  was  afterward  gained  near  Zelechow,  when 
twelve  thousand  Russians  were  killed,  wounded,  or  taken  prisoners,  with 
twelve  pieces  of  cannon.  During  this  action,  the  Lithuanians  and  Volhyn- 
ians,  who  served  in  the  Russian  army,  turned  their  arms  against  the  Rus- 
sians, and  materially  contributed  to  the  success  of  the  Poles. 

The  peasants  in  various  quarters  of  Poland  now  took  an  active  part  in 
the  war,  and  hastened,  with  whatever  weapons  they  could  obtain,  to  the 
army.  Insurrections  broke  out  in  Lithuania,  Volhynia,  Kowno,  Wilna, 
in  the  Ukraine,  and  even  in  ancient  Poland,  as  far  as  Smolensk.  On  the 
other  hand.  General  Dwernicki,  who  had  been  sent  to  make  a  demonstra- 
tion in  the  rear  of  the  Russians,  and  who  had  been  victorious  over  them, 
was  at  last  compelled  to  pass  into  the  Austrian  dominions,  where  he  sur- 
rendered to  the  authorities  of  that  country,  April  27,  with  five  thousand 
Poles.     The  ardor  of  the  people,  however,  still  continued,  and  hopes  were 

*  The  following  anecdote  is  well  suited  to  give  an  idea  of  the  gentleness  of  Constantine's  chaiac- 
ter.  During  a  grand  review,  he  wished  to  give  a  foreigner  of  distinction  a  remarkable  proof  of  the 
respect  in  which  discipline  was  held  by  the  soldiers.  With  this  view,  he  approached  one  of  the 
generals  of  the  service,  and,  without  a  word  of  reprimand  or  advice,  pierced  his  right  foot  with 
his  sword.  The  unfortunate  man  did  not  move:  it  was  only  when  tlie  grand-duke  had  withdrawn 
his  weapon,  the  blood  flowing  abundantly,  that  he  allowed  himself  to  fall  down  !  Facts  of  this 
kind,  in  a  sufficient  number,  amply  attest  the  ferocity  of  the  viceroy  of  Poland. 


660  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

entertained  in  every  country  that  the  manly  resistance  of  the  Poles  would 
induce  other  governments  to  interfere ;  but,  unfortunately,  Prussia  and 
Austria,  being  themselves  in  possession  of  a  part  of  the  spoils  of  Poland, 
did  all  in  their  power  to  prevent  interference,  for  fear  of  popular  risings 
in  Posen  and  Galicia ;  while  France  was  too  timid  and  cautious  under 
Louis  Philippe,  and  Great  Britain  was  too  much  absorbed  with  domestic 
politics  and  the  spirit  of  trade,  to  render  essential  aid.  The  military  oper- 
ations on  the  part  of  the  Russians  were  now  prosecuted  with  new  vigor ; 
and  the  emperor,  who,  in  a  manifesto  addressed  to  the  Russians,  had  called 
them  the  legitimate  masters  of  the  Poles,  was  ready  to  make  every  sacrifice 
to  regain  the  Polish  throne. 

The  fate  of  the  revolutionists  was  soon  afterward  decided.  After  two 
days'  fighting,  Warsaw  was  taken  by  the  Russians  (September  7,  1831)  : 
the  confiscation  of  their  property  and  exile  to  Siberia  followed  as  noted  on 
a  previous  page.  Though  many  found  an  asylum  in  France,  England,  and 
other  countries,  they  were  mostly  in  extreme  poverty,  and  were  dependent 
on  the  benevolence  of  those  who  pitied  their  hard  fate  while  they  admired 
their  patriotism.  An  imperial  ukase,  issued  March  17,  1832,  abolished 
the  kingdom  of  Poland  and  its  constitution,  and  incorporated  it  with  Rus- 
sia as  a  province.  The  university  of  Warsaw  was  also  suppressed,  as  a 
punishment  for  the  part  taken  by  the  students  in  the  insurrection. 

When  Poland  had  succumbed,  another  formidable  adversary  confronted 
the  Muscovite  autocrat.  We  allude  to  the  cholera,  which  made  every- 
where horrible  ravages.  At  St.  Petersburg,  a  belief  prevailed  among  the 
ignorant  populace  that  the  epidemic  was  generated  by  poison  thrown  into 
the  wells  by  Poles.  The  rumor  attained  wide  credence,  and  the  peasants, 
to  the  number  of  some  eighty  thousand,  rose,  and,  wild  with  rage,  paraded 
the  streets,  assassinating  every  foreigner  they  met.  They  assembled  a<^ 
length  in  the  Place  Siennaia,  and,  with  frightful  cries  of  fury  and  drunk- 
enness, menaced  the  capital  with  rebellion.  This  was  so  much  the  more 
to  be  dreaded,  as  at  the  moment  there  were  no  troops  at  hand.  While  the 
riot  was  at  its  highest  pitch,  and  the  excitement  most  dangerous,  the  em- 
peror was  seen  approaching,  accompanied  by  a  single  aide-de-camp,  and 
followed  by  hardly  a  hundred  Cossacks.  He  moved  on  slowly  and  steadily 
through  the  incensed  mob_,  to  the  very  centre  of  the  insurrection,  and  there 
looking  steadfastly  around,  with  undaunted  gaze,  he  cried,  in  tones  of 
thunder :  "  Down  upon  your  knees  !  Upon  your  knees  ask  pardon  from 
your  God  —  you  must  expect  none  from  me  !" 

The  immense  prestige  which  surrounded  Nicholas  at  that  time,  com- 
bined with  such  an  exhibition  of  daring  and  courage,  together  with  the 
effect  of  the  herculean  stature,  the  imposing  mien,  and  the  mighty  and 
sonorous  voice,  struck  the  insurgents  with  such  awe,  that  they  with  one 
accord  knelt  down,  and  offered  no  resistance,  while  a  few  of  the  Cossacks 
seized  and  bound  many  of  their  number.  The  rest  dispersed  in  terror,  and 
the  rebellion  was  quelled  as  if  by  enchantment. 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  NICHOLAS  I.  661 

In  1833,  the  sultan  Malimoud  asked  the  assistance  and  protection  of 
Russia  against  the  pacha  of  Egypt,  Mehemet  Ali,  who  had  risen  in  arras 
against  him,  had  defeated  the  Turkish  forces  in  several  successive  battles, 
had  taken  possession  of  Syria,  and  even  threatened  Constantinople.  The 
emperor  Nicholas  readily  responded  to  the  call,  and  an  army  of  five  thou- 
sand Russians  encamped  upon  the  Asiatic  coast  of  the  Bosphorus,  while  a 
Russian  fleet  appeared  upon  its  waters.  As  the  price  of  the  assistance 
and  protection  thus  rendered,  and  before  the  return  of  the  Muscovite  forces 
to  their  own  country,  Russia  exacted  from  Turkey  the  offensive  and  defen- 
sive alliance  of  Unkiar  Skelessi,  by  which  both  powers  were  reciprocally 
bound  to  furnish  succor  in  case  either  were  attacked ;  while,  by  a  secret 
article  appended  thereto,  the  Sublime  Porte  was  bound  to  close  the  Dar- 
danelles against  any  power  with  whom  Russia  might  be  at  war. 

One  aim  attributed  to  the  Russian  emperor,  in  his  connection  with  Otto- 
man affairs,  was,  to  produce  a  rupture  between  France  and  England.  If 
so,  he  was,  in  a  measure,  gratified  in  1840  ;  as  the  French  government  ad- 
vanced claims  in  regard  to  Egypt  which  displeased  the  London  cabinet. 
Russia,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Great  Britain,  were  then  allied  together  in 
favor  of  the  sultan  against  the  pacha  Mehemet  Ali,  and  France  found  her- 
self isolated.  This  was  an  anomalous  and  dangerous  position.  The  sym- 
pathies of  England  and  France,  their  commercial  relations,  and  their  ad- 
vanced civilization,  required  the  union  of  the  former  with  France  rather 
than  with  Russia.  The  coalition  was  broken  in  1841,  and  a  general  treaty 
of  peace  signed  on  the  13th  of  July  by  all  the  leading  European  powers, 
which  re-established  the  inviolability  of  the  Dardanelles,  and  thus  abro- 
gated the  offensive  features  of  the  treaty  of  Unkiar  Skelessi. 

From  that  period  till  1848,  no  important  act  marked  the  influence  of 
Russia  in  the  world's  aff"airs.  At  the  news  of  the  revolution  at  Paris,  in 
February  of  that  year,  the  feelings  of  the  jemperor  Nicholas  were  of  a 
mixed  character.  On  the  one  hand,  he  rejoiced  at  Louis  Philippe's  fall, 
for  whom  he  always  professed  little  esteem,  and  whose  government  had, 
sympathized  with  the  exiled  Poles  ;  and,  on  the  other,  he  feared  the  conta- 
gion of  revolutionary  opinions  introduced  into  Poland.  His  apprehensions 
increased  when  he  learned  that  Prussia  and  Austria  shared  in  the  vast 
democratic  movement — that  Berlin  had  risen,  and  that  the  imperial  family 
with  the  obnoxious  minister  Metternich  had  been  compelled  to  flee  from 
Vienna.  The  Muscovite  czar  held  himself  in  a  waiting  posture.  He  rec- 
ognised the  republican  government  established  in  France,  and  continued 
to  keep  up  friendly  relations  with  the  German  powers  ;  but  at  the  same 
time  he  organized  formidable  armies  on  his  southern  and  western  frontiers, 
prepared  every  means  of  attack,  and  stood  ready,  arms  in  hand,  to  enter 
the  field  in  support  of  the  "  divine  right  of  kings,"  and  against  all  revo- 
lutionary movements. 

An  occasion  soon  presented  itself  in  which  he  was  called  upon  to  employ 
a  portion  of  his  troops  in  the  cause  of  monarchy.     On  the  appeal  of  the 


662  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

young  emperor  of  Austria,  Francis  Joseph,  for  aid  against  the  armies  of 
Kossuth,  Nicholas  sent  his  Cossacks  into  Hungary,  under  the  command  of 
Field-Marshal  Paskiewitch,  who,  with  overwhelming  numbers,  finally  van- 
quished the  valiant  Magyars,  because,  like  the  Poles  in  1831,  the  Hunga- 
rians quarrelled  among  themselves  in  presence  of  the  enemy,  and  of  which 
the  Russian  commanders  were  not  slow  to  take  advantage.  The  ukase  in 
which  the  czar  announced  that  he  should  intervene  for  the  assistance  of 
Austria  in  this  contest,  was  dated  April  26, 1849.  The  chief  reason  given 
for  so  doing  was  the  danger  to  which  the  Russian  dominions  must  them- 
selves be  exposed  from  the  triumph  of  the  Magyars,  with  the  large  number 
of  Polish  refugees  said  to  be  engaged  in  their  forces ;  another  motive  was, 
however,  also  assigned,  namely,  the  mission  of  Russia  to  restore  religious 
and  political  orthodoxy  to  the  bewildered  and  disorganized  nations  of  Eu- 
rope. The  Russian  forces  were  put  in  motion  simultaneously  with  this 
ukase.  In  all,  some  two  hundred  thousand  men  were  employed  for  the 
purpose.  One  corps  of  from  forty  to  fifty  thousand,  under  General  Paniu- 
tin,  passed  through  Moravia  by  the  northern  railway,  and  entered  Hungary 
northwest  of  Presburg ;  two  other  corps  of  some  twenty  thousand  men 
each,  under  General  Grabbe  and  General  Sass,  entered  the  country  through 
the  northwestern  defiles  of  the  Carpathians ;  the  main  body,  under  Prince 
Paskiewitch,  a  hundred  thousand  strong,  came  through  the  central  pass  of 
the  same  range,  and  marched  down  on  the  main  road  toward  Pesth.  Gen- 
eral Liiders,  again,  invaded  Transylvania  on  the  southeast,  at  the  head  of 
twenty  thousand  men,  accompanied  by  the  remnants  of  the  Austrian  army 
of  Puchner,  under  Clam-Gallas,  a  new  leader ;  and  at  the  same  time,  another 
smaller  Russian  corps,  under  General  Grotenhelm,  came  into  that  province 
on  the  northeast.  The  Austrian  armies  were  also  recruited,  and  again  put 
in  motion  —  in  the  west  under  Marshal  Haynau,  a  general  whose  blood- 
thirsty ferocity  in  Italy  had  ajready  assured  him  an  immortality  of  infamy  ; 
in  the  southwest  under  General  Nugent ;  and  in  the  south  under  Jellachich, 
the  notorious  Ban  of  Croatia.  The  entire  force  thus  marshalled  against  this 
heroic  nation  scarcely  fell  short  of  three  hundred  thousand  men  !  Against 
them  was  the  army  of  Gorgey,  in  and  about  the  fortress  of  Comorn,  on  the 
Danube,  between  Pesth  and  Presburg,  in  all  reckoned  at  ninety  thousand ; 
that  of  Aulich,  about  Lake  Balaton,  twenty  thousand ;  that  of  Dembinski, 
in  the  north,  forty  thousand ;  that  of  Vetter,  in  the  central  region  on  the 
Danube,  forty  thousand  ;  the  corps  under  Perczel,  Kiss,  and  Guyon,  in  the 
south  and  southeast,  forty  thousand ;  and  that  of  Bem,  in  Transylvania, 
forty  thousand.  These  numbers  are  to  be  taken  as  merely  approximative : 
in  the  nature  of  the  case  the  Hungarian  ai'mies  contained  a  large  proportion 
of  irregular  volunteers,  who  came  and  went  according  to  circumstances. 
With  such  means  the  nation  awaited  the  decisive  shock,  appealing  to  God 
and  humanity  to  attest  the  justice  of  their  cause.  The  popular  enthusiasm 
was  roused  to  an  extraordinary  extent  by  the  crisis  ;  Governor  Kossuth  and 
his  friends  traversed  every  part  of  the  country  as  apostles  of  the  crusade 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  NICHOLAS   I.  663 

for  liberty,  and  the  clergy  of  all  denominations  vied  with  each  other  in  zeal 
against  the  invaders.  The  contest,  however,  was  prolonged  for  some  three 
montlis  only  after  the  entry  of  the  Russians,  and  was  virtually  ended  on 
the  13th  of  August,  at  Villagos,  by  the  treacherous  surrender  of  Gorgey, 
with  his  entire  army,  to  Paskiewitch.  This  was  followed  by  the  surrender 
of  all  the  strongholds  in  the  hands  of  the  Hungarians.  Kossuth,  Guyon 
(since  commander-in-chief  of  the  Tui'kish  army  in  Asia),  Bem,  Dembinski, 
Perczel,  and  other  eminent  officers,  with  some  five  thousand  troops,  found 
an  asylum  in  Turkey. 

There  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  the  Russian  emperor's  gold  played  a 
prominent  part  in  the  closing  scenes  of  the  ill-fated  Hungarian  revolution. 
Nicholas,  so  far  as  is  known,  asked  no  compensation  from  the  Austrian 
emperor  for  this  great  service  ;  he  seemed  to  have  lent  his  soldiers  and  his 
money  with  perfect  disinterestedness.  It  was,  however,  a  great  stroke  of 
policy.  Russia's  preponderance  over  Germany  was  essentially  promoted 
by  this  intervention.  It  is  also  worthy  of  remark  that,  during  the  Hunga- 
rian campaign,  the  officers  and  even  the  common  soldiers  of  the  Russian 
army  treated  the  Austrian s  as  inferiors  and  menials,  showing  them  far  less 
respect  than  they  did  the  Magyars. 

These  events  bring  the  history  of  Russia  down  to  the  period  immediately' 
preceding  the  war  she  is  now  waging  with  Turkey,  France,  and  England. 
The  relations  between  Russia  and  the  Ottoman  Porte  began  to  assume  a 
threatening  aspect  some  time  before  the  final  outbreak  in  1853.  The  peo- 
ple of  the  Danubian  principalities  were  not  free  from  the  revolutionary 
contagion  of  1848,  and  a  movement  in  that  direction  commenced  in  Mol- 
davia, whence  it  extended  to  Wallachia.  It  was  finally  suppressed,  and 
an  amnesty  proclaimed  by  the  youthful  sultan,  Abdul-Medjid.  It  furnished 
a  pretext,  however,  for  the  Russian  emperor,  in  1849,  to  send  a  division 
of  his  army  across  the  Pruth,  and  occupy  the  principalities.  He  assumed 
the  right  under  a  construction  of  the  treaty  of  Balta  Liman,  of  April  of 
that  year.  This  treaty,  however,  provided  for  joint  occupation,  expressly 
stipulating  that  both  powers  should  enter  the  principalities  together,  and 
this  under  peculiar  circumstances,  with  an  equal  force.  Russia,  therefore, 
had  no  right  whatever  to  enter  them  alone.  It  was  only  after  lengthened 
negotiations  with  Great  Britain,  and  the  advance  of  a  large  Turkish  force, 
that  the  Russian  troops  were  withdrawn  in  1850. 

Misunderstandings  also  arose  between  the  two  governments  at  the  end 
of  the  Hungarian  war,  in  1849,  principally  on  account  of  certain  Poles, 
who,  after  having  fought  in  the  ranks  of  the  Hungarians,  were  among  those 
that  sought  refuge  in  Turkey,  and  were  protected  by  the  sultan.  His  re- 
fusal cither  to  expel  or  deliver  them  up  gave  great  offence  to  the  czar,  as 
also  to  the  emperor  of  Austria  in  the  case  of  the  Hungarian  refugees. 

Next  came  the  question  of  the  "holy  places"  in  Jerusalem,  where,  by 
the  influence  of  France,  certain  privileges  had  been  granted  by  the  Turkish 
government  to  Roman  catholics,  at  the  cost,  as  the  court  of  St.  Petersbui-g 


664  ILLUSTRATED  DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

believed,  of  the  eastern  or  the  orthodox  Greek  church.  Thus  the  northern 
cabinet,  which  for  years  had  been  accustomed  to  have  its  will  obeyed  at 
Constantinople,  saw  twice  in  rapid  succession  another  influence  prevail 
there.  A  conflict  between  the  Montenegrins  and  the  Turks,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  1853,  increased  the  difficulty,  as  the  hardy  mountaineers  of  Mon- 
tenegro had  for  some  time  enjoyed  the  special  protection  of  Russia  ;  and, 
at  the  instigation  of  the  latter,  Austria  now  interfered  to  prevent  their 
complete  chastisement  at  the  hands  of  Omar  Pacha.  Several  other  events 
of  inferior  importance  thickened  the  cloud ;  and  finally  it  was  decided  by 
Nicholas  to  make  an  imposing  demonstration  at  Constantinople,  without, 
however — as  it  was  announced  officially  to  other  cabinets — any  ulterior 
idea  of  war  or  conquest. 

In  the  first  days  of  February,  1853,  Prince  Menchikoflf,  the  emperor's 
minister  of  marine  —  one  of  the  most  eminent  men  at  the  court  and  in  the 
councils  of  Russia,  as  well  as  a  fervent  follower  of  the  Greek  church  and 
an  enemy  of  the  moslems — left  St.  Petersburg  on  a  mission  to  Stamboul. 
After  having  reviewed  the  Russian  fleets  at  Sevastapol  and  Odessa,  the 
prince  reached  his  destination  on  the  28th  of  February,  and  on  the  2d  of 
March  communicated  to  the  Porte  his  credentials.  The  first  act  of  diplo- 
matic hostility  began  with  the  refusal  by  the  prince  to  call  on  Fuad  Eflfendi, 
the  Turkish  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  the  most  decided  adversary  of 
Russia  in  the  councils  of  the  sultan.  The  Porte,  however,  yielded  this 
point  of  etiquette,  and  the  minister  resigned  his  office. 

The  other  courts  of  Europe,  and  especially  France,  became  uneasy  at 
these  Russian  demonstrations,  and  a  French  fleet  appeared  at  about  the 
end  of  the  month  in  the  waters  of  Greece.  England  showed  herself  less 
sensitive  at  this  period,  and  refused  to  move  her  naval  forces  in  the  Med- 
iterranean, keeping  them  anchored  at  Malta. 

>  The  first  point  debated  between  the  Russian  embassador  and  the  Porte 
was  that  of  the  holy  places  in  Palestine.  After  some  manoeuvring  on  the 
part  of  the  prince,  who  originally  wished  to  discuss  the  matter  exclusively 
with  the  Porte,  the  French  minister  came  in  and  shared  in  the  delibera- 
tions. The  whole  seemed  to  take  a  satisfactory  turn.  The  Porte  issued 
a  new  firman,  conceding  what  Menchikoff  desired,  and  putting  Russia  on 
the  same  footing  as  before  the  recent  grant  to  France. 

But  Russia  was  not  satisfied.  After  many  circumlocutions.  Prince  Men- 
chikoff, in  a  note  sent  to  the  divan  on  the  5th  of  May,  laid  down  his  ulti- 
matum. This  contained  sundry  claims  never  before  preferred  by  Russia, 
as  that  the  Porte  should  bind  itself  for  the  future  never  to  lessen  or  en- 
croach upon  any  immunities  enjoyed  ab  antiquo  by  the  Greek  church  in 
Turkey,  nor  ever  to  allow  any  otlier  Christian  creed  to  predominate  over 
it.  A  convention  to  this  effect  would  have  been  an  acknowledgment  by 
the  Porte  of  a  religious  protectorate  to  be  exercised  by  the  czar  over  its 
own  subjects.  Menchikoff  demanded  an  answer  to  these  propositions  in 
the  course  of  five  days.     The  Porte,  in  a  friendly  but  firm  tone,  refused  to 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  NICHOLAS  J.  665 

make  such  a  treaty,  as  destroying  the  sultan's  rights  of  sovereignty.  To 
this  Menchikoft'  made  an  answer,  and  thus  negotiations  became  protracted 
to  the  14th  of  May.  In  this  crisis,  Reschid  Pacha,  one  of  the  most  enlight- 
ened statesmen  of  Turkey,  was  recalled  to  the  divan.  But  this  change  did 
not  prove  propitious  to  the  interests  of  Russia ;  and,  on  the  18th  of  May, 
the  Russian  envoy  broke  off  all  further  communications  with  the  Porte,  and 
retired  to  a  steamer  waiting  for  him  in  the  harbor.  Thence  he  exchanged 
several  notes  with  Reschid  Pacha,  but,  as  they  could  not  come  to  any  un- 
derstanding, Menchikoff  left  Constantinople  on  the  21st  of  May. 

Russia,  at  the  same  time  that  she  sent  her  envoy,  began  to  gather  bodies 
of  troops  about  Odessa  and  in  Bessarabia.  After  the  departure  of  Men- 
chikoif  from  Constantinople,  Turkey  also  began  to  arm.  Count  Nessel- 
rode,  the  czar's  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  sent  a  courier  to  Constantinople 
with  a  letter  to  the  grand  vizier,  announcing  that  the  czar  fully  approved 
the  proceedings  of  his  envoy  ;  and  that  if  the  Porte  should  still  refuse  to 
subscribe  to  the  treaty  he  had  proposed,  Russian  troops  would  receive  or- 
ders to  enter  the  Turkish  principalities  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia — not 
with  the  object  of  making  war  against  the  sultan,  but  to  obtain  material 
guaranties  until  moral  ones  should  be  conceded  to  Russia  by  the  Porte. 
To  this  the  grand  vizier  answered  with  calmness  and  dignity,  maintaining 
the  grounds  of  the  first  refusal. 

The  cabinets  of  Paris  and  London,  seeing  the  gravity  of  the  case,  de- 
cided to  send  forward  their  fleets  as  a  demonstration  of  their  friendly  feel- 
ings toward  Turkey  ;  and  the  united  naval  forces  anchored,  in  the  first  part 
of  June,  in  Besika  bay,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Dardanelles.  On  the  lltli 
of  the  same  month,  the  cabinet  of  St.  Petersburg  published  a  circular  ad- 
dressed to  its  diplomatic  agents  abroad,  explanatory  of  tlie  views  of  Rus- 
sia, and  of  the  measures  already  taken  to  carry  them  out. 

On  the  25th  of  June,  the  emperor  of  Russia  issued  a  manifesto  to  his 
people,  announcing  his  purpose  to  sustain  the  religious  rights  of  the  eastern 
church,  which  he  said  were  endangered  in  Turkey.  The  Russian  troops, 
accordingly,  crossed  the  Pruth,  and  entered  the  Danubian  principalities. 
France  and  England  seemed  more  united  at  this  juncture,  and  a  certain 
irritation  prevailed  in  the  notes  now  exchanged  between  Paris  and  St.  Pe- 
tersburg. Austria  and  Prussia  remained  neutral,  and  the  first  offered  her 
friendly  mediation.  Conferences  were  opened  at  Constantinople  and  at 
Vienna  between  the  ministers  of  the  four  courts,  and  on  the  1st  of  August 
a  note  was  sent  from  Vienna  to  St.  Petersburg  and  Constantinople  offering 
terms  of  pacification.  The  czar  accepted  them,  but  the  sultan  introduced 
some  changes  and  modifications,  which  were  disapproved  at  St.  Petersburg, 
and  destroyed  the  first  conciliatory  attempts  at  diplomacy.  New  drafts, 
notes,  and  suggestions,  were  exchanged,  but  all  of  them  without  result. 
Russia  having  taken  possession  of  Jassy  and  Bucharest,  the  capitals  of  the 
principalities,  Prince  Gorchakoff",  tlie  Russian  commander-in-chief,  suspended 
all  legal  relations  between  the  two  vassals  of  the  Porte  and  their  sovereign. 


GQQ  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION  OP  RUSSIA. 

Turkey,  in  the  meantime,  concentrated  her  army  along  the  Danube  in 
Europe,  and  on  the  frontiers  of  Georgia  in  Asia.  All  efforts  of  diplomacy 
proved  unsuccessful ;  and  finally,  in  the  beginning  of  October,  the  sultan 
issued  a  declaration  of  war  against  the  autocrat.  Omar  Pacha  (a  Croatian 
by  birth,  and  a  renegade  from  the  Austrian  service),  the  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Turkish  forces  in  Europe,  addressed  a  letter  to  Prince  Gorcha- 
koff,  requiring  him  to  evacuate  the  principalities  within  two  weeks ;  other- 
wise he  would  proceed  to  execute  the  orders  of  his  sovereign,  and  attack 
the  Russian  army.  Gorchakoflf  replied  that  he  was  under  the  imperial 
commands  to  maintain  his  position.  Omar  kept  his  word.  In  the  latter 
part  of  October  he  crossed  the  Danube  at  several  points.  The  Ottomans 
seized  the  island  of  Kalavatsh,  expelling  the  Russians  from  it,  as  well  as  the 
strong  point  of  Oltenitza  on  the  left  side  of  the  river,  where  they  repulsed 
with  great  loss  several  attacks  of  the  enemy.  At  Guirgevo,  a  point  on  the 
Danube  between  Kalavatsh  and  Oltenitza,  the  Turks  were  less  fortunate. 
But  not  so  in  Asia,  where  they  seized  Nicolaiev  and  several  other  fortified 
places  ;  and  fought  a  battle  at  Batrum,  against  Prince  Baratinski,  in  which 
both  parties  claimed  the  victory. 

On  the  water,  the  Ottoman  cause  suffered  a  great  disaster.  On  the  30th 
of  November,  a  Turkish  fleet,  consisting  of  seven  frigates,  three  corvettes, 
and  two  steamers,  conveying  warlike  stores  to  the  Asiatic  coast,  entered 
the  harbor  of  Sinope,  where  they  were  attacked  by  a  Russian  squadron  of 
six  line-of-battle-ships,  two  frigates,  and  four  steam-frigates,  under  Admiral 
Nachimolf.  After  a  gallant  contest  of  about  three  hours,  the  Turkish  ves- 
sels were  destroyed,  with  the  exception  of  one,  supposed  to  have  escaped. 
About  three  thousand  of  the  marines  were  killed,  and  an  immense  amount 
of  property  was  destroyed.  One  of  the  frigates,  that  of  the  commander, 
Osman  Pacha,  was  captured  by  the  Russians,  but  sank  at  sea  as  they  were 
towing  her  on  the  way  to  the  harbor  of  Sevastapol.  After  the  destruction 
of  the  Turkish  fleet,  the  guns  of  the  Russian  squadron  were  turned  upon 
the  town  of  Sinope,  the  principal  portion  of  which  they  reduced  to  ashes. 
The  Turks  in  this  unequal  conflict  fought  with  almost  unheard-of  bravery, 
not  a  single  vessel  liaving  struck  its  flag  during  the  whole  engagement. 

The  intelligence  of  this  affair  created  great  excitement,  not  only  at  Con- 
stantinople, but  in  Paris  and  London.  The  allied  fleets  —  consisting  of 
fourteen  English,  twelve  French,  and  five  Turkish  vessels-of-war — were 
immediately  ordered  to  enter  the  Black  sea,  for  the  purpose  of  afibrding 
protection  to  the  Porte.  The  admirals  were  instructed  to  protect  all  Turk- 
ish vessels  of  convoy,  which  were  to  keep  along  the  Ottoman  coast.  The 
British  fleet  in  the  Euxine  is  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Dundas,  and 
the  French  under  Admiral  Hamelin. 

Omar  Pacha  continued  to  occupy  Oltenitza,  notwithstanding  the  increased 
Russian  force  in  his  front,  until  the  continual  rains  so  flooded  the  country 
as  to  oblige  him  to  quit  the  low  tract  occupied  by  his  troops.  He  there- 
fore recrossed  the  Danube,  without  any  kind  of  molestation,  leaving  about 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  NICHOLAS   I.  667 

fifteen  tliousand  men  in  the  tcte-de-pont  of  Kalavatsh,  to  which  strong  en- 
trenchments liad  been  recently  added,  armed  with  guns  of  heavy  calibre, 
for  the  more  effectual  protection  of  this  passage  into  Lower  Wallacliia. 

The  four  powers,  England,  France,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  continued  ac- 
tively engaged  in  negotiating  for  peace.  A  new  diplomatic  note  was  agreed 
upon  and  forwarded  to  Constantinople,  proposing  that  the  sultan  should 
send  a  plenipotentiary  to  some  neutral  point,  to  confer  with  a  Russian  em- 
bassador—  the  integrity  of  the  Ottoman  empire  to  be  guarantied,  and  other 
points  in  dispute  to  be  adjusted,  in  conformity  with  previous  arrangements. 
The  Turkish  divan,  on  the  18th  of  December,  consented  to  open  negotia- 
tions, but  reiterated  its  former  declarations  that  the  evacuation  of  the 
principalities  should  be  a  condition  precedent  to  any  discussion  of  the 
terms  of  peace.  The  sultan  also  claimed  that,  by  the  war,  all  previously- 
existing  treaties  had  been  abrogated.  The  emperor  of  Russia  perempto- 
rily rejected  the  note  of  the  four  powers.  The  Russian  ministers  left  Paris 
and  London,  and  all  negotiations  were  broken  off,  without  any  hope  of 
renewal. 

On  the  Danube,  meantime,  fresh  engagements  took  place,  which  resulted 
favorably  for  the  Turks.  On  the  6th  of  January,  1854,  they  attacked  the 
advanced  guard  of  the  Russian  army  near  Citate,  and  followed  up  the  ad- 
vantage there  gained  for  three  days  in  succession,  finally  routing  their 
adversaries  entirely,  and  driving  them  back  upon  Krajova,  with  a  loss  of. 
several  thousand  men.  The  Turks  then  retired  to  Kalavatsh.  Several 
severe  skirmishes  subsequently  took  place,  in  which  the  mussulmans  were 
victorious. 

On  the  29th  of  January,  the  emperor  of  France  addressed  an  autograph 
letter  to  the  czar,  stating  that  the  differences  between  Russia  and  Turkey 
had  readied  such  a  point  of  gravity,  that  he  thought  it  his  duty  to  explain 
the  part  France  had  taken  on  that  question,  and  to  suggest  the  course  by 
which  he  thought  the  peace  of  Europe  could  still  be  preserved.  It  was 
not,  as  he  averred,  the  action  of  the  maritime  powers,  but  the  occupation 
of  the  principalities,  which  had  taken  the  subject  from  the  field  of  discus- 
sion into  that  of  fact.  Still,  even  that  event  .was  not  regarded  as  a  cause 
of  war ;  but  a  note  was  prepared  by  the  four  powers,  destined  to  give  com- 
mon satisfaction.  That  note  was  accepted  by  Russia,  but  commentaries 
were  immediately  added  which  destroyed  all  its  conciliatory  effect,  and 
prevented  its  acceptance  by  the  Porte.  The  sultan,  in  turn,  proposed  modi- 
fications, to  which  the  four  powers  acceded,  but  which  the  czar  rejected. 
Then  the  Porte,  wounded  in  its  dignity  and  threatened  in  its  independence, 
declared  war,  and  claimed  the  support  of  her  allies.  The  English  and 
French  squadrons  were  ordered  to  the  Bosphorus,  not  to  make  war,  but  to 
protect  Turkey.  Efforts  for  peace  were  still  continued :  other  propositions 
were  sul)nHtted  ;  and  Russia  declared  her  intention  to  remain  on  the  defen- 
sive. Up  to  that  time,  France  and  England  had  been  merely  spectators  — 
when  tlie  affair  of  Sinope  occurred,  and  forced  them  to  take  a  more  defined 


668    •  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

position.  It  was  no  longer  their  policy  that  was  checked  ;  their  military 
honor  was  wounded.  Hence  the  order  was  given  to  their  squadrons  to 
enter  the  Black  sea,  and  to  prevent  by  force,  if  necessary,  the  recurrence 
of  such  an  event.  Arrived  at  this  point,  it  was  clear  that  there  must  be 
either  a  definite  understanding  or  a  decided  rupture.  If  the  czar  desired 
a  pacific  solution,  it  was  suggested  that  an  armistice  should  be  signed,  that 
diplomatic  negotiations  should  be  resumed,  and  that  all  the  belligerent 
forces  should  retire  from  the  places  where  the  motives  of  war  had  called 
them :  the  Russian  troops  would  abandon  the  principalities,  and  the  allied 
squadron  the  Black  sea  ;  and  the  emperor  of  Russia  would  name  a  plenipo- 
tentiary to  negotiate  a  treaty  with  the  sultan,  to  be  submitted  to  the  four 
powers.  If  a  plan  should  be  adopted  on  which  France  and  England  should 
agree,  peace  would  be  restored,  and  the  world  satisfied.  If  the  czar  should 
refuse  this  proposition,  they  must  leave  to  the  fate  of  arms  and  the  hazards 
of  war  that  which  might  be  decided  by  reason  and  justice.  — This  letter  was 
regarded  rather  as  a  manifest  to  the  French  nation  than  an  appeal  to  the 
czar.  It  was  extensively  placarded,  and  issued  in  immense  numbers  in 
extra  editions  of  the  government  journal,  the  Paris  "  Moniteur." 

A  reply  to  this  autograph  letter  of  Louis  Napoleon  was  received,  in  the 
latter  part  of  March,  from  the  emperor  of  Russia.  He  rehearsed  the 
grounds  of  difference,  claiming  that  his  policy  had  been  marked  by  the 
.utmost  forbearance  and  the  most  sincere  desire  for  the  preservation  of 
peace.  His  occupation  of  the  principalities,  he  says,  was  preceded  and  in 
a  great  measure  caused  by  the  hostile  appearance  of  the  combined  fleets 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Dardanelles :  and  the  affair  of  Sinope  was  the 
consequence  of  the  impunity  with  which  the  Turks  were  allowed  to  convey 
their  troops,  arms,  and  ammunition,  to  the  Russian  coast,  for  the  prosecu- 
tion of  hostilities.  He  had  learned  from  the  French  emperor's  letter,  for 
the  first  time,  that  the  Russian  fleet  was  to  be  no  longer  allowed  in  the 
Black  sea — that  he  was  thus  to  be  prevented  from  provisioning  his  own 
coasts.  After  such  an  announcement,  he  could  not  be  expected  to  discuss 
even  for  a  moment  the  proposition  of  an  armistice,  of  the  evacuation  of  the 
principalities,  and  of  the  opening  of  negotiations  with  the  Forte.  Threats 
would  not  move  him.  His  confidence  was  in  God,  and  his  right;  and 
Russia,  he  would  guaranty,  would  show  herself  in  1854  what  she  was 
in  1812. 

An  imperial  manifesto  was  issued  to  the  people  of  Russia,  announcing 
that  France  and  Great  Britain  had  sided  with  Turkey,  and  that  the  empe- 
ror had  in  consequence  broken  off  all  intercourse  with  those  powers.  Thus, 
it  added,  England  and  France  have  sided  with  the  enemies  of  Christianity 
against  Russia  combating  for  the  orthodox  faith. 

On  the  receipt  of  this  manifesto,  M.  Drouyn  d'Lhuys,  the  French  minis- 
ter of  foreign  affairs,  issued  a  circular  to  the  French  diplomatic  agents, 
throwing  the  responsibility  of  results  upon  the  Russian  government,  which 
had  closed  the  door  to  the  last  hope  of  peace,  and  rebuking  the  emperor's 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  NICHOLAS   I.  669 

attempt  to  enlist  religious  fanaticism  on  his  behalf.  France  and  England, 
he  asserts,  do  not  support  Islamism  against  the  orthodox  Greek  faith : 
they  go  to  protect  the  integrity  of  the  Ottoman  empire  against  the  ambi- 
tious covetousness  of  Russia. 

The  witlidrawal  of  the  Russian  embassadors  from  London  and  Paris  has 
been  already  noted.  That  event  was  followed  by  a  formal  declaration  of 
war.  On  February  27,  the  earl  of  Clarendon  despatched  a  messenger  to 
St.  Petersburg  with  a  letter  declaring  that,  if  the  Russian  government  did 
not  immediately  announce  its  intention  of  ordering  its  troops  to  recross  the 
Pruth,  so  that  the  principalities  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  should  be  com- 
pletely evacuated  by  the  30th  of  April,  her  refusal  or  silence  would  be 
considered  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war,  and  the  British  government 
would  take  its  measures  accordingly.  The  messenger  was  directed  to  wait 
but  six  days  for  a  reply.  The  note  was  presented  to  Count  Nesselrode  on 
the  17th  of  March  ;  and  the  answer  returned  was,  that  "  the  emperor  did 
not  think  it  becoming  to  make  any  reply  to  it."  The  receipt  of  this  re- 
sponse led  to  the  immediate  issue,  on  the  28th  of  March,  of  the  English 
declaration  of  war. 

This  important  document  rehearsed  rapidly  the  successive  steps  in  the 
progress  of  the  difficulty,  conceding  at  the  outset  that  the  emperor  of 
Russia  had  some  cause  of  complaint  against  the  sultan  with  regard  to  the 
"  holy  places "  at  Jerusalem,  but  declaring  that  these  had  been  amicably 
adjusted  by  the  advice  of  the  British  minister ;  and  that  the  Russian  envoy, 
Prince  Menchikoff,  was  meantime  urging  still  more  important  demands, 
concerning  the  position  of  the  Christian  subjects  of  the  sultan,  which  he 
carefully  concealed  from  the  British  embassador.  These  demands  wete 
rejected,  and  the  emperor  of  Russia  immediately  sent  large  bodies  of  troops 
to  the  frontier,  and  took  possession  of  tlie  Danubian  principalities,  for  the 
purpose  of  enforcing  compliance  with  them.  The  object  sought  by  the 
czar  was  virtual  control  over  nine  millions  of  the  Christian  subjects  of  the 
sultan,  which  the  Sublime  Porte  could  not  grant  without  yielding  to  Russia 
the  substantial  sovereignty  over  its  territories.  It  was  tlierefore  refused, 
and  the  French  and  British  governments  had  felt  called  upon  —  by  regard 
for  an  ally,  the  integrity  and  independence  of  whose  empire  have  been 
recognised  as  essential  to  the  peace  of  Europe  ;  by  the  sympathies  of  their 
people  with  the  right  against  wrong ;  by  a  desire  to  avert  from  their  do- 
minions the  most  injurious  consequences,  and  to  save  Europe  from  the 
preponderance  of  a  power  which  hail  violated  the  faith  of  treaties  and 
defied  the  opinion  of  the  civilized  world  —  to  take  up  arms  for  the  defence 
of  the  sultan.  —  The  declaration  of  wai-  was  debated  i;i  parliament  at  great 
length  on  the  31st  of  March.  In  the  house  of  lords,  the  earl  of  Clarendon, 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  contended  that  the  object  of  tiic  emperor  of 
Russia  had  been  to  obtain  such  an  ascendency  and  right  of  interference  in 
Turkey  as  would  have  enabled  him  at  any  time  to  possess  himself  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  that  this  design  had  been  steadily  pursued  in  the  face  of 


670  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

the  most  distinct  and  solemn  assurances  to  the  British  government  that  he 
had  no  such  purpose  in  view.  If  he  had  been  allowed  to  carry  this  design 
into  execution,  Lord  Clarendon  thought  it  would  not  be  too  much  to  say 
that  more  than  one  western  power  would  have  been  made  to  undergo  the 
fate  of  Poland.  It  was  not  to  protect  her  trade,  nor  to  defend  her  India 
possessions,  that  Great  Britain  had  resolved  to  go  to  war.  For  neither 
of  these  objects  would  she  make  the  sacrifices  she  was  about  to  make ;  but 
it  was  to  maintain  her  honor,  and  to  sustain  the  cause  of  civilization  against 
barbarism.  Russia  had  already  reduced  several  of  the  German  powers  to 
a  state  of  virtual  dependence  upon  her,  and  it  became  absolutely  necessary 
to  place  a  check  upon  her  future  aggressions  on  the  independence  of  Eu- 
rope. Austria  and  Prussia  had  both  resolved  to  maintain  a  position  of 
complete  neutrality.  This  would  be  found,  in  the  end,  impossible ;  but, 
thus  far,  England  had  reason  to  be  perfectly  satisfied  with  the  course  they 
had  adopted,  although  she  received  no  guaranty  as  to  their  ultimate  action. 

In  France,  proceedings  in  regard  to  the  formal  declaration  of  war  took 
place,  analogous  in  all  respects  to  those  of  Great  Britain.  An  imperial 
message  was  read  to  the  chambers  on  the  27th  of  March,  announcing  that 
the  last  resolution  of  the  cabinet  of  St.  Petersburg  had  placed  Russia  in  a 
state  of  war  in  respect  to  France — a  war,  it  added,  the  responsibility  of 
which  belonged  wholly  and  entirely  to  the  Russian  government.  The  cham 
bers  unanimously  pledged  the  support  of  France  to  the  coming  contest. 

Both  the  English  and  French  governments,  in  order  to  render  the  war 
as  little  onerous  as  possible  to  the  powers  with  whom  they  remained  at 
peace,  issued  a  declaration,  waiving  the  right  of  seizing  an  enemy's  prop- 
erty laden  on  board  a  neutral  vessel,  unless  it  be  contraband  of  war ;  nor 
would  they  claim  the  confiscation  of  neutral  property,  not  being  contraband 
of  war,  found  on  board  an  enemy's  ships  ;  nor  would  they  (for  the  present) 
issue  letters  of  marque,  for  the  commission  of  privateers. 

On  the  10th  of  April,  a  convention  was  signed  at  London,  by  the  repre- 
sentatives of  France  and  England,  in  which  they  agreed  —  1.  To  do  what 
depends  on  them  to  bring  about  the  re-establishment  of  peace  between  Rus- 
sia and  the  Ottoman  Porte  on  a  solid  and  durable  basis,  and  to  guaranty 
Europe  against  the  return  of  those  lamentable  complications  wliich  have  so 
disturbed  the  general  peace.  2.  To  receive  into  their  alliance,  for  the  sake 
of  co-operating  in  the  proposed  object,  any  of  tlie  other  powers  of  Europe 
who  may  wish  to  join  it.  3.  Not  to  accept,  in  any  event,  any  overtures 
for  peace,  nor  to  enter  'into  any  arrangement  with  Russia,  without  having 
previously  deliberated  upon  it  in  common,  4.  They  renounce  in  advance 
any  particular  advantage  to  themselves  from  the  events  that  may  result. 
5.  They  agree  to  supply,  according  to  the  necessities  of  the  war,  determined 
by  a  common  agreement,  land  and  sea  forces  sufficient  to  meet  them. 

Lord  Raglan  (Henry  Fitzroy  Somerset,  aide  to  Wellington  at  Waterloo) 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  land  forces,  and  Marshal 
St.  Arnaud  those  of  tlie  French ;  and  the  two  governments  took  immediate 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  NICHOLAS   I.  671 

measures  for  despatching  a  hundred  thousand  troops  to  the  theatre  of  war 
in  the  East,  in  the  proportion  of  seventy  thousand  French  to  thirty  thou- 
sand British.  English  and  French  fleets  (the  former  under  the  command 
of  Admiral  Sir  Charles  Napier  and  the  latter  under  that  of  Admiral  Du- 
chesne), numbering  about  fifty  vessels,  and  mounting  twenty-two  hundred 
guns,  were  also  despatched  to  operate  in  the  Baltic ;  to  which  was  subse- 
quently added  a  considerable  land  force  composed  of  French  troops  alone. 
On  the  12th  of  April,  the  Russian  government  published  its  counter- 
statement  in  reply  to  the  English  declaration  of  war.  In  the  presence  of 
such  declarations  and  demands  as  those  made  to  him  by  Great  Britain  and 
France,  the  emperor  has  only  to  accept  the  situation  assigned  to  him,  re- 
serving to  himself  to  employ  all  the  means  which  Providence  has  put  in 
liis  hands,  to  defend  with  energy  and  constancy  the  honor,  the  indepen- 
dence, and  the  safety,  of  his  empire.  All  the  imputations  which  they  have 
made  against  Russia  are  declared  to  rest  on  no  foundation  whatever.  If 
their  honor  has  been  placed  in  jeopardy,  it  has  been  by  their  own  act ;  for, 
from  the  beginning,  they  have  adopted  a  system  of  intimidation,  which 
would  naturally  fail.  They  made  it  a  point  of  honor  that  Russia  should 
bend  to  them ;  and  because  she  would  not  consent  to  her  own  humiliation, 
they  say  they  are  hurt  in  their  moral  dignity.  The  policy  of  aggrandize- 
ment, which  they  attribute  to  Russia,  is  refuted  by  all  her  acts  since  1815. 
None  of  her  neighbors  have  had  to  complain  of  an  attack.  The  desire  of 
possessing  Constantinople  has  been  too  solemnly  disavowed  for  any  doubts 
to  be  entertained  on  that  point  which  do  not  originate  in  a  distrust  which 
nothing  can  cure.  Events  will  soon  decide  whether  Russia  or  the  western 
powers  have  struck  the  most  fatal  blow  at  the  independence  of  Turkey. 
The  sultan  has  already  renounced,  by  treaty,  the  distinguished  privilege 
of  every  sovereign  power,  that  of  making  peace  or  war  at  its  own  free  will ; 
and  changes  in  the  internal  policy  of  Turkey  have  already  been  exacted  far 
greater  and  far  more  fatal  to  her  independence  than  any  Russia  ever  desired 
to  secure.  It  is  for  Europe,  and  not  for  the  western  powers  alone,  to  de- 
cide whether  the  general  equilibrium  is  menaced  by  the  supposed  prepon- 
derance of  Russia  ;  and  to  consider  which  weighs  heaviest  on  the  freedom  of 
action  of  states — Russia  left  to  herself,  or  a  formidable  alliance,  the  pressure 
of  which  alarms  every  neutrality,  and  uses  by  turns  caresses  or  tlireats  to 
compel  them  to  follow  in  its  wake.  The  true  motive  of  the  war  lias  been 
avowed  by  the  British  ministry  to  be  the  abatement  of  the  influence  of 
Russia;  and  it  is  to  defend  that  influence  —  not  less  necessary  to  the  Rus- 
sian nation  than  it  is  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  the  order  and  security 
of  the  other  states — that  the  emperor,  obliged  to  embark  in  war  in  spite 
of  himself,  is  about  to  devote  all  the  means  of  resistance  which  are  fur- 
nished by  the  devotion  and  patriotism  of  his  people.  He  closes  by  denying 
that  the  responsibility  of  the  war  rests  upon  him ;  and  invokes  the  aid  of 
God,  who  has  so  often  protected  Russia  in  the  day  of  trial,  to  assist  him 
once  more  in  this  formidable  struggle 


672  ILLUSTEATED   DESCRIPTION  OF  RUSSIA. 

While  these  events  were  occurring  in  the  cabinet,  in  the  field  an  active 
warfare  was  kept  up,  but  with  comparatively  unimportant  results.  In  the 
principalities  the  Russian  forces  continued  to  prosecute  hostilities  with 
considerable  vigor,  but  in  the  actions  which  took  place,  as  has  already  been 
intimated  on  a  previous  page,  victory  seemed  most  frequently  to  rest  on  the 
banners  of  the  Turks.  Near  the  end  of  March,  fifty  thousand  Russians, 
under  General  Liiders  and  Prince  Gortchakoflf,  crossed  the  Lower  Danube, 
overpowering  the  small  forces  of  the  sultan  defending  the  banks,  and 
entered  the  Turkish  province  of  the  Dobrudschka,  the  peninsular  region 
enclosed  between  the  Danube,  the  Black  sea,  and  Trajan's  Wall.  This 
step  was  a  most  unfortunate  one  for  the  Russians  ;  for  the  avenues  through 
which  they  attempted  to  penetrate  the  country  lying  beyond  Trajan's  Wall, 
were  successfully  defended  by  the  Turks,  and  for  several  weeks  the  inva- 
ders were  locked  up  amid  the  marshes  of  the  most  unhealthy  district  in 
the  whole  of  European  Turkey,  and  exposed  to  a  malaria  thence  arising, 
which  proved  more  effectual  in  thinning  their  ranks  by  disease  and  death, 
than  the  most  sanguinary  battle  in  the  open  field.  A  passage  from  the 
Dobrudsclika,  however,  was  at  last  effected,  and  a  communication  opened 
with  the  Russian  forces  investing  Silistria ;  but  of  that  hereafter. 

On  the  frontiers  of  Asia,  in  the  Caucasus,  the  war  was  carried  on  with 
energy,  many  bloody  conflicts  taking  place,  but  here  also  without  any  deci- 
sive results.  The  Russians  were  assailed  in  the  north  by  the  Caucasian 
mountaineers,  under  the  indefatigable  and  almost  invincible  Schamyl ;  and 
in  the  south  by  the  Turks.  With  the  latter  the  Russians  were  generally 
successful,  the  Turkish  forces  having  suffered  several  severe  defeats.  The 
great  chieftain  of  the  Caucasians,  however,  was  more  fortunate  in  his  rapid 
invasions  of  the  plains,  and  at  one  time  Tiflis,  the  capital  of  Georgia,  was 
threatened  with  an  attack  by  his  mountain  followers.  But  still  no  general 
rising  of  the  Caucasian  tribes  took  place  ;  and  those  occupying  the  western 
slope  of  the  mountains,  toward  the  shores  of  the  Black  sea,  even  declined 
all  intercourse  with  Shamyl,  as  well  as  with  the  Turks  and  the  agents  of 
the  English.  This  so  crippled  the  force  and  range  of  operations  of  the 
far-famed  Caucasian  warrior  that  he  retired  into  his  inaccessible  mountain 
fastnesses,  where  at  the  latest  accounts  he  still  remained. 

The  position  of  Austria  and  Prussia  in  reference  to  the  war  continued 
to  be  a  source  of  perplexity  and  anxiety  to  the  allies.  Austria,  without 
declaring  positively  for  the  one  side  or  the  other,  began  to  cover  with 
troops  her  frontiers  toward  Turkey  and  Russia,  and  her  language  to  the 
latter  became  more  and  more  frigid  and  even  hostile.  The  Austrian  min- 
ister declared  his  government  to  be  moved  principally  by  the  fear  that  the 
crossing  of  the  Danube  by  Russia  would  be  followed  by  a  general  insur- 
rection of  the  Christian  populations  in  Turkey,  the  consequences  of  which 
would  be  incalculable ;  as  the  movement  might  extend  to  the  Austrian 
provinces  inhabited  by  Slavonic  races,  kindred  by  origin  as  well  as  religion 
to  those  of  Turkey,  most  of  them  being  believers  in  the  Greek  church. 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  NICHOLAS   I.  673 

Prussia,  however,  tried  to  preserve  a  strict  neutrality,  and,  it  may  as  well 
be  said  here,  down  to  the  death  of  Nicholas,  to  whom,  it  will  be  borne  in 
mind,  the  Prussian  king  was  related  by  marriage,  showed  no  hostility  toward 
Russia.  While  the  leaning  of  the  Prussian  chambers  and  people  has  evi- 
dently been  toward  the  side  of  the  allies,  that  of  the  court,  influenced  un- 
questionably, in  a  great  measure,  by  the  family  tie  above  alluded  to,  has 
been  as  clearly  the  other  way.  Wliether  the  loosening  of  that  tie  by 
the  sudden  demise  of  the  Russian  emperor  will  effect  any  change  in  the 
position  of  Prussia,  is  a  question  as  yet  unsolvable. 

The  Greek  insurrection,  said  to  be  fomented  by  Russian  agents,  is  an 
incident  connected  with  the  present  war  which  requires  a  passing  notice. 
Early  in  1854,  the  Christian  populations  of  Turkey,  and  especially  the 
Greeks  of  Epirus  and  Albania,  being  led  to  believe  that  the  Eastern  church 
was  menaced  by  the  pending  contest,  effected  partial  risings,  tolerated  and 
in  fact  aided  by  men,  money,  and  ammunition,  from  the  Greek  government. 
This  revolt  began  successfully  for  the  insurgents,  and  at  one  time  threat- 
ened to  become  quite  extensive  ;  but  the  western  powers  menaced  the  king 
of  Greece  with  the  loss  of  his  throne,  blockaded  the  shores  of  the  Egean 
and  the  Adriatic,  and  French  vessels  finally  entered  the  port  of  Pirseus, 
occupied  Athens,  and  compelled  the  Greek  government  to  withhold  all  sup- 
port from  the  insurgents,  who,  after  a  spirited  struggle,  finally  succumbed 
to  the  Turks,  though  outbreaks  continued  for  a  while  to  occur  in  some  of 
the  provinces.  The  Turkish  government  declared  that  all  Greek  Chris- 
tians should  be  banished  from  the  country.  The  French  minister,  Bara- 
guay  d'Hilliers,  demanded  that  an  exception  should  be  made  in  favor  of 
catholics,  who,  he  alleged,  were  under  the  protection  of  the  French  gov- 
ernment. The  demand  was  resisted  as  unreasonable,  and  the  difference 
became  so  decided  that  General  d'Hilliers  was  recalled,  and  another  em- 
bassador sent  out  by  France  in  his  stead. 

On  the  Black  sea,  the  first  hostile  movement  of  the  allied  fleets  after  the 
declaration  of  war,  was  the  bombardment  of  Odessa.  On  the  9th  of  April, 
the  English  steamer  Furious  was  sent  to  that  port  to  bring  away  the  Brit- 
ish consul.  Regardless  of  the  flag  of  truce,  under  which  she  approached, 
she  was  fired  upon  from  the  shore.  On  the  17th,  both  fleets  sailed  for 
Odessa,  and  demanded  explanations  from  the  military  governor.  These 
proving  unsatisfactory,  a  bombardment  was  commenced,  on  the  22d,  by 
five  English  and  three  French  steamers,  and  was  continued  for  several 
hours,  the  fire  being  warmly  returned  by  the  Russian  batteries.  The  Rus- 
sian vessels  in  port  were  burnt  or  sunk,  a  land  battery  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  admiralty  destroyed,  and  a  powder  magazine  blown  up.  This, 
we  sliould  add,  is  the  Anglo-French  version  of  the  afi"air.  The  Russians, 
however,  charged  the  allies  with  falsehood  in  their  statement  of  the  inci- 
dents which  led  to  the  attack,  and,  in  their  report,  represented  the  result 
as  substantially  a  Russian  victory.  The  emperor  issued  a  proclamation  to 
this  effect  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  conferred  the  order  of  St.  Andrew  upon 

43 


674  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF    RUSSIA. 

General  Osten-Sacken,  the  commander  of  the  Russian  forces  stationed  at 
Odessa,  for  his  brilliant  and  successful  defence  of  the  city. 

Shortly  after  this  ajffair  at  Odessa,  the  loss  of  the  English  frigate 
Tiger  occurred.  While  in  chase  of  two  small  Russian  vessels,  near  that 
port,  she  ran  aground,  and  in  this  defenceless  condition,  was  captured  by 
the  Russians,  and  her  crew  of  two  hundred  men,  taken  as  prisoners  into 
Odessa.  A  division  of  the  allied  fleets  was  ordered  to  the  Caucasian  coast, 
where  they  succeeded  in  driving  the  Muscovite  forces  from  the  only  port 
they  had  continued  to  occupy  since  the  general  abandonment  some  months 
previous,  while  another  division  was  stationed  to  watch  the  harbor  of  Se- 
vastopol. All  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  were  also  strictly  blockaded  in 
order  to  cut  off  supplies  from  the  Russian  forces  in  tlie  Dobrudschka. 
The  fortifications  erected  by  Nicholas,  opposite  the  principal  mouth  of  the 
Danube,  were  also  bombarded  and  taken  by  the  allied  steamers. 

In  April,  Prince  Paskiewitch  assumed  command  of  the  Russian  forces 
on  the  Danube.  At  this  time  they  numbered  nearly  a  hundred  and  eighty 
thousand  men.  The  whole  Turkish  force  amounted  to  about  a  hundred  and 
thirty  thousand.  Of  the  foreign  troops,  about  thirty-six  thousand  were 
stationed  at  Gallipoli,  ten  thousand  English  troops  were  quartered  at  Scu- 
tari, and  large  forces  were  concentrating  at  Varna. 

The  brave  and  successful  defence  of  Silistria  by  the  Turks,  during  a  pro- 
longed siege  and  a  series  of  desperate  assaults  by  the  Russian  forces  under 
Paskiewitch,  forms  a  most  brilliant  page  in  the  history  of  hostilities  on  the 
Danube.  But  before  proceeding  to  the  details  of  this  the  closing  event  of 
the  campaign  on  Turkish  soil,  we  will  briefly  turn  to  mention  (for  our 
limits  will  admit  us  but  to  mention)  some  reverses  which  the  Russians  met 
with  at  other  points  on  the  Danube,  while  the  siege  of  Silistria  was  pro- 
gressing. On  the  28th  of  April,  Sali  Pacha  had  a  battle  with  the  Russians 
at  Nicopolis,  in  wliich  the  latter  were  defeated  and  two  thousand  of  their 
number  killed.  Suleiman  Bey  also,  on  the  same  day,  attacked  the  Rus- 
sians with  nearly  as  great  a  slaughter  at  Radowan.  In  May,  a  division  of 
Omer  Pacha's  force  met  and  severely  defeated  the  Russians  at  Turna,  at 
Semnitra,  at  Giurgevo,  at  Karakal,  and  at  Slatina.  The  Russian  losses  in 
these  reverses  amounted  to  many  thousands,  and  in  their  dispiriting  effect 
undoubtedly  contributed  to  the  overwhelming  defeat  which  the  Muscovite 
forces  met  with  at  Silistria,  to  a  brief  detail  of  which  we  will  now  return. 

Silistria  was  rendered  memorable  in  1829,  when  it  was  finally  captured, 
after  a  nine  months'  siege,  by  the  Russians  under  Diebitch,  as  is  detailed 
on  a  previous  page.  At  that  period  there  was  a  height  which  commanded 
the  town,  and  which  rendered  its  capture  by  the  Russians  less  difficult.  The 
Turks  have  since  taken  the  precaution  to  protect  this  height  by  construct- 
ing upon  it  strong  fortifications.  The  ultimate  fall  of  Silistria,  however, 
in  its  present  investment,  seemed  to  be  assumed  as  a  certain  event,  the  only 
questions  being  as  to  tlie  time  that  must  elapse  and  the  sacrifice  of  life 
that  must  ensue  in  its  reduction. 


HISTORIC  SUMMARY  —  NICHOLAS   I.  675 

As  early  as  the  14th  of  April,  great  batteries  had  been  erected  by  the 
Russians  on  tlie  nortli  bank  of  the  Danube,  opposite  Silistria,  and  the  town 
was  thence  bombarded  from  morning  till  night ;  by  means  of  some  islands 
which  they  held,  they  also  succeeded  in  establishing  a  bridge  across  the 
river,  by  which  they  were  enabled  to  throw  fifty-tlirce  thousand  men  on  to 
the  south  bank,  and  completely  invest  the  town.  The  force  which  the  gar- 
rison mustered  was  but  eight  thousand  men.  The  siege  was  directed  by 
Prince  Paskiewitch  in  person.  On  the  28th  of  April,  tlie  Russians  at- 
tempted to  capture  the  fortifications  before  mentioned  as  being  erected  on  the 
height  commanding  the  town  ;  but  they  were  repulsed  with  heavy  losses. 
On  the  11th  of  May,  an  assault  was  made  upon  the  immediate  defences  of 
the  town,  when  the  assailants  were  beaten  off  with  a  loss  of  two  thousand 
men.  On  the  21st,  another  general  assault  was  repelled  with  great  loss. 
On  the  29th,  a  furious  attack  was  made  by  about  thirty  thousand  Russians. 
After  a  sanguinary  conflict,  they  were  repulsed  with  a  loss  of  five  thousand. 

On  the  5th  of  June,  the  garrison  was  reinforced,  a  considerable  body  of 
Turks  succ>.  ^ding  in  breaking  through  the  Russian  lines  and  entering  the 
fortress.  On  the  8th  of  June,  a  sortie  was  made  by  the  beleaguered  ti-oops 
with  telling  effect  upon  the  besiegers,  another  reinforcement  at  the  same 
time  entering  the  garrison  over  a  thousand  Russian  corpses.  On  the  13th, 
a  still  more  tremendous  sortie  was  efiected.  Three  Russian  mines  were 
sprung  during  the  conflict,  which  were  more  disastrous  to  the  assailing  for- 
ces than  the  Turks,  for  while  the  walls  of  Silistria  were  comparatively  un- 
liarmed,  their  own  works  were  destroyed,  and  the  carnage  was  enormous. 

A  final  and  most  desperate  assault  was  made  on  the  29th  of  June,  when 
a  fearful  slaughter  took  place  ;  and  the  Russians,  beaten  at  all  points,  fled 
across  the  Danube,  followed  by  the  Turks,  who  took  possession  of  the 
works  from  which  Silistria  had  been  bombarded.  General  Schilders  and 
Count  Orloft',  son  of  the  adjutant-general  of  the  emperor,  were  killed  ;  Gen- 
eral Liiders  had  his  jaw  shot  away  ;  and  General  Gortchakoft'  and  Prince 
Paskiewitch  were  severely  wounded.  The  loss  of  the  Russians,  from  first 
to  last,  under  or  near  the  walls  of  Silistria,  was  about  thirty  thousand  men. 
Mussa  Pacha,  the  gallant  commander  of  the  fortress,  was  unfortunately 
illed  by  the  fragment  of  a  shell,  almost  the  last  fired  against  the  town. 

This  disastrous  result  of  their  operations  against  Silistrin,  coupled  with 
the  fact  that  the  Austrians  were  mustering  in  large  numbers  along  the 
confines  of  Transylvania,  threatening  an  immediate  occupation  of  the  prin- 
cipalities, and  thus  cutting  otf  the  army  of  the  czar  from  its  communications 
witii  Russia,  led  to  the  complete  evacuation  of  Turkish  territory  by  the 
Muscovite  forces,  who  retired  beliind  the  Pruth,  and  the  country  forming 
tlie  bone  of  contention  was  immediately  occupied  by  Austrian  and  Turkish 
troops.  And  thus  terminated  active  hostilities  in  the  principalities  of  the 
Danube.  The  theatre  of  war  was  thence  transferred  to  Muscovite  soil, 
and  Russia,  instead  of  being  the  aggressor,  has  since  been  actively  em- 
ployed in  defending  her  own  territories. 


rii 


676  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

The  sailing  of  the  English  and  French  fleets  for  the  Baltic  has  been  al- 
luded to  a  few  pages  back.  The  French  division  under  Admiral  Duchesne 
passed  through  the  channel  April  23d5  to  join  the  English  fleet  under  Sir 
Charles  Napier,  which  had  sailed  from  Spithead  as  early  as  the  11th  of 
March.  The  navigation  of  the  northern  waters  of  the  Baltic,  however, 
was  not  practicable  till  about  the  middle  of  May.  And  even  then,  when 
no  icy  barrier  limited  the  range  and  operations  of  the  allied  fleets,  com- 
paratively little  could  be  effected,  for  the  Russian  ships-of-war,  outnum- 
bered by  those  of  England  and  France,  declining  every  offer  of  battle,  re- 
mained shut  up  behind  the  stone  walls  of  the  two  principal  military  har- 
bors of  Russia  in  the  Baltic,  Kroustadt  and  Sweaborg.  Reconnoissances, 
made  by  Sir  Charles  Napier  and  the  French  commander,  convinced  them, 
however  their  reports  may  have  fallen  short  of  satisfying  their  respective 
governments,  that  these  maritime  strongholds  were  far  too  substantial  to 
admit  of  a  successful  assault  from  the  seaward,  even  with  the  powerful 
fleets  under  their  command.  Consequently,  deeming  it  utterly  useless  to 
direct  their  fire  against  those  masses  of  granite,  and  with  the  Russian  ves- 
sels-of-war  placed  beyond  reach  of  attack,  the  operations  of  the  allied 
fleets  were  generally  limited  to  maintaining  a  blockade  of  the  principal 
harbors,  attacking  and  destroying  some  fortified  places  along  the  Finnish 
shore  of  the  Bothnian  gulf,  and  the  capture  of  such  Russian  vessels  as  fell 
within  the  range  of  their  cruisers.  Such  achievements,  however,  were  of 
comparatively  small  account  for  so  powerful  an  armament,  and  of  still  less 
practical  value.  Indeed,  so  much  had  been  confidently  expected  from  the 
prompt  and  vigorous  measures  of  Sir  Charles  Napier,  when  he  sailed  for 
the  Baltic  —  a  veteran,  whose  very  name  was  looked  upon  as  a  prognostic 
of  victory  —  that  his  seeming  inactivity,  and  especially  his  not  making  an 
attempt  to  capture  Kroustadt,  notwithstanding  liis  reasons  for  his  pruden- 
tial course,  was  the  occasion  of  much  popular  dissatisfaction  at  home. 

The  assault  on  and  capture  of  Bomarsund  with  the  Aland  islands,  of  which 
it  is  the  principal  fortress,  by  the  allied  forces  in  the  Baltic,  and  without 
which  their  expedition  would  have  been  as  barren  of  any  brilliant  as  it 
measurably  was  of  any  practical  results,  took  place  in  the  montli  of  August, 
and  was  the  closing  act  of  their  operations  in  those  waters  during  1854. 
A  large  body  of  French  troops,  as  was  incidentally  mentioned  on  a  pre- 
vious page,  had  been  despatched  in  English  vessels,  under  General  Bara- 
guay  d'Hilliers,  for  operations  in  the  Baltic,  where  they  arrived  just  in 
time  to  assist  in  the  reduction  of  Bomarsund.  They  were  landed  on  the 
island  of  Aland,*  August  8,  and  operations  were  immediately  commenced. 
The  assault  was  made  by  both  land  and  sea,  and  vigorously  prosecuted  for 
several  days.  The  fortress  was  carried  on  the  16th,  and  the  garrison  of 
two  thousand  men  surrendered  as  prisoners-of-war.     The  land  forces  of  the 

*  Aland,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  though  the  general  name  by  which  these  islands  are 
liQown,  is  also  the  specific  name  of  the  principal  one  of  the  group,  and  that  on  which  the  for- 
tifications of  Bomarsund  were  erected. 


HISTORIC   SUMMARY  —  NICHOLAS  I.  677 

allies  numbered  eleven  thousand  men.  The  loss  of  life  on  either  side  was 
comparatively  small.  The  fortifications  were  blown  up,  on  the  1st  of  Sep- 
tember, and  the  islands  abandoned  by  the  allies.  Strong  efforts  had  been 
made  by  the  allied  powers  to  induce  Sweden  to  join  them,  and  to  declare  war 
against  Russia,  in  which  case  they  would  probably  have  retained  possession 
of  these  islands  ;  but  their  efforts  in  this  direction  proved  unsuccessful. 
Soon  after  the  destruction  of  Bomarsund  the  Baltic  fleets  were  ordered 
home  by  their  respective  governments. 

The  non-success  of  the  expedition  of  1854  failed,  however,  to  impress 
the  English  and  French  governments  with  a  belief  in  the  impregnability  of 
Kronstadt  and  Sweaborg,  and  the  English  division  of  another  powerful 
fleet  is  already  in  the  southern  Baltic,  awaiting  the  disappearance  of  the 
ice  from  the  northern  waters,  to  commence  operations  against  those  Russian 
strongholds.  It  sailed  from  Spithead  April  4,  under  the  command  of  Rear- 
Admiral  Richard  Saunders  Dundas,  consists  of  fifty  ships  of  twenty-two 
hundred  guns,  and  is  to  be  joined  by  the  French  contingent  of  equal  mag- 
nitude. The  English  division  carries  with  it  floating  batteries,  mortar 
vessels,  shell  and  powder  magazines,  and  about  thirty  gun-boats.  It  is 
worthy  of  remark  that  while  the  English  Baltic  fleet  of  1854  consisted 
partly  of  sailing-vessels,  that  of  1855  comprises  steamers  only.  Nor  did 
Sir  Charles  Napier  have  any  floating  batteries,  mortar-vessels,  or  even  a 
gun-boat  worthy  of  the  name.  The  addition  of  these  indispensable  auxili- 
aries are  undoubtedly  the  basis  of  the  anticipations  which  are  confidently 
entertained  of  a  more  successful  termination  to  the  present  expedition  than 
that  which  attended  its  predecessor. 

An  incident  of  the  present  war,  deserving  mention,  though  occurring  in 
a  distant  locality,  and  consequently  having  no  immediate  connection  with 
the  series  of  events  we  are  narrating,  is  an  attack  made  on  the  1st  of 
September  by  the  allied  squadron  in  the  Pacific,  consisting  of  six  vessels 
and  two  hundred  guns,  upon  Petropaulofski  (St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul),  the 
capital  and  principal  port  of  Karatschatka.  The  port  being  an  important 
one,  the  emperor  Nicholas,  apprehending  an  assault  from  tlie  Anglo-French 
fleet  in  the  Pacific,  had,  unknown  to  the  latter,  increased  the  forces  in  gar- 
rison, and  otherwise  strengthened  the  fortifications  of  the  place.  The  at- 
tacking forces,  therefore,  instead  of  meeting,  as  they  had  expected,  a  place 
with  a  weak  garrison  and  poorly  defended,  found  themselves  before  a  for- 
midable citadel,  with  several  separate  forts,  bristling  with  over  a  hundred 
and  twenty  cannon,  a  garrison  of  twelve  hundred  men,  and  two  Russian 
vessels-of-war  lying  in  the  harbor. 

The  bombardment  was  first  directed  against  the  mostly  advanced  forts, 
which  guarded  the  narrow  and  dangerous  inlet  leading  to  the  town.  After 
a  lively  and  protracted  cannonade,  which  was  vigorously  returned,  the 
three  batteries  were  silenced  and  apparently  abandoned,  and  the  allied 
vessels  advanced  toward  the  town.  The  next  day,  the  attack  was  renewed 
upon  the  fortifications  more  immediately  defending  the  town,  and  also  upon 


678  ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION    OF    RUSSIA. 

the  two  sbips-of-war  in  the  harbor.  From  both  quarters,  however,  the  firo 
was  returned  with  telling  efiect  on  the  allies'  vessels.  Six  hundred  men 
were  also  debarked  for  the  purpose  of  a  land  attack  ;  but  they  were  no 
sooner  upon  shore,  than  a  fire  was  commenced  upon  them  by  the  Russians, 
who  were  concealed  in  the  brushwood,  and  kept  up  with  such  deadly  effect, 
that  the  assailants  were  compelled  to  retreat  in  great  confusion  to  their 
boats,  with  a  loss  of  nearly  one  hundred  of  their  number. 

The  bombardment  was  continued  for  four  days,  when  the  allies  abandoned 
the  attack,  and  set  sail  from  the  Kamtschatkan  peninsula,  with  some  of 
their  vessels  materially  damaged,  their  ammunition  squandered,  a  serious 
list  of  killed  and  wounded,  and  with  nothing  accomplished,  save  the  solitary 
capture  of  a  small  unarmed  Russian  trading  vessel,  whicli  unfortunately 
ran  into  their  midst,  as  they  were  leaving  the  harbor  of  Petropaulofski, 
before  it  was  aware  of  their  proximity. 

The  campaign  in  the  Crimea,  where,  upon  a  limited  space  of  but  a  few 
tailes  in  extent,  for  months  have  been  concentred  all  the  feelings  impli- 
cated in  this  great  struggle  for  supremacy  of  empire  against  empires,  is 
the  next  important  movement  which  the  course  of  our  narrative  calls  upon 
us  to  record.  It  has  been  heretofore  stated  that  the  allies  were  concentra- 
ting large  bodies  of  troops  at  Varna  and  the  neighboring  camps,  prepara- 
tory to  a  grand  attack  upon  the  Russians.  On  the  evacuation  of  the  Da- 
nubian  principalities  by  the  latter  and  the  immediate  reoccupation  of  them 
by  the  army  of  Austria,  the  latter  thus  putting  itself  between  the  allied 
forces  and  the  retreating  enemy,  it  became  necessary  to  select  some  other 
quarter  through  which  to  strike  an  effective  blow  at  their  powerful  antag- 
onist. After  several  councils  of  war,  the  invasion  of  the  Crimea,  and,  by 
a  combined  assault  on  land  and  sea,  the  reduction  of  Sevastapol,  the  great 
naval  station  of  Russia  on  the  Black  sea,  was  determined  on. 

Sevastapol,  which  has  been  already  fully  described  in  the  earlier  por- 
tion of  this  volume,  has  been  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  strongest  maritime 
positions  in  the  world.  Oliphant,  however,  as  the  reader  will  recollect,  in 
the  quotation  from  his  interesting  work  which  we  have  attached  to  that 
description,  while  conceding  its  apparent  impregnability  to  attack  from 
seaward,  expresses  the  belief  that  the  place  could  easily  be  taken  by  an 
adequate  force  on  land.  It  was  under  a  similar  impression  that  arrange- 
ments for  the  premeditated  attack  were  made.  Siege  trains  were  ordered 
from  England  and  France,  transports  were  prepared,  and  everything  pro- 
vided, that  would  help  to  insure  success  to  the  expedition.  But  unfortu- 
nately the  cholera  attacked  both  the  armies  and  the  fleet.  The  disease 
was  especially  fatal,  and  the  losses  in  the  French  regiments  were  fright- 
fully severe.  For  several  weeks  the  expedition  was  retarded  by  the  rava- 
ges of  this  fearful  scourge.  Nicholas,  meanwhile,  forewarned  of  the 
threatened  attack,  was  preparing,  by  constructing  new  defences,  particu- 
larly on  the  land  side,  and  repairing  and  strengthening  those  already  ex- 
isting, to  be  able  successfully  to  defend  the  town.     The  prolonged  siege 


HISTORIC  SUMMARY — NICHOLAS   I.  679 

which  tlie  place  has  sustained  uncaptured,  is  an  evidence  how  thoroughly 
his  preparations  were  made,  and  liow  mucli  at  fault  were  the  impressions, 
so  generally  entertained,  as  to  its  vulnerability  to  a  land  attack. 

The  ever-nicniorable  Crimean  expedition  finally  set  sail  from  Varna  on 
the  4th  of  September.  In  numbers  and  extent  probably  no  naval  array 
ever  before  equalled  it.  In  the  bay  of  Baltjik,  where  it  first  rendezvoused, 
the  sea,  for  eight  miles,  w'as  literally  covered  with  shipping.  On  the  14th 
and  the  three  following  days  of  September,  nearly  sixty  thousand  men  were 
landed  from  this  colossal  fleet,  without  opposition,  at  a  place  called  Staroe 
or  Old  Fort,  about  thirty  miles  northwest  of  Sevastapol,  and  fifteen  south- 
east of  Koslow,  or  Eupatoria,  a  town  of  about  four  thousand  inhabitants, 
with  a  small  garrison,  wliich  had  surrendered  to  the  allies  on  the  13th, 
and  was  immediately  occupied  by  Turkish  troops.  Marshal  St.  Arnaud, 
commander  of  the  French  forces,  issued  a  general  order,  congratulating 
his  troops  upon  their  arrival  in  the  Crimea,  and  exhorted  them  to  contend 
with  their  English  allies  for  superiority  in  efficiency  and  good  conduct. 
Lord  Raglan,  the  Englisli  commander-in-chief,  in  an  order  of  the  day,  ex- 
horted the  troops  under  his  command  to  protect  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country  in  their  persons  and  their  property. 

On  the  19th  of  September,  the  allies  broke  up  their  encampment,  and 
commenced  their  march  toward  Sevastapol.  That  night  they  bivouacked 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bulgavac,  a  small  stream  not  far  from  the  Alma. 
Next  morning  (the  20th)  both  armies  moved  toward  the  last-named  river," 
where,  strongly  entrenched  behind  its  steep  and  rugged  banks,  was  a  Rus- 
sian army  of  thirty-five  thousand  men  under  Prince  MenchikofiT,  their  front 
extending  over  two  miles,  with  their  artillery  planted  upon  the  sharpest 
lieights,  and  the  slopes  of  the  hills  covered  with  dense  masses  of  infantry. 
A  trench  had  been  dug  between  the  strongest  point  and  the  river,  and  every 

*  As  tliis  particular  locality  is  not  noticed  in  the  sketch  of  the  Crimea  to  which  a  chapter  is 
appropriated  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  volume,  the  following  explanation  may  be  deemed  neces- 
sary to  account  for  the  omission.  When  that  chapter  was  prepared,  the  battle  of  the  Alma  had 
not  been  fought;  and,  amid  the  many  charming  spots  for  which  this  romantic  peninsula  has  a 
world-wide  celebrity,  the  picturesque  banks  of  the  Alma,  and  even  the  river  itself,  appear  to 
have  been  passed  over  by  travellers  as  well  as  geographers,  as  not  of  sufficient  importance  to  call 
for  any  distinctive  notice  in  their  letter-press  descriptions,  or  for  designation  upon  their  maps. 
And  but  for  the  sanguinary  conflict  upon  its  banks,  the  Alma  might  have  remained  "unknown 
to  fame"  for  all  time  to  come.  The  notoriety  which  that  bloody  event  has  given  it  is  thus  inci- 
dentally but  very  pertinently  spoken  of  by  a  late  writer :  "  One  striking  way  in  which  war  oper- 
ates on  literature  is,  that  it  sends  out  the  popular  thought  in  new  and  unexplored  geographical 
directions;  consecrates  names  and  spots  never  heard  of  before;  makes  new  ground  rich  with 
great  acts  and  associations.  A  week  or  two  ago,  and  there  was  a  stream  in  the  Crimea  flowing 
on,  niglit  and  day,  quiet  and  unregarded ;  and  at  one  place,  where  a  road  crossed  this  stream, 
high  steeps  rose  above  it,  over  which  day  and  night  passed  too,  disturbing  nothing  save,  may- 
hap, a  loose  stone,  that  would  roll  down  into  the  gulleys:  and  now  that  spot  belongs  to  the 
imagir.ition  of  mankind  for  evermore,  and  a  perpetual  allusion  in  literature  will  be  made  to  the 
battle  of  the  Alma.  Does  it  not  seem  as  if  the  place  and  name  had  been  alike  predestined? 
Who  would  not  wisli  to  see  a  photograph  of  those  Crimean  steeps,  that  have  waited  six  thou- 
sand years,  and,  at  last,  are  famous?" 


680  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

preparation  made  for  an  obstinate  defence.  The  battle  was  commenced 
about  half-past  twelve  o'clock,  by  the  French,  several  thousands  of  whom, 
under  General  Bosquet,  with  the  Turkish  battalions,  crossed  the  Alma, 
climbed  the  heights,  and,  in  the  face  of  a  heavy  fire,  established  themselves 
on  the  left  flank  of  the  Russians.*  They  were  followed  by  the  brigades 
under  General  Canrobert  and  Prince  Napoleon.  Covered  by  their  artillery, 
which  had  been  brought  to  bear,  they  rushed  impetuously  forward,  soon 
driving  the  Russians  from  their  position  on  the  left,  and  then  continued 
their  attack  toward  the  centre.  The  British  divisions,  meantime,  were 
awaiting  the  moment  for  an  effective  movement  against  the  Russian  right, 
but  replying  with  their  artillery  to  the  incessant  fire  kept  up  by  the  latter. 
Lord  Raglan  at  length  gave  the  signal  to  advance,  and  the  light-division 
under  Sir  George  Brown  led  tlie  way,  immediately  followed  by  three  other 
divisions,  across  the  river,  the  troops  climbing  over  trees  which  had  been 
felled  to  oppose  their  progress,  and  subjected  to  a  withering  fire  from  the 
Russians.  Rushing  up  the  hill  they  were  met  by  terrible  volleys  of  grape, 
canister,  and  musketry.  At  one  point,  as  the  shattered  lines  of  the  Eng- 
lish were  temporarily  drawn  back  to  form  anew,  the  Muscovite  infantry, 
mistaking  the  object  of  the  movement,  leaped  over  the  breastworks  and 
began  to  charge  down  hill.  The  assailed  at  once  turned  upon  their  foes, 
and  drove  them  up  the  ascent  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet ;  followed  up  the 
charge  with  a  storm  of  bullets,  and  sent  the  Russians  flying  over  the  hill 
beyond.  For  five  hours  the  contest  was  thus  fiercely  kept  up,  when  the 
Russians,  overpowered  by  the  superior  numbers  of  their  assailants,  finding 
their  position  no  longer  tenable,  abandoned  their  entrenchments,  and  fled 
in  a  southeastern  direction,  leaving  four  thousand  killed  and  wounded,  and 
seven  hundred  prisoners,  behind  them.  With  their  cavalry  to  cover  their 
retreat,  however,  they  succeeded  in  carrying  ofl"  all  but  three  of  their 
guns.  The  loss  of  the  allies  was  about  three  thousand  four  hundred, 
killed,  wounded,  and  missing.  On  the  night  after  the  battle  the  allied  army 
bivouacked  on  the  heights,  the  French  marshal  pitching  his  tent  on  the 
very  spot  occupied  by  that  of  Prince  Menchikoff  the  morning  before. 

Marshal  St.  Arnaud,  whose  health  had  been  very  feeble  for  several 
weeks,  kept  his  horse  for  twelve  hours  on  the  day  of  battle,  all  the  while 
under  the  most  acute  pain,  and  having  at  last  to  be  supported  in  his  saddle 
by  two  soldiers.  Two  days  after,  though  suffering  most  intensely,  he  still 
attended  to  his  ofl&cial  duties  ;  but  on  the  25  th,  he  could  hold  out  no  longer, 
and  issuing  a  general  order,  announcing  his  serious  illness,  he  resigned  his 
command  into  the  hands  of  General  Canrobert.  He  embarked,  on  the  29th, 
for  France,  but  expired  at  sea  a  few  hours  after  leaving  port.  His  remains 
were  interred  with  great  military  pomp  at  tlie  Invalides  in  Paris. 

The  allied  armies  remained  on  the  scene  of  the  battle,  succoring  the 

*  Tlie  celebrated  Zouaves,  who  were  iucorporated  in  General  Bosquet's  division,  were  an  im- 
portant feature  in  tliis  movement,  astonishing  the, Russians  by  the  inconceivable  facility  with 
wiiich  they  made  their  way  up  heights  wliich  the  latter  had  deemed  impassable  even  for  goat?. 


HISTORIC  SUMMARY  —  NICHOLAS  I.  681 

wounded  and  burying  the  dead,  till  the  23d,  when  they  were  again  in  motion. 
On  the  evening  of  the  24th,  they  encamped  on  the  banks  of  the  Balbec 
river,  within  four  miles  of  Sevastapol.  On  the  25th,  the  English  seized 
and  occupied  Balaclava,  whose  deep  and  land-locked  harbor  afforded  a  se- 
cure shelter  for  their  ships,  while  its  proximity  to  Sevastapol,  being  but 
eight  miles  distant,  and  the  road  to  which  they  also  secured,  rendered  it  a 
convenient  landing-place  for  their  stores  and  guns,  the  vessels  in  which  they 
were  shipped  being  directed  thither.  This  harbor,  however,  being  only  of 
sufficient  capacity  to  admit  the  British  vessels,  the  French  selected  as  their 
base  of  operations  the  three  deep  bays  lying  between  Cape  Chersonesus 
and  the  roadstead  of  Sevastapol,  their  army  taking  up  its  position  next  the 
sea,  and  the  English  divisions  inland,  next  the  Chernaya  or  Black  river, 
which  empties  into  the  roadstead.  The  front  of  the  besieging  forces  thus 
extended  in  a  continuous  line  from  the  mouth  of  the  Chernaya  to  the  sea 
at  Strelitska  bay  (one  of  the  three  above  referred  to  as  being  occupied 
by  the  French),  forming  nearly  a  semicircle  around  Sevastapol,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  two  miles  from  the  Russian  works. 

On  the  28th  of  September  the  disembarkation  of  the  allies'  siege  artillery 
commenced.  But  so  much  time  was  consumed  in  landing  and  bringing  up 
their  stores  and  guns  that  opportunity  was  given  to  the  Russians  to  make 
still  stronger  the  defences  of  the  city.  Large  bands  of  men  and  even  wo- 
men were  kept  at  work,  in  relays,  both  night  and  day,  in  throwing  up  a 
vast  exterior  line  of  earthen  redoubts  and  entrenchments,  and  in  covering 
the  front  of  their  stoneworks  with  earth. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  siege  Sevastapol  contained  a  garrison  of 
thirty-four  thousand  men  under  the  command  of  General  Nochimofif,  who  de- 
clared he  would  defend  the  place  to  the  last  man  and  the  last  bullet.  The 
army  under  Menchikoflf,  of  about  thirty  thousand  men,  was  at  Baktchiserai, 
where  they  retreated  after  the  battle  of  the  Alma,  and  where  their  numbers 
were  rapidly  increasing  by  reinforcements  from  the  principalities  and  the 
interior.  The  force  of  the  allies,  on  sea  and  shore,  was  nearly  a  hundred 
thousand,  and  their  siege  artillery  comprised  four  hundred  field  and  siege 
guns, nearly  a  million  of  shot  and  shells,  and  an  immense  quantity  of  gabines, 
fascines,  and  other  materials  for  fortification.  The  Russians  had  eight 
hundred  guns  in  their  different  forts,  and  a  hundred  field-pieces  with  Men- 
chikoflf's  army.  To  effectually  shut  out  the  allied  fleets  from  the  harbor,  they 
had  sunk  eight  large  vessels  at  the  entrance  of  the  roadstead,  leaving  open 
a  small  passage,  wide  enough  to  admit  but  a  single  vessel,  in  immediate 
proximity  to  the  guns  of  Fort  Constantino. 

By  the  15th  of  October,  the  siege  batteries  of  the  allies  were  completed, 
their  trenches  opened,  and  their  guns  and  munitions  in  position.  And  on 
the  morning  of  the  17th,  the  first  bombardment  of  Sevastapol  commenced. 
At  a  preconcerted  signal  the  whole  allied  batteries  simultaneously  opened 
their  fire,  the  thunders  of  which  were  immediately  echoed  back  in  an 
equally  deafening  roar  from  the  Russian  lines.     While  the  cannonade  thus 


682  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 

warmly  coinincuced,  and  which  was  kept  up  oii  hoth  sides,  with  occasional 
intermissions,  till  dark,  was  progressing,  the  allied  fleets  moved  up  and 
commenced  an  attack  upon  the  sea-batteries  upon  the  north  and  south  of 
the  entrance  to  the  roadstead  or  outer  harbor.  The  fire  from  the  vessels, 
however,  did  comparatively  little  or  no  injury  to  those  massive  fortifications, 
while  the  guns  of  the  latter,  charged  with  red-hot  shot,  rockets,  shells,  and 
bar-shot,  did  such  serious  damage  to  them,  cutting  their  masts,  spars,  and 
rigging,  to  pieces,  and  setting  several  of  them  on  fire,  that  after  a  short 
contest  they  drew  out  to  sea,  amid  the  cheers  and  redoubled  shots  of  the 
Russians,  nor  did  they  again  renew  the  attack.  On  land,  however,  the 
bombardment  was  recommenced  on  the  following  day,  and  kept  up,  more 
or  less  constantly,  from  day  to  day,  till  the  5th  of  November,  when,  with- 
out having  inflicted  any  permanent  injury  upon  the  Russian  fortifications  or 
the  city,  it  ceased  altogether.  The  damage  sustained  by  the  former  during 
the  day  would  be  repaired  in  the  night ;  and  the  houses  of  Sevastapol, 
being  mostly  constructed  of  solid  freestone,  were  not  easily  set  on  fire.  A 
hospital  in  the  city,  however,  filled  with  sick  and  wounded,  was  accidentally 
fired  and  destroyed.  One  Russian  and  three  French  powder-magazines 
were  also  struck  by  hot  shot  and  blown  up.  The  allies'  loss  during  the 
bombardment  was  about  twelve  hundred  ;  that  of  the  Russians,  not  known. 

As  only  a  part  of  Sevastapol  was  invested,  it  being,  from  the  nature  of 
its  position,  necessarily  left  open  on  the  north,  the  Muscovite  troops  outside 
of  the  forts  were  in  constant  communication  with  the  town,  and  reinforce- 
ments and  supplies  were  continually  thrown  in.  Menchikoff's  army,  also, 
considerably  incneased  in  numbers,  as  before  stated,  by  additions  of  fresli 
troops,  soon  became  able  to  take  the  offensive  against  the  besiegers.  They 
first  attacked  them  in  the  flank  at  Balaclava,  on  the  25th  of  October,  while 
the  bombardment  of  Sevastapol  was  in  progress.  After  six  hours'  fighting, 
the  Russians  were  repulsed,  but  with  heavy  losses  on  both  sides.  A  thril- 
ling incident  of  this  battle  was  the  fatal  cavalry  charge,  in  which,  miscon- 
struing an  order  from  the  commander-in-chief,  Lords  Lucan  and  Cardigan 
led  the  light-liorse  brigade,  numbering  six  hundred  of  the  flower  of  the 
British  army,  over  a  plain  a  mile  and  a  half  in  length,  exposed  the  whole 
distance  to  a  cross-fire  of  cannon  and  musketry,  full  at  a  Russian  battery 
of  thirty  guns.  The  attempt  was  madness  and  its  inevitable  result  destruc- 
tion. In  fifteen  minutes,  the  mangled  remains  of  four  hundred  of  their 
number,  witli  the  carcasses  of  as  many  horses,  strewed  the  plain.  Lords 
Lucan  and  Cardigan,  imminently  exposed  as  they  were  in  leading  the  onset, 
both  escaped  with  slight  wounds,  though  the  latter  was  almost  unhorsed 
by  a  thirty-two  pounder  exploding  within  a  foot  of  his  charger. 

The  battle  of  Likorman,  which  forms  one  of  the  bloodiest  pages  of  the 
Crimean  drama,  occurred  on  the  5th  of  November.  About  five  o'clock  in 
the  morning  of  that  day,  in  the  midst  of  a  dense  fog,  from  twenty  to 
thirty  thousand  of  the  Muscovite  forces  under  Menchikofi"  made  an  attack 
on  the  right  flank  of  the  English,  which  rested  on  the  valley  of  Inkerman, 


HISTORIC  SUMMARY  —  NICHOLAS   I.  683 

and  which  was  entirely  unprotected  by  entrenchments  or  fortifications  of 
any  kind.  The  entire  British  force  engaged  was  but  about  eight  thousand, 
the  remainder  of  their  avaiUible  troops  being  in  the  trenches  to  defend 
their  batteries,  which  were  threatened  with  an  attack.  For  fiive  hours  they 
fought  desperately  to  maintain  their  position,  being  several  times  forced 
back  by  the  superior  numbers  of  their  assailants,  when  General  Bosquet's 
division  of  French  infantry  and  Zouaves  coming  to  their  support,  the  Rus- 
sians were  at  length  repulsed,  and  finally  retired,  leaving  an  immense  num- 
ber of  their  dead  upon  the  field.  The  loss  of  the  allies  in  this  engagement 
was  about  four  thousand  in  killed  and  wounded  ;  that  of  the  Russians, 
is  variously  estimated  from  eight  to  fifteen  thousand. 

"  I  was  in  CA^ery  battle  of  the  peninsula,"  says  an  English  officer,  who  par- 
ticipated in  and  was  severely  wounded  in  this  battle  —  "  I  have  seen  horrors 
enough  for  any  one  man's  life,  but  never,  never,  did  I  witness  anything 
approaching  to  the  carnage,  the  fury,  the  fiendish  deviltry  of  that  drizzling 
•morning  of  the  5th.  I  saw  whole  ranks  battle  with  their  musket-stocks 
as  men  who  played  at  quarter-staff;  I  saw  them  hang  on  each  other 
like  gnashing  bull-dogs,  and  roll  on  the  ground  over  and  over  again,  stab- 
bing, tearing,  cutting,  and  mangling,  like  men  who  had  lost  every  charac- 
teristic of  humanity,  and  acquired  more  tlian  tiger  ferocity." 

From  this  period,  active  operations  in  the  Crimea  were  in  a  great  meas- 
ure suspended,  the  battle  of  Inkerman  being  in  fact  the  last  important 
event  of  the  season.  Though  the  allies,  when  not  interrupted  by  bad 
weather,  continued  to  prosecute  their  siege  works,  gradually  bringing  their 
trenches  nearer  to  the  Russian  lines,  hostile  action  did  not  extend  beyond 
occasional  but  resultless  sorties  from  the  beleagured  city,  skirmishes  be- 
tween the  besiegers  and  the  Muscovite  forces  in  their  rear,  and  desultory 
cannonading.  But  the  allies  had  soon  to  encounter  another  enemy,  whicli 
proved,  at  least  to  the  British  troops,  quite  as  formidable  as  the  legions  of 
the  czar.  Winter,  with  its  icy  breath,  soon  made  its  appearance  in  unusual 
severity,  and  though  the  French,  from  their  superior  system  of  ambulance 
and  their  more  thorough  training  in  the  routine  of  life  in  camp,  were  bet- 
ter prepared  to  endure  its  rigors,  the  English  soldiers,  still  clad  in  their 
summer  habiliments,  in  tents  ragged  and  dilapidated  from  exposure  to  a 
Bulgarian  sun,  and,  being  short  of  provisions,  inadequately  fed,  suffered 
from  consequent  fatal  diseases,  which  swept  off  scores  of  tliem  daily.  And 
to  render  the  case  more  deplorable,  several  British  transports,  containing 
large  quantities  of  provisions,  winter-clothing,  and  other  necessaries  for 
the  troops,  were  wrecked  in  a  storm  on  the  Black  sea  and  everything  on 
board  lost.  And  when  further  supplies  did  safely  reach  Balaclava,  for 
want  of  proper  facilities,  it  was  only  by  the  utmost  exertions  that  those  the 
most  absolutely  essential  could  be  conveyed  to  the  camp  before  SevastapoL* 

*Not  only  had  bad  weather  made  tlie  road  from  Balaclava  to  Sevastapol  almost  impassable, 
but  for  want  of  horses  soldiers  had  to  do  the  duty  of  beasts  of  burden,  in  dragging  supplies  to 
camp.     A  railroad  has  since  been  constructed  by  the  British  government  between  those  placea. 


684  ILLUSTRATED   DESCRIPTION   OF  RUSSIA. 

To  complete  our  sketch  of  the  Crimean  campaign  down  to  the  period 
at  which  our  narrative  closes,  we  will  add  in  this  place,  though,  somewhat 
in  advance  of  the  regular  order  of  events,  that,  with  the  opening  of  the 
spring  of  1855,  hostilities  were  recommenced  with  renewed  vigor.  Rein- 
forced in  men  and  munitions,  advanced  in  position,  and  with  new  guns  of 
heavier  calibre,  a  second  bombardment  of  Sevastapol  was  opened  by  the 
allies  on  the  9th  of  April,  and  kept  up  for  fifteen  successive  days,  but  re- 
sulting, like  the  previous  one  in  October,  only  in  squandering  their  ammu- 
nition, impairing  their  guns,  and,  though  nearly  a  thousand  tons  of  projec- 
tiles had  been  thrown  into  Sevastapol,  without  material  injury  to  the  city 
or  its  defences.  Prince  Gorchakofi'  (brother  to  the  Russian  envoy  at  Vi- 
enna) had  assumed  command  of  the  Muscovite  forces  in  the  Crimea  previ- 
ous to  the  bombardment,  and  General  Canrobert  subsequently  resigned  the 
French  command,  and  General  Pellissier  was  appointed  to  take  his  place. 

On  the  2d  of  December,  1854,  a  treaty  of  offensive  and  defensive  alliance 
was  formed  between  Austria  and  the  western  powers,  in  which  the  former 
agreed  to  defend  the  Danubian  principalities  against  the  Russians,  and  not 
to  interfere  with  the  free  action  of  the  allies  against  the  Muscovite  frontier. 
More  recent  events,  however,  indicate  that,  whatever  the  assurances,  ex- 
pressed or  implied,  of  this  treaty  may  be,  the  allies  have  little  to  expect 
from  the  aid  of  Austria,  should  not  that  and  the  Prussian  government 
both  eventually  become  open  and  active  allies  of  Russia. 

A  treaty  was  also  negotiated  with  Sardinia,  in  which  that  government 
agreed  to  furnish  the  allies  with  an  auxiliary  force  of  fifteen  thousand  men, 
to  be  under  the  command  of  a  Sardinian  general ;  England  and  France 
in  return  agreeing  to  guaranty  the  integrity  of  tlie  Sardinian  states,  and  to 
protect  them  against  any  attack  as  long  as  the  present  war  lasted.  This 
treaty,  which  was  signed  at  Turin,  on  the  26th  of  January,  1855,  and  in 
fulfilment  of  which  the  first  instalment  of  four  thousand  Sardinian  troops 
were  landed  in  the  Crimea  in  the  early  part  of  May,  is  not  a  popular  one 
in  Sardinia,  the  people  there  being  almost  unanimously  opposed  to  taking 
any  part  in  the  present  European  struggle.  The  emperor  of  Russia,  when 
apprised  of  the  negotiation  of  this  treaty,  immediately  issued  a  declaration 
of  war  against  Sardinia,  it  being  one  of  his  last  ofl&cial  acts,  prior  to  that 
fatal  illness  which  so  suddenly  closed  his  earthly  career. 

For  four  or  five  years  the  health  of  Nicholas  had  been  giving  way  under 
the  excessive  bodily  as  well  as  mental  exertion  to  which  his  system  had 
without  relaxation  been  exposed,  rendering  his  physical  frame  not  only 
more  open  to,  but  less  able  to  repel,  the  attacks  of  disease.  As  early  as 
February  8,  he  was  taken  ill  with  influenza,  but  continued  to  occupy  himself 
as  usual  with  the  affairs  of  state.  The  disease  grew  worse,  however,  and 
on  the  22d,  it  had  become  so  severe,  that  his  physicians  (Mandt  and  Car- 
rell)  endeavored  to  persuade  him  to  keep  his  room,  assuring  him  that  no 
pliysician  in  the  army  would  allow  a  common  soldier  in  his  condition  to 
leave  the  hospital.     The  emperor,  however,  disregarded  this  advice  and 


HISTORIC  SUMMARY — ALEXANDER  II. 


685 


attended  a  review,  without  even  taking  the  precaution  to  drees  himself  any 
warmer,  though  the  mercury  in  the  thermometer  stoi  )d  at  a  point  not  higher 
than  two  degrees  below  zero  of  Fahrenheit.  This  was  his  last  appearance 
in  public,  though  he  transacted  business  for  several  days  longer.  On  the 
29th,  his  case  assumed  a  more  serious  aspect,  and  paralysis  of  the  lungs 
was  apprehended.  On  the  1st  of  March  it  was  announced  to  him  that  his 
case  was  hopeless.  He  received  the  intelligence  with  the  utmost  calmness, 
and,  after  partaking  of  the  sacrament,  had  his  family  called  in,  informed 
them  with  firmness  of  his  approaching  decease,  blessed  them  and  bid  them 
all  farewell.  He  expired  a  few  minutes  past  noon  on  Friday,  March  2,  in 
the  fifty-ninth  year  of  his  age.  His  successor,  in  the  person  of  his  eldest 
son,  was  immediately  proclaimed  emperor  under  the  title  of  Alexander  H. 


Alexander  U. 


The  new  emperor  having  ever  borne  the  reputation  of  possessing  a  mild 
and  pacific  disposition,  his  accession  was  at  first  considered  to  augur  favor- 
ably for  the  establishment  of  peace  ;  but  the  spirit  of  his  manifesto,  upon 
taking  possession  of  the  imperial  throne,  indicated  that  he  would  not  depart 
from  the  hereditary  policy  of  his  family.  In-tliat  document  he  said  :  "  May 
Providence  so  aid  us  that  we  may  be  able  to  strengthen  Russia  in  the  higher 
degree  of  power  and  glory ;  that  by  us  may  be  accomplished  the  views  and 
designs  of  our  illustrious  predecessors,  Peter,  Catherine,  Alexander,  and 
our  august  fother  of  imperishable  memory."  His  speech  to  the  diplomatic 
corps  also  breathed  a  warlike  spirit.  "  If  the  conferences,"  said  he,  "  about 
to  open  at  Vienna  do  not  lead  to  a  result  honorable  to  us,  then  at  the  head 
of  faithful  Russia  I  will  combat,  and  I  will  perish  sooner  than  yield." 


686 


ILLUSTRATED    DESCRIPTION   OF   RUSSIA. 


The  peace  conferences  referred  to  by  the  young  emperor  were  opened 
by  the  representatives  of  England,  France,  Turkey,  Austria,  and  Russia, 
at  Vienna  on  the  15th  of  March.  The  following  four  points,  which  are  tlie 
same  in  substance  as  those  of  the  "  "Vienna  note,"  mentioned  on  a  previous 
page,  had  been  accepted  as  early  as  December,  1854,  as  the  basis  of  theii- 
negotiations:  1.  The  establishment  of  a  joint  protectorate  of  the  five  pow- 
ers over  the  Danubian  principalities.  2.  The  free  navigation  of  the  Dan- 
ube. 3.  The  limitation  of  the  power  of  Russia  in  the  Black  sea.  4.  The 
guaranty  of  the  privileges  of  Christians  of  all  sects  in  Turkey  by  the  five 
powers.  Twelve  conferences  were  held,  the  last  sitting  being  on  the  17th 
of  April.  The  first  and  second  points  were  readily  acceded  to.  The  third 
point,  however,  was  the  rock  on  which  the  hopes  of  peace  were  foundered. 
After  communicating  with  his  government,  Prince  GorchakoflF  stated  to  the 
conference  that  "  Russia  would  not  consent  to  have  the  strength  of  her 
navy  restricted  to  any  fixed  number,  either  by  treaty  or  any  other  means." 
Upon  this  announcement  the  conferences  were  suspended  ;  but  at  the  latest 
advices  Avhen  these  closing  pages  were  put  to  press  (June,  1855),  there 
existed  a  probability  that  they  would  be  resumed.  Should  the  negotiations 
then  had  not  result  favorably  to  peace,  there  will  remain  no  reasonable  hope 
of  a  termination  of  the  sanguinary  contest  save  in  the  ultimate  exhaustion 
of  the  belligerent  powers  on  the  one  side  or  the  other.  The  immense 
expenditure  of  blood  and  treasure,  through  which  such  an  extremity  will 
be  reached — should  that  be  the  dreadful  alternative — must  be  left,  with 
all  its  horrid  details,  for  the  fearful  record  of  the  future  to  disclose. 


OPINIONS  OF  THE  PRESS. 

From  the  United  States  Journal. 
An  Illustrated  Description  of  the  Russian  Empire;  emlrnchig  its  Geo- 
graphical Features,  Political  Divisions,  Principal  Cities  and  Toicns,  Popula- 
tion, Classes,  Government,  Resources,  Commerce,  Antiquities,  Religion,  Progress 
in  Education,  Literature,  Art,  and  Science,  Manners  and  Customs,  Historic 
Summary,  etc.,  from  the  latest  and  most  Authentic  Sources.  By  Robert  Sears. 
EmhclUshed  ivith  Nu?nerous  Engravi?igs,  and  Maps  of  Etiropean  and  Asiatic 
Russia.     One  vol.,  imp,  8vo,  672  pages. 

As  War,  even  where  the  motive  vindicates  the  measure,  ever  has  its  attendant  evils,  bo,  where  entirely  unjustifi- 
able, it  is  frequently  followed  by  a  cmripensating  good — of  comparatively  small  account  it  sometiines  may  be,  but 
flt  others  of  paramount  and  permanent  importance.  The  "  Opium  War"  of  England  on  China,  for  instance,  unwar- 
ranted as  it  may  have  been,  led  to  the  opening  of  the  principal  ports  of  that  thitherto  imptiietrable  empire  to  the 
commerce  of  the  world.  And  through  the  portholes  thus  unclosed,  the  genial  light  of  civilization  and  Christianity 
was  let  in  upon  regions  which  had  bein  from  the  remotest  ages  shrouded  in  the  murky  clouds  of  i>»noiance  idol- 
atry, and  superstition.  Nor  were  the  benefits  all  on  the  side  of  China.  The  prominent  place  vvliiuh  that  country  thus 
necessarily  occupied  in  the  public  mind  excited  a  general  desire  to  learn  its  history,  the  charactiM-  of  its  institutions 
and  the  manners  and  habits  of  its  people  —  a  desire,  which  the  drawing  aside  the  curtain  that  had  previously  veiled 
the  Celestial  Empire  from  the  observation  of  the  world  without,  and  the  facilities  afforded  through  the  medium  of 
an  untrammelled  press,  gave  ample  means  of  gratifying,  and  of  thus  making  an  important  addition  to  the  stock  of 
popular  knowledge.  So  with  the  war  in  which  Russia  hiis  become  involved  with  Turkey  and  the  Western 
Powers  of  Europe.  An  interest  has  been  universally  created  for  information  in  relation  to  the  Muscovite  empire 
which  will  lead  to  its  history,  its  people,  its  provinces,  its  resources,  its  institutions,  social,  political  and 
religious,  becoming  better  and  more  generally  known,  within  the  nest  year  or  two,  than  it  otherwise  perhaps 
would  have  been  in  half  a  century. 

Many  ivorks  have  been  issued  from  the  press  to  meet  this  demand  for  information  on  the  Russian  empire  (up  to 
this  time  less  known  than  any  other  Eui  opean  nation)  ;  but  no  one  of  them  that  we  have  yet  seen  (or  we  tni^dit  al- 
most say  all  of  them  put  together)  is  so  completely  adapted  to  the  purpose — when  its  wide  range,  its  reliabihtv  its 
tullness  of  detail,  and  the  attractive,  interesting,  and  valuable  character  of  its  contents,  are  takMifinto  consideration 
— as  the  recent  illustrated  volume  of  Mr.  Sears,  the  title  of  which  is  given  at  the  head  of  this  article.  Most  of  the 
works  abov<>  referred  to,  are  limited  to  sketches  of  the  goveriunent  and  people,  or  pictures  of  Russian  life  and  man- 
ners, a-^  seen  in  St.  Petersburg  and  Muscow  ;  while  other  works,  which  have  extended  their  descriptive  ranje  be- 
yond the  Muscovite  capitals,  have  still  been  but  the  wayside  ni)tes  of  tourists — their  "first  imjiression-,"  noted 'dciwn 
in  theii-  rapid  transits  across  or  through  portions  of  the  empire.  Interesting,  as  we  freely  admit  many  <]f  them  un- 
doubtedly are,  and  admirably  adapted  to  plea-^antly  occupy  an  otherwise  weary  hour  or  two,  the  reader  rises  from 
their  perusal,  with  his  fund  of  knowledge  of  the  Russian  empire  not  materially  increased.  Not  but  what  there  are 
exceptions  to  this  class  of  works — volumes  from  which  the  reader  may  glean  much  valuable  practical  irdormation 
to  repay  the  time  spent  in  their  perusal  ;  but  even  these  treat  of  but  a  portion  of  this  mammoth  empire,  and  of 
course  are  far  from  satisfying  the  want  above  allinied  to. 

Mr.  Sears'  work,  however  (and  herein  lies  one  of  its  peculiar  excellences)  takes  in  in  its  descriptive  scope,  the 
e«itire  empire.  Finland,  Lapland,  the  Baltic  Provinces,  Russian  Poland,  Southern  Russia,  the  .Steppivs,  the  Crime:i 
(the  "  Italy  of  Russia,"  rendered  doubly  interesting  from  being  the  seat  of  the  present  struggles  of  the  iiUied  force's 
against  the  Russians),  Circassia,  Georgia,  Armenia,  Kazan,  Siberia,  Kanitschatka,  Russian  America,  in  brief  every 
province  and  goverimient  and  prominent  city  and  town  of  this  colossal  empiie,  extending  more  than  half  way 
round  the  globe,  is  separately  and  fully  described  ;  not  in  its  geographical  and  topographical  leatnres  merely,  as 
they  appear  to  the  passing  traveller,  but  its  location,  its  area  and  population,  its  mineral,  agricultural,  manufacturi'u" 
and  commercial  resources,  its  antiquities,  natural  <mriosities,  and  other  important  di-t;uls,  are  aiven.  '^' 

The  work  also  contains  chapters  devoted  to  sketches  of  the  gcjvernment,  the  army  and  na\-}-,  revenue,  reli'dons, 
literature  and  education,  class'.'s  of  the  people,  maimers  and  customs,  and  a  summary  of  the  prominent  events  in 
Russian  hi.story  from  the  earliest  ages  down  to  the  present  year.  Many  interesting  local  an<l  hist<«  ical  Incidents 
are  also  interspersed  throughout  the  volume.  Indeed,  were  the  book,  with  its  multitudinous  contents,  not  a 
visible  fact  before  our  eyes,  we  should  be  inclined  to  believe  it  a  physical  impossibility  to  bring,  in  so  lar^e',  clear, 
and  readable  type,   such  a  vast  amount  of  valuable  and  deeply-interesting  information  into  a  single  volume. 

AnotliiT  thing  wc  must  not  omit  to  mention,  and  that  is  the  highly-cominendal)le  and  impartial  manner  in  which 
Mr.  Sears  has  performed  his  task  and  not  suffered  himself  to  b(!  swayed  one  way  or  the  other  by  th''  prejudices  of 
writers  he  has  had  occasion  to  consult.  With  here  and  there  an  unimportant  exception,  he  has  confined  himself 
to  the  Uiirration  of  facts  alone,  thus  lea\ing  his  readers,  uiiemhairassid  by  his  opinions  or  speculations,  free  to 
make  their  own  deductions  of  the  country,  its  peopln,  and  its  institutions. 

It  is  with  pleasure  we  allude  to  X\v  beautiful  engravings,  with  which  the  volume  is  profusely  embellished,  and 
which  have  evidently  been  executed  by  an  experienced  and  skilful  artist.  In  many,  far  too  many,  so-called  illus- 
trated works,  the  legitimate  use  of  engravings  seems  to  he  entirely  lost  sight  of  and  they  are  coiisi-qnently  scattered 
through  the  book  in  utter  disregard  of  any  harmony  with  the  letter-press  descriptions,  as  if  th"  riesign  (if  their  in- 
sertion were  merely  that  of  pictorial  ornament.  In  the  presimt  volume,  howver,  the  editor  has  not  only  shown 
n  superior  taste  and  judgment  in  the  telection  of  subjects  for  illustration,  but  has  so  unifoiinly  kept  in  mind  their 
more  practical  purpost;,  that  of  aiding  and  facilitating  a  clear  understanding  of  the  t''Xt.  that  tln^y  form  an  importaiu 
and  essential  feature  in  the  volume.  Another  valuable  and  quite  as  indispensable  an  adjunct  to  tin-  wor k,  are  maps 
of  European  and  Asiatic  Russia,  with  the  sixty  or  seventy  goveriunents  and  provinces  of  the  empin'  neiitly  and  ac- 
curately colored,  thus  showing,  at  a  glance,  the  location,  form,  and  comparative  size  of  each.  The  miips  (as  we 
learn  from  the  prelace)  were  prepared  expressly  for  this  volume  by  Morse— a  name  not  only  known  to  "eogruph- 
ical  fame,  hut  immortalized  through  the  time-and-space-annihilating  invention  of  the  magnetic  telegmph.    ° 

TJie  volume,  take  it  all  in  all,  is  certainly  a  most  beautiful  specimen  of  American  typography.  Its  irettin^-up,  as 
intimated  by  Mr.  Sears  at  the  close  of  his  pief  itory  remarks,  must  have  c;illed  for  a  lavish  expenditure  of  ^nea'ns. 
That  he  can  attord  to  put  the  work  at  so  Iowa  price  (scarcely  one  third  what  an  illustrated  volume  like  it  woul'l 
cost  in  England,  and  far  less  than  what  many  in  this  country  have  already  paid  for  but  a  fiaction  of  the  informa- 
tion here  obtained),  must  be  from  a  confident  anticipation  of  an  immtmse'sal. — an  anticipation  which.  W'>  can  <•  <\ 
lor  a  moment  doubt,  when  the  manifold  aUraJttions  and  narri'a  of  the  book  arc  liken  into  consideration  will  be 
amply  realized. 


2  sears'  illustrated   description   op  the   RUSSIAN   EMPIRE. 

From  the  {N.  Y)  Poughkecpsie  Telegraph. 
The  best  arranged,  the  most  original,  and  by  far  the  most  interesting  of  the  many  illustrated  volumes  luiblishpd 
by  Mr.  Robert  Sears,  is  »  recent  issue  ei}titled,  "An  Illustrated  "Description  of  the  Russian  Eupihr." 
Its  arrangement  does  credit  to  one  of  the  most  careful  and  accurate  compilers  of  our  day,  and  in  the  nice  pelative 
adjustment  of  all  its  parts,  ppnE-rapbical,  chronological,  historical,  political,  and  social,  the  work  every wbeie  hesirs 
evidence  of  a  skilful  and  truthlul  hand.  It  is  quite  original  in  its  conception  and  scope;  for,  hitherto,  all  accessible 
hooks  on  Russia  and  the  Russians  have  been  unsatisfactory  because  of  their  meagreness,  vv'hile  this  is  a  deep  wfl! 
ol  ininute  information  from  -which  copious  and  slaking  draughts  may  be  drawn.  Other  books  have  describ(^d  the 
ancient  Muscovite  capital  of  the  interior  and  its  vicinity,  and  the  more  modern  metropolis  of  the  Romanoff  dynas- 
ty, and  then  left  us  with  very  little  correct  knowledge  of  the  great  nation  which  looms  up  so  ominously  and  "over- 
shadowing in  the  political  horoscope  of  Europe.  In  tliis  volume  of  almost  seven  hundred  royal  octavo  paaes,  we 
have  the  material  substance  of  all  past  writings  concerning  Russia,  historical  and  statistical,  official  and  unofficial, 
embracing  its  geographical  features,  political  divisions,  principal  cities  and  towns,  pupnlation,  classes,  government, 
resources,  commerce,  antiquities,  religion,  progress  in  education,  literature,  art  and  science,  manners  and  customs, 
historic  summary,  &c.  All  these  various  subjects  are  illustrated  by  well-executeri  wood  engravings  and  cerogra- 
phic  maps  of  European  and  Asiatic  Russia.  We  warmly  commend  the  book  to  those  whoVould  have  a  correct 
general  knowledge  of  that  empire  whose  appropriate  motto  is  like  that  of  our  State,  "Excelsior." 

From  the  Holyoke  Mirror,  Mass. 

We  have  given  this  work  a  careful  and  attentive  perusal,  and  are  fully  prepared  to  say  that  it  is  one  of  great 
merit.  It  is  a  large  octavo  volume  of  about  seven  hundred  pages,  primed  in  the  hinlu-st  style  of  the  art,  on  the 
very  best  paper,  and  bound  in  a  substantial  and  elegant  manner.  Just  at  this  time,  when  all  eyes  are  turned  in- 
quiringly towards  the  Russian  empire,  the  appearance  of  the  present  volume  is  most  opportune,  and  we  can  but 
congratulate  Mv.  Sears  on  the  decided  "  hit"  he  has  made  in  bringing  out  this  important  work  at  this  particular 
time ;  and  we  also  congratulate  the  reading  public  of  America  on  their  good  fortune  in  having  placed  before 
them  a  publication  so  replete  with  the  very  information  they  have  felt  so  much  in  need  of 

Since  the  commencement  of  the  war  between  the  Russians  and  the  Allies,  we  have  desired  more  than  ever  to 
become  acquainted  with  the  history  of  a  nation  which  is  exerting  such  a  powerful  influence,  for  weal  or  for  wo, 
upon  the  destinies  of  mankind,  as  is  Russia  at  the  present  time.  We  ri-joice  to  say  that  tlie  elaborate  work  of  Mr. 
Sears  fulfils  this  desire  far  better  than  we  had  anticipated.  Unlike  many  histories  which  meiely  naiVate  the  affairs 
o(  government,  the  intrigues  of  crowned  heads,  the  usurpations  and  overthrow  of  one  dynasty  after  another,  this 
one  makes  you  familiar  with  the  geology,  geography,  noil,  climate,  and  productions  of  the  country,  the  manners, 
customs,  and  character  of  the  people,  as  well  as  the  origin  and  progress  of  the  government. 

From  the  Utica  (Jf.  Y.)  Weekly  Herald. 

This  is  a  beautiful  octavo  of  nearly  seven  hundred  pages,  on  clear  paper,  with  distinct  type,  and  a  very  wilder- 
ness uf  elegant  engravings  to  illustrate  and  adorn  the  text. 

The  volume  is  an  intelligent  compilation  from  the  best  authorities  of  whatever  is  interesting  in  the  geography, 
the  history,  and  the  social  condition  of  the  Russian  empire.  We  are  made  familiar  with  the  peculiarities  and  the 
beauties  of  the  country  in  all  its  diversity  of  natural  scenery.  Its  political  boim(iaries  are  described  and  indicated 
by  limps.  The  character  and  condition  of  the  numerous  classes  that  make  up  the  population  are  noted,  ami  their 
jieculiarities  of  dress  and  manners  and  occupations  are  given.  We  see  them  at  tlieir  work  and  amusements,  at 
home  in  the  nooks  of  the  vast  empire,  as  well  as  at  St.  Petersbngh  and  Moscow.  We  are  introduced  to  the  army 
and  navy,  to  the  courts  and  the  serfs.  Not  only  the  pr'esent  aspect  and  condition  of  the  country  are  recorded  for 
US,  but  the  history  of  the  various  districts  are  sketched,  and  we  have  a  summary  of  the  history  of  the  empire  from 
the  earliest  times  to  our  own  day. 

We  do  not  know  any  work,  with  reference  to  the  Russian  empire,  any  thing  like  so  comprehensive  as  this  of 
Mr.  Sears.  It  comprises  all  the  districts,  and  cities,  and  provinces  of  the  domini(ms  ot  Nicholas,  and  gives  the  in- 
loi'mation  the  r'eader  will  desire,  not  ordy  witli  refei-ence  to  politics  and  society,  but  to  the  natural  resources  an.i 
the  industrial  inter'ests  of  the  extended  realm.  It  is  not  a  work  of  merely  temporary  value,  but  while  it  will  be 
especially  readable  in  connection  with  the  pr'esent  war,  it  deserves  a  place  in  the  library  to  be  perused  when  the 
cloud  of  war  has  rolled  away,  and  when  one  will  wish  to  learn  at  his  leisure  of  the  condition  and  internal  atfaiis 
of  one  of  the  most  powerful  states  this  world  has  ever  seen. 

From  the  (N.  Y.)  Citizen . 
This  is  a  very  handsome  volume  of  nearly  seven  hundred  pages  profusely  illustrated  by  wood  engravings.  The 
book  hardly  aims  at  the  character  of  an  or'iginal  pei-formance.  It  is  a  cimpilation,  and  to  he  judgf>d  according  to 
the  conditions  of  such  a  work.  All  the  writiMS  on  Russia  from  Tooke  to  Olipbant,  Clarke,  Segur,  De  Custine, 
&c.,  have  been  laid  under  contribution  ;  and,  as  far  as  we  have  examined  the  work,  the  materials  are  judiciously 
combined,  so  far  as  the  geographical,  political,  social,  and  picturesque  aspects  of  Russia  and  her  various  popu- 
lations are  conceineii.  Yet  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  by  every  reader  that  most  of  those  materials  are  lur-- 
nished  by  English,  French,  and  German  writers,  and  are  more  or  less  colored  by  the  politics  of  Western  Europe. 
As  to  thi'  historical  summary,  which  closes  the  volume,  we  feel  it  our  duty  to    warn  everybody  that  it  is  evidenrly 

written  by  an  Englishman,  or  by  somebody  in  the  English  interest With  these  friendly  cautions,  we 

recommend  the  book  as  a  useful  and  seasonable  volume. 

From  the  Philadelphia  Saturday  Post. 

We  think  we  may  safely  pronounce  this  to  be  the  most  thorough  and  valuable  work  on  the  empire  of  Russia 
that  has  yet  appeared  in  the  Englisli  language.  The  work  was  some  time  in  preparation,  and  is  calculated  to 
meet  the  want — now  so  universally  felt — for  n^liable  information  regarding  the  history  and  resources  of  the  colos- 
sal empire  of  the  Autocrat.  Consulting  only  the  latest  and  best  authorities,  especial  regard  has  been  given  by 
the  able  and  pains-taking  compiler  to  correctness  and  fulness  of  detail.  The  engravings,  too,  are  numerous,  and 
wereexecuied  expresdy  for  the  work — many  of  them  from  original  designs — and  the  i-ntire  mechanical  execu- 
tion of  the  book  is  of  the  highest  order.  It  is,  in  fact,  not  only  a  beautiful  volume,  but  it  is  also  admirably  adapted 
to  family  entertainment  aird  insti  uction,  and  we  are  inclined  to  think  it  is  destined  to  be  one  of  the  most  saleable 
of  Mr.  Sears'  admirable  series  of  pictorial  publications. 

From  the  Philadelphia  Araerican.  Courier. 
Mr.  lloBERT  Sears,  whom  the  readers  of  the  American  Courier  have  for  many  years  known  as  one  of  the  most 
eminent  authors  and  successful  publishers  in  the  country  of  valuable  illustrated  books  for  the  people,  has  certainly 
achieved  a  decided  triumph  in  the  great  work  on  the  Russian  empire  now  before  us.  It  is  exceedingly  opportune 
at  the  moment  when  Europe  is  in  arms  and  our  own  people  in  profound  excitement  at  the  probable  result  of  the 
combined  assault  upon  this  same  Russian  I'inpirc.  Mi".  Sears  has  rendei-ed  a  grvnit  public  service  in  the  publica- 
tion of  this  very  complete  exposition  of  Russia,  and  we  have  no  doubt  the  public  will  agree  with  us,  that  on  ex- 
Biiiiiration  this  will  be  found  a  deeply-interesting  work,  especially  adapted  to  family  entertainment  and  instruction, 
and  abounding  in  valuable  information  regarding  an  empire  covering  one  seventh  of  the  terrestrial  surface  of  the 
globe,  but  of  which  far  less  is  known  than  of  any  other  civilized  nation.  Truly  a  valuable  work  ; — the  great  book 
ol  the  day. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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